n vo | | £ 6 ies — c Oo a wv Zz DEIN) Ae SE nae «Series Editor ~ [>] wrie Ryanconnect inspire achieve Nee erm EC Com aC Kerboodle Books - interactive (J) Interactive resources: Nee ete oe Q Support and Extension ee eee Q Revision/assessment material eee eed Cera ee eee ae co BST Crary NSE Peele ST IC Beet et _ WebQuests USC n ec Be ON IL Pe ene Teacher and Technician Notes. ‘Thicis the full What ls meant by How You will be expected to collect scientilic evidence and to understend how Pliner wo use evidence. These concepts will be assessed as the major part of your internal school assessmert. eth bile densiears elit You wil tako one or more 45-minute tests. These tosts are based on data you have collected previously plus data supplied for you in the test. They are Sete Call investigative Skills Assignments (ISA). The ideas in How Science STREET RETR TRIN Worle’ wil also be assessed in your examinations. problem scientifically? How science works for us Science works for us all day, every day. You do not need to know how a mobile phone works to enjoy sending text messages. But, think about how you startad to use your mobile phone or yaur television remote control. Did you work through pages of instructions? Probably roll ‘You knew that pressing the buttons would change something on the screen CO links (knowledge). You played around with the buttons, to see what would happen (ebeervation). You had 2 guass based on your knowladge and observations at vihat you thought might be happening (prediction) and then tested your idea (experiment). Peraps ‘How Science Works’ should really be called ‘How Scientists Work. Science moves forward by slow, steady steps. When a genius such as Einstein comes along, it takes a glant leap, Those small steps bulld on knowledge and cexporionce that we already have. You can find out more about your ISA by looking at Hi0 The ISA atthe end of this chapter. The steps don’t always lead in a straight line, starting with an observation and ‘ending with a conclusion. Moro often than not you find yoursalf gcing round in circles, but each time you go around the loop you gain more knowledge and so can make better predictions. 4 Observation | Analysis otresuts | Hrwatnesis X a Experimental test. — Prediction Each small step is important in its own way. It builds on the body of knowledge that we have. In 1675 a German chemist tried to extract gold from urine, He must have thought that there was a connaction between the two colours. He was wrong. But after a while, with a terrible stench coming from his laboratory, the urine begen to glow. Figure 1 Albert Einatoin w Figure Abot Enon weoa gente, hac lecovered ahosohorus, Phosphorus catches fe eal A Swedish buine waked scene tist worked cut howto marufacture phosphorus without the sme of w. GCSE urine, That is why most matches these days are manufactured in Sweden,Investigating fireworks Fireworks must be safe to light. Therefore you need a fuse that will last long enough to give you time to get well out of the way. © Fuses can be made by dipping a special type of cotton into a mixture: of two chemicals. One chernical (A) reacts by burning; the othar (B) doesn't. © The chemicals stick to the cotton. Once itis it, the cotton wil continue ‘to bur, setting the firework off. The concentrations of the two chemicals will affect how quickly the fuse burns. @ In groups, discuss how you could vrork cut the correct concentrations of the chemicals to use. You want the fuse to last long enough for you to get out of the way. However, you don't want itto burn so long that we all get bored waiting for the firework to go off! You can use the following headings to discuss your investigation. One person should be writing your ideas down, so that you can discuss tem with the rest of the clees. © What prediction can you make about the concentration of the two chemicals (A and 6) and the fuse? © What would you vary in each test? This is called the independent variable. © What would you measure to Judge the effect of varying the indopendent variable? This is called the dependent variable. © What would you need to keep unchanged to make this a feir test? These are called control variables. © Write @ plan for your investigation, Figure 2 Fireworks ‘Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: experiment knowledge conclusion prediction observation You have leamed before that a cup of tea loses heat fit s left standing. This is 2 piece of ‘You make an. ‘that dark-coloured cups will cool faster. So you make a that if you have @ black cup, this will 000l fastest of all. You carry out an........fo got seme results, and from these you make a ‘Tne Greeks were arguably the first rue scientists. They challenged traditional myths about life. They put forward ideas that they knew would be ‘challenged. They wore keen to argue the point and come toa reasoned conclusion. (Other oulturas raliod on long-established myths and argument was eeen es heroey. aka the starting point for an as eis intended to explain certain Cee OP ed ce ae! cau as er Tn Pec crocseee een chou ed eats hal ccc} Cd © What Is the Importance of Cee ecu) Ped Tou td evidence is valid? eit eed between a resutt being repeatable and a result being eee ORE Read a newspaper article or watch the news on TV. Ask yourself whether any research presented is valid. Ask yourself whether you can trust that erson’s opinion and wry. Figure 1 Stident recording a range oF tomparatures ~ an example of a How Science Works te UC emer ee- Lele ey re) Mau ude) Science is too important for us to get it wrong ‘Sometimes it is easy to spot whan people try to use science poorly. ‘Sometimes it can be funny. You might have sean adver's claiming to give your hhair ‘body’ or sprays that give your fost ‘ft On the other hand, poor scientific practice can cost lives. ‘Some years ago a company sold the drug thalidomide to people asa sleeping pill, Research was cavried out on animals to see ifit was safe. The research cid not include work on pregnant animals. The opinion of the peopla in charge was that the animal research showed the drug could be used safely with humans. ‘Then the crug was also found to help ease morning sickness in pregnant women. Unfortunately, doctors prescribed it to many women, resulting in ‘thousands of babies being born with deformad limbs. It was far fram safe, These are very difficult decisions to make. You need to be absolutely certain of what the science is telling you. ‘Why was the opinion of the people in charge of developing thalidomide based on poor science? Deciding on what to measure: variables Variables are physical, chemical or biological quantities or characteristics. In an investigation, you normally choose one thing to change or vary. This is called the independent variable, When you change the independent variable, it may cause something alse to change. This is called the dependent variable. Accontrol variable is one that is kept the same and is not changed during the investigation, You need to know about two different types of these variables: © A categoric variable is one that is best described by a label (usually a word). The ‘colour of eyes! is a categoric variable, e.g. blue or brown eyes. © Acontinuous variable is one that we meaaure, 90 its value could be any number. Temperatura (as measured by a thermometer or tamperature senso”) is a continuous variable, 2.g. 37.8 °C, 45.2°C. Continuous variables can havo values (called quantities) that can be found by making measurements (e.g. ight intensity, flow rate, etc.). b Imagine you were testing the energy given out in three different reactions (A, Band C). Would it bo bast to cay i reactions A and B folt warm, but C felt hot, or ii reaction C got hottest, followed by A and finally B, or iii the rise in tamperature in reaction C was 31°C, In A twas 16°C and in B It was 14°C? a variableMaking your evidence repeatable, reprodu: and valid ‘When you are designing an investigation you must make sure that other people can get the same results 2s you. This makes the evidence you collect reproducible. This is more likely to happon if you repeat measurements ard get consistent results. ‘Ameasurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the Investigation using the samme method and equipment and obtains the same results, ‘A measurement is roproduciblo if the investigation is repeated by another parson, or by using different equipment or techniques, and the same results are oblained. ‘You must also make sure you are measuring the actual thing you want ‘to measure. If you don't, your data can't be used to answer your original question, This szems very obvious but itis not always quite so easy. You need ‘to make sure that you have controlled as many other variables as you can, so ‘that no one can say that your investigation is not valid. A measurement is valid ITitmeasures what itis supposed to be measuring, with an appropriate level of performance. State one way in which you can show that your results are valid. How might an independent variable be linked to a dependent variable? Looking fora link between your independent and dependent variables is very important. The pattom of your graph or bar chart can often help you to soe whether there is a link. But beware! There may not be a link! If your results seem to show that there is no link, don't be afraid to say so. Look at Figure 2. ‘The points on the top graph show a clear pattern, but the bottom graph shows random scatter. Aimee toe 1 Students were asked to find the solubility of three different solids ~ D, Eand F. Name each of the following types of dependent variable described by the students: a Dand E were ‘soluble’, whereas F was ‘insoluble’. b Og Of F dissolved in 100 om? of water, 30.29 of D dissolved in 100 or? of water, 26.99 of F dissolved in 100 om of water. 2 Some people believe that the artificial sweetener aspartame causes headaches and dizzinass. Do you trust these opinions? What would ‘convince you not to use aspartame? ACA Examiner's tip ‘When designing your investigation yu should always tty to measure continuous data whonever you can. This is not always possible, so then you have to use a label (categorie variable). You might still be able to put the variables in an order so that you can spot a pattern. For example, you could describe flow rate as ‘fast flowing’, ‘stead | ‘low’ or ‘slow flowing’. Figure 2 Which graph shows that there rmightbe a link between x andy? At any time there are only about 20 ators of francium in ‘the entire planat. How do we know that this cata is valid? Como Peon Salida aabed ee una Pee eut eat ed Cros ete nord repeatable, reproducible and rnPR ead Cer scientific knowledge to ‘observe the world around Pra cna Suey Pec teed ee eta Cet Figure 1 A rusting lock How Science Works Starting an investigation Observation ‘As humans we are sensitive to the world around us. We can use our senses to detect what is happening. As scientists we use observations to ask questions. ‘We can only ask usaful quastions if we know something about the observed event. We will not have all of the answers, but we know enough to start asking relevant questions. It we observe that the weather has been hot today, we would not ask if it was due to global warming. the veather was hotter than normal for several years, we could ask that question. We know that global warming takes many years to show its effect. ‘When you are dasigning an investigation you have to observa carefully which variables are likely to have an effect. @ Would it be reasonable to ask whether the iron in Figure 1 is casting because of acid rain? Discuss your answer. ‘An owner of a housa noticed that the driveway up to the house had oracks in the concrete cn the lett side of the driveway (observation). He was concerned because the driveway had only been laid for ten weeks. The work had been done in Decamber. Bafore the builder cama to look at it, the owner thought of afew questions to ask the builder: © Did the builder have the correct amount of water in the concrete? © Did the builder use the correct amount of cement? © Could it be the car that was causing the damage? id the builder dig the foundations deep enough? @ Did the builder put the same depth of foundations on both sides? © Could the frost have caused the damage? ‘© Could tho bushes growing next to the drive have caused the problem? b Discuss all of these good ideas and choose three that are the most. likey. Observations, backed up by really creative thinking and good scientific knowledge, can lead to a hypothesis. Testing scientific ideas Scientists always try to think of ways to explain how thines work or why they behave in the way that they do. After their observations, they use their understanding of science to come up with an idea that could explain what is gcing on. This idea is sometimes called a hypothesis. They use this idea to make a prediction. A pradiction is like a guess, but itis not just a wild guess — itis based on previous understanding. Ascientist will say, Ifit works the way I think it does, I should be able to change this (the independent variable) and that will happen (the dependent variable).[ _Staringan investigation Predictions are what make science so powerful. They mean that we can work out rules that fell us what will happen in the future, For example, a weather forecaster can use knowledge and understanding to predict wind speeds. Knowing this, sailors and windsurfers can decide whether it would be a good ay to enjoy their sport. Knoviladge of energy transfer could lead to an idea that the insides of chips 00k by energy baing conducted from the outside. You might predict that ‘small, thinly sliced chips will cook faster than large, fat chips. Figure 2 Which o00% factor? Small thinly © Lock at the photograph in Figure 2. How could you test your prediction —_—_siced chips o lager fat chips? about how fast chips cook? Not all predictions are correct. I scientists find that the prediction doesn’t work, i's back to the drawing board! They either amend their original idea or think of a complotoly now one, Starting to design a valid investigation observation + knowledge ==> hypothesis —=» prediction =» investigation We can testa prediction by carrying out an Investigation. You, as the scientist, prodict that there is a relationship botwoon two variablos. ‘The independent variable Is one that 's selected and changed by you, the stigator. The dependent variable is measured for each change in your independent variable, Then all other variables become control variables, kept constant so that your investigation is a fair test. Ityour measurements are going to be accepted by other people, they must be valid. Part of this is making sure thal you are really measuring the effect, of changing your chosen variable. For example, if other variables aren't controlled proverly, they might be affecting the data collected. Look at Figure 3. Darren was investigating the temperature change when adding anhydrous copper sulfate to water. Ho used a tost tube for tho reaction. What is wrong here? Figure 3 Darran investigating the ‘temperature change Etim e te 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: controlled dopondent indopondent knowlodgo ecco prediction hypothesis oe) An observation linked with scientific. can be used ta make a Oe . LA. links an .. variable to a. variable. All other ‘the starting point for an variables need to be... Lek Sane 2 Whats the citforanoe bstwoen a prediction and a guess? Oy 8 Imagine you were testing whether the concentration of the reactants Lhe d bailed affects the rato of action. The reaction might cause the solution to get es hot. Cte a How oould you monitor the ternporature? eet b What other control variables can you think of that might affect the DT at) results? DePR ead eet re ag rete eae ce seh heal eke eee ee Soros Deter reac X( JA Examiner’s tip you are asked about why it Is important to keep control variables constant, you nood to give a detailed explanaton. Don't just anewor, ‘To make it a fair test? ‘When you are asked to write a plan for your investigation, make sure that you give all the details. Ask yourself, Would someone else be able to follow my written plan and use it to do the investigation?” How Science Works Planning an investigation Fair testing fair testis one in which only the Independent variable affects the dependent variable, All cther variables (called contro! variables) should be kept the same. If the testis not fair, the results of your invastigation will not be valid Sometimes itis very difficult to keep. control variables the same. However, at least you can monitor them, ao that you know whether they have changed or net, Figure 1 Different types of pant a How would you set up an investigation to see how exposure to different amounts of sunlight affected different typas of paint? Surveys Not all scientific investigations involve d variable, jerately changing the independent Ifyou were investigating the effect that using a mobile phone may have on health, you wouldn't put a group of peopie in a room and make them use their mobile phonas to se whether they developed brain cancer! Instead, you might conduct a survey. You might study the health of alarge umber of paople who regularly use a mobila phone and compare their health with those who never use a mobile phone. You would have to choose people of tha same age and same family history to test. The larger the sample size you test, the better your results wil be. Control group Control groups are used in investigations to try to make sure that you are measuring the variable that you intend to measure. When investigating the effects of a new drug, the control group will be givan a plaeebo. This is a ‘pretend’ drug that actually has no effect on the patient at all. The control group think they are taking a drug but the placebo does not contain the drug, This way you can control the variable of ‘thinking that the drug is working’ and separate out the effect of the actual drug. Usually neither the patient nor the doctor knows until after the trials have been. completed which of the patients were given the placebo. This is known as a double-blind trial.Le Risks and hazards (One of the first things you must do is to think about any potential hazards and then assass the risk. Everything you do in lifa presents a hazard. What you have to do is to identify the hazard and then decida the decree of risk that it cives. Ifthe risk is very high, you must de something to reduce it. For example, if you decide to go out in the pouring rain, lightning Is a possivie hazard. However, you decide that the risk is 0 small that you will ignore it and go out anyway, Ifyou decide to cross @ busy road, the cars travelling along it at high speed represent a hazard. You decide to reduce the risk by crossing at a pedestrian crossing. Figure 2 The hezard is the busy oad: Burning alcohols we reduce the risk by using @ pedestran Imagine you were testing alcohols to See how much energy they give out Grossing when burned. Tersomi Before you start your practical work you must make sure that itis safe. What are the Glass beater likely hazards? How could you reduce the risk caused by War these hazards? This is known as arisk assessment. You may well be asked questions co like this on your ISA paper. Alcona pedo “tipod ei ad fair tosting - as far as is od Teka Pu ul © What are the hazards that are present? © What could you do to reduce the risk ‘rom these hazards? tee a Eire teen Becta i = — Pek ke 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: Lance rte investigation hazards assessment risks paises ei Before you carry out any practical ....you need to cerry outa risk. Cee snes “YOU aN do this by looking for any potential... and making ; ure thet tho ....... arB as ernall as possible. ete LO 2 Explain the difference between a control group and a control variable. ear 8 Brielly describe how you would go about setting up a fair testin a Peer eononinry laboratory investigation. Give your anewor as ganoral acvioo. Peete eePR ead Sr shat Peete epic ece ee sek un Cea i koe eu suitable interval? © How do you ensure accuracy and precision? How Science Works Designing an investigation Choosing values of a variable Trial runs will tell you a lot about how your early thoughts are going to work out, Do you have the correct conditions? Arate of reacton investigation may not have sufficient of one of the reactants ‘to result in a measurable amount of product. Have you chosen a sensible range? Range means the maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. Itis important to choose a suitable range forthe Independent variable, otherwise you may not be able to see any change in the dopendent variable. For example, if the results are all very similar in 2 rate of reaction experiment, you might net have choson a wide enough rango of concentrations. Have you got enough readings that are close together? “The gap between the readings is known as the interval. For example, you might alter the temperature to see whether this affects the rate of reaction. A tof 11 readings equally apaced over a range of 10°C would give an interval of 1°C, and this might not be encugh to notice any change in the rate, (On the other hand, if you choose an intarval of 20°C you might miss an important change in the pattem. Accuracy Accurate measurements are very close to the true value. ‘Your investigation should provide data tha is accurate enough to anewor your original question. However itie not avaye possibieto know what the true valuo is How do you get accurate data? @ You can repeat your measurements and your mear accurate, © Try repeating your measurements with a differen whether you get tha same readings. ¢ Use high-quality instruments that measure accurately The more carefully you use the measuring instruments, the more accuracy you will get. more likely to be rument and seePrecision, resolution, repeatability and reproducibility A precise measurements is one in which there is very lttie spread about the ‘mean value. Ifyour repeated measurements are closely grouped together, you have precision. Your measurements must be made with an instrument trat has a suitable resolution, Resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) thet gives a perceptible change the reading. It's no use measuring the time for a fast reaction to finish using the seconds hand on a clock! If there are big differences within sets of repeat readings, you will not be able to make a valid conclusion. You won't be able to trust your datal How do you get precise data? @ You have to use measuring instruments with sufficiently small scale divisions. © You have to repeat your tesis as often as necessary. © You have to repeat your tesis in exactly the same way each time. It you repeat your investigation using the same method and equipment anc. ‘obtain the same results, your results are seid to be repeatable. It someone else repeats your investigation in the same way, or you repeat it by using different equipment or techriques, and the same results are obtained, tis s2id to be reproducible You may be asked to compare your results with those of others in your group, or with data from other scientists. Research like this is a good way of checking your results. A word of caution! Precision depends only on the extent of random errors - it gives no indication of how close resuits are to the true value. Just because your results show precision does not mean they are accurate, a Drawa thermometer scale reading 49.5" both accurata and precise. ‘showing four results that are Rte e teen 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: range repeat conditions readings runs give you a good idea of whether you have the correct. to collect any data; whether you have chosen the correct forthe independent variable; whether you have enough... and whether you noad to do. readings. 2 Use an example to explain how a set of repeat measurements could be accurate, but not precise. 3. Explain the difference batwoen a set of results that are reproducible and 4 set of results that are repeatable. LL ACA Examiner's tip ‘You must know the difference between accurate and precise results, Imagine measuring the temperature after a set time when a fuel is used to heat a fixed volume of water. “Two students repeated this, exporimont, four times each. “Their resuits are marked on the ‘thermometer scales below: © A precise act of repeat readings will be grouped closely together. @ An accurate set of repeat readings will have a mean (average) close to the true value. sec 4erc (but not acuratey ut ratprecise) Como eo ad Dey Cheon Res eee Dee ar Rees Setter between the values of a Pe Ree okie? Pe aueete wl aad accuracy and precision. '* You should try to reproduce Pete eanPR ead BAe SC Sead Cee ea Eee uote kad Beau ed eed Feu eu il and a random error? © How does human error affect eat sci) Send \@WW EL Ityou are asked what may have caused an error, never answer simply ‘human error’ - you won't get any marks for this. ‘You need to say what the experimenter may have done to cause the error, or give more detail, e.9. ‘Human reaction time might have caused an error in the timing when using a stopwatch. How Science Works Making measurements Using instruments ‘Try measuring the temperature of a beaker of water using a digital thermometer. Do you always get the same result? Probably nol! So can we say ‘that any measurements absolutely correct? In any experiment there wil be doubts about actual measurements, When you choose an instrument you need to know that it will give you the accuracy that you want, You need to be confident that itis giving a tue reading. Ifyou have used an electric water bath, would you trust the temperature (on tha dial? How do you know its the true temperature? You could use a very expensive thermometer to calibrate your water bath. The expensive thermometer is more likely to show the true temperature, But can you really be sure it is accurate? Instruments that measure the same thing can have different sensitivitios. The resolution of an instrument rafers to the smallest change in a value that can be detected. This is one factor that determines the precision of your measurements. Choosing the wrong scale can cause you to miss important data or make silly conclusions. We would not measure the length of a chemical bond in metres, we would use nanometres, ‘@_ Match the ‘following weighing machines to their best use: Used to measure Rosolution of weighing machine ‘Sodium chloride In a packet of comflakes | micrograms Comtlakes delivered to. supermarket | milligrams Vitamin D in a packet af eamfiakes ‘grams. ‘Sugar added to a bowl of cornflakes Kllogzams Errors Even when an instrument is used correctly, the results can stil show differences. Results may differ because of random error. This is most likely to ba due to @ poor measurement being made. It could be due to not carrying out the method consistently. Ifyou repeal your measurements several times and then calculate a mean, you will raduce the affect of random errors. ‘The error might be a systematic error. This means that the method was carried out consistently but an error was being repeated. A systematic error will make your readings be spread about some value other than the true value. This is because your results will differ from the true velue by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made.No number of repeats can do anything about systematic errors. Ifyou think ‘that you have a systematic error, you need to repeat using a different set of equipment or a different technique. Then compare your resuits and spot the difforencel Azero error Is one kind of systernatic error. Suppose that you were trying 1 measure the length of your desk with a metre rule, but you hadn't noticed thet, ‘someone had sawn cff half a centimetre from the end of the ruler. Itwouldn't matter how many times you repeated the measurement, you would never get any nearer to the true value, Check out these two sets of data that were taken from the investigation that Matt did. He tested five cifferent oils. The bottom row is the time calculated from knowing the viscosity of the different ols: Type of oll used atelteloje Time taken to flow downtile (seconds) | 23.2 | 45.9 | 495 | 627 | 759 ast | 364 | 487 | ats | 761 Calculated time (seconds) 1a2 | 04 | 425 | 556 | 707 'b Discuss whether there is any evidence of random error in these results. © Discuss whether there is any evidence of systernatic error in these results. Anomalies Anomalous results are clearly out of line, Thay aro not those that are duo to ‘the natural variation you get from any measurement. These should be looked at carefully. There might be a very interesting reason why they are so different. You should always look for anomalous results and discard them bafore you calculate a mean, itnecessary. © If anomalias can be identified while you are doing an investigation, itis best ‘to repeat that part of the investigation. @ If you find anomalies efter you have finished collecting data for an investigation, they must be discarded. Blue aoe 41 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: acourate discarded random resolution systematic use variation Thoro will always bo somo in rosults. You should always choos the best instruments that you can in order to get the most... results. ‘You must know how to .......the instrument properly. The... of an instrument refers to the smallast change that can ba detacted. There are two types of error— and ‘Anomalies due to random error should be... What ki of error will most likely occur in the following situations? a Asking everyone in the class to measure the length of the bench. 'b Using a ruler thet has a piece missing from the zaro end. Figure 1 Matt timing the flow of cil ater eet aud Se ete) co Prue eu open us Coad ‘We examine anomalies; ‘they might give us some Ce Leona) Cree ad eet us ee PO eePR ead ee) feu eek eed Cd Se Bias Ce ‘T a ——— Figure 1. Student using an oxygen mater How Science Works Presenting data For this section you will be working with data from this investigation: ‘Mol took a liteo (1 drm) of tap water. Sho shook it vigorously for exactly 2 ‘minutes, She tried to get as much oxygen to dissolve in it as possible. ‘Then she took the temperature of the water. She immediately tested the oxygen concentration, using an oxygen meter. Tables () ‘Tables are really good for getting your results down quickly and clearly. You should design your table before you start your investigation. Your table should be constructed to fit in all the data to be collected. It should ba fully labelled, including units. You may want to have extra columns for repeats, calculations of means or calculated values. Checking for anomalies While filing in your table of results you should be constantly looking for anomalies, © Chook to see whothor any reading in a sot of repeat readings is significantly different from the others. © Gheck to see whether the pattern you are getting as you change the independent variable is what you expected. Remember, a result that jooks anomalous should be checked out to see whether it really is @ poor reading, Planning your table Mel had decided on the values for her independent variable. We always put ‘these in tha first column ofa table. The dependent variable goas in the second column. Mel will find its values as she carrigs out the investigation. ‘So she could plan a table like this ‘Temperature of water (°C) Concentration of oxygen (mg/m) 5 70 16 20 | 28 | Or ike this: Temperature of water (C) Ea nC 2) Concentration of oxygen (mgidm=) AII sho had to do in the invostigation was to write the correct numbers in tho second column to complete the top table. Me's resutts are shown in the alternative format in the table below: Temperature of water (°C) s | tw | te | 2 | a Concentration of oxygen (mgidis) wal us| 9a | er | 73[Presenting deta The range of the data OTT Pick out he maximum and the minimum values and you have the range of a ‘arable. You should aiwaye quctatheoe two numbers whon asked for a range. For example, the range of the dependent variable is between 7.3ma/dm® (the " 7 lowest value) and 12.8mgidm: (he highest value) —and don't forget to include | ® Readings, including the units the units! @ atitie. ‘When you make a table for your results, remember to include: hon you draw aline graph or bar chart, remember to: © use a sensibee scale that is easy to work out ‘@_Whatis the range for the independent variable and for the dependant variable in Mel's set of date? use as much of the graph paper as possible; your data should occupy at least a third of each axis label both axes draw a line of best fitifitis a line graph label each bar ifitis a bar The mean of the data Cften you have to find the mean of aach repeated sat of measurements. ‘The first thing you should do is to look for any anomalous results. If you find any, miss these out of the caloulation. Then add together the remaining measurements and divide by how many there are. For example: ‘© Mol takes four readings, 1mgiim!, 12mg/dm’, 2mg/dm?, 15 mg/dm* ‘© 20mg/dm? is an anomalous result and so is missod out. So 15412415 = 42 © 42 divided by three (the number of valid results) = 14mg/dm* ACA Examiner’s tip ‘The repeat values and mean can be recorded as shown below: Temperature of water Concentration of oxygen (mg/d?) Merks are often cropped in a the ISA by candidates plating ‘attest | andtest | Grdtest | Moan ovis iconeety Alsouse ° 15 2 8 14 alline of bost fit whore appropriate — don’t just join the points ‘dot-to-dot!! Displaying your results Bar charts ow of ou vaalesiceaoprs, you should oa bar chart Lino grape ce aor aed Ce cs ue ak! Ifyou have 2 continuous indapendent and a continuous dependent variable, a line graph should be used. Plot the points as small ‘plus’ signs (4 Etro Be mod Sed cae ae er een ere eee pee ee eee aes eel eae ate ee eet bal epee ‘The sum of all the values in a set of repeat readings divided by the = tbalnumte ol hese repeal vos geste -Barcharts re | SC See used when you have @..........independent variable and a continuous Rete key dependent variable. Line graphs are used when you have... " ieee arena a aie ae elceeteeet cee eee ete eer ra bean SrHow Science Works Using data to draw conclusions Identifying patterns and relationships Now that you have a bar chart or a line graph of your results you can begin to PR ead Och ahaa teh aaah look for pattems. You must have an open mind at this point. ae Peners ay perro) First, there could still be some anomalous results. You might not have picked these out earllr, How do you spot an anomaly? It must be a significant et distance away from the pattern, not just within normal vaition. ff you do have Lenealoablitbeeedanbibdl) any anomalous results plotted on your graph, circle these and ignore them BE Ld when drawing the line of best fit. Now look at your graph. Is there a pattern that you can see? When you nave from relationships? decided, craw e line of best ithat shows this pattern Se Alline of best fit is a kind of visual averaging process. You should draw the DSU cena ine so tha it leaves as many points slightly above the lie as there are points Cael dh Deal below. In other words itis a line that steers a middle course through the fiald of points. ‘The vast majority of rasuits that you get from continuous data require a line of best iit Remember, a line of best ft can be a straight line oritcan be a curve - you have to decide from your results. ‘You nead to consider whether your graph shows a linear relationship. This simply means, can you be confident about drawing a straight line of best fit on your graph? Ifthe answer is yes —is this lina positive or nagative? ‘Say whether graphs i and iin Figure 1 show a positive or a negative linear relationship. Look at the graph in Figure 2. It shows a positive linear relationship. Italso goes through the origin (0,0). We all this a directly proportional relationship. ‘Your results might also show a curved line of best fit. These can be predictable, complex or very complex! Look at Figure 3 below. & a A Figure 1 Goh shoring nee 2 Es raatorehpe 3 Be z = Tine Tempers Af s 5 = 0 Tine Figure 2 Graph showing adrecty Figure 3 a Grach shoving pretceble resus b Graph showing complex rests a relationship ‘eGraph showing very complex restsSr Drawing conclusions Itthora is @ pattorn to be seen (for example 2s one variable gots bigger tho other also gets bigger), it may be that: «© changing one has caused the other to change «@ the two are related, but one is not necessarly the cause o! the other. Your conclusion must go no further than the evidence that you have. od Looking at relationships ‘Some people think that waiching too much television can cause an increase in violence. The table shows the number of television sets in the UK for four different years, and the number of murders committad in those years. Year | Numberof televisions (millions) | Number of murders 1970 6 310 4960 25 500 4900 2 550 2000) 60 750 Plot e graph to show the relationship. © Do you think this proves that watching tolovision causes violonco? Explain your answer. oe ‘When you read scientific claims, think carefully about the evidence that should be there to back up the claim. Poor acience cen often happen if a wrong decision is made here. Newspapers, have said that living near electricity substations can cause cancer. All that scientists would say is thal there is possibly an association. Evaluation ee You will often be asked to evaluate either the method of the investigation or the ey conclusion that has bean reached. Ask yourself: Gould the method have been Peeks proved? Is the conolusion that has bean made a v ore? “The possible relationships 7 ten Etna end negative, directly 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the folowing words: Proportional, predictable and anomalous complex directly negative positive Coe Linas of best fit can be usod to ident... results. Linear Conclusions must go relationships can be. or. . Ifa straight line goes through the ho further then the date, origin of a graph, the relationship proportional. Often a line of oa best fit is a curve which can be predictable or. Be Nagma found ¢ newspaper article about nanosofenco. Nanoparticlos Ces) are used for many things, including perfumes. Ftd Seas Thore was ioreasing evidence tha ile naoparicls coudcasse | (ale kaiipboaieateaa Jung inflammation. (quote from Professor Ken Donaldson] Cree et od Discuss the type of experiment and the data you would expect to see to De ee) support this conclusion. PrasPR ead Sera Poveda te aac aed uated ed Oe eid Re eet See Ly Pea eT CCL ay ya ‘Acscientist who rejected the Idea of a causal link between ‘smoking and lung cancer was later found to be being paid by a tobacco company. Ora Ifyou are asked about bias in scientific evidence, there are ‘two types: ‘© the measuring instruments may have introduced a bias because they were not calibrated corractly the scientists themselves may have a biased opinion (eg ifthey are paid by a ‘company to promote their produc’). How Science Works Scientific evidence and society Now you have reached a conclusion about a piece of scientific research. So ‘what is next? If itis pure research, your fellow scientists will want to look at it very carefully. fit affects the lives of ordinary people, society will also want to examine it closely, ‘You can help your cause by giving a balanced account of what you have found out. Itis much the same 2s any argument you might have. If you make ridiculous claims, nobedy will believe anything you have to say. Be open and honest. Ifyou only tell part ofthe story, someone will want to know why! Equally, if somebody is only telling you part of the truth, you cannat bbe confident about anything they say. An advert for a breakiast cereal claims that it has ‘extra folic acid’. What information is missing? Is it important? You must be cn the lockout for people who might be biased when presenting scientific evidence. Some scientists are paid by companias to do research. ‘When you are told that a certain product is harmless, just chack out who is telling you 'b Bottles of perfume spray contain this advioe: ‘This finished product has not been tested on animals.’ Why might you mistrust this statement? zs. ‘Suppose you wanted to know about the pollution effects of burning waste ina local incinerator. Would you ask the sciontist working for the incinerator ‘company or one working in the local university? We also hava to he very careful in reaching judgaments according to who Is presenting scientific evidence to us. For example, ifthe evidence might provoke public or political problems, it might be played down. Equally, otners might want to exaggerate the findings. They might make more cf the resulta than the evidence suggests. Take as an example the data available on animal research. Animal liberation followers may well present the same evidence completely differently to pharmaceutical companies wishing to dovolop now drugs. © Check out some websites on limestone quarrying in the National Parks. Gat the opinions of the environmentalists and those of the quarrying ‘companies. Try to identify any politcal bias there might be in their opinions.[ Scientitc evidenceand soctety ‘The status of the experimenter may place more weight on evidence. Suppose a quarrying company wants to convince an enquiry that itis periectly reasonable to site a quarry in remote moorland in the UK. The company will choose the most ominent scientist in that fiold who is likely to support them. ‘The small local community might not be able to atford an eminent soiantist The enquiry needs to be very careful to make a balanced judgement. Science can often lead to the development of new materials or techniques. ‘Sometimes these cause a problem for society where hard choices have to be made. ‘Scientists can give us the answers to many questions, but not to every question. Scientists have a contribution to make to a debate, but so do others such as envronmentalists, economists and politicians, The limitations of science Science can help us in many ways but it cannot supply all the answers. We ave sill finding out about things and developing our scientiic knowledge. For ‘example, the Hubble telescopa has holped us to rovice our ideas about the baginnings of the universe. ‘There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reproducible, repeatable anc valid evidence. For example, research into the causes of cancer still needs much work to be done to provide data, ‘There are some questions that science cannot answer at all. These tend to ba questions where beliefs, opinions and ethics are important. For example, sclence can suggest what the universe was lke when It was first formed, but cannot answer the question of why it was formed. 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: status balanced bias political Evidence from scientific investigations should be given In a... Way. It must be checked for any ........ from the experimenter. Evidence can be given too litle or too much weight fit is of significance. The ....-.- of the experimenter Is likely to influence people in thelr judgement of the evidence. Collect seme newspaper articles to show how eclentific evidence ie used. Discuss in graups whather these articles are honest and ‘air representations of the science. Consicer whethar they carry any bias. Petcoke is a high carbon product from refined oil. t can be used in power stations and cement works. Owners of the Drax power station, which is running a trial use of the fuel, claim that it is cheaper than ccal and can be used without harmful effects. Other groups claim that itis, ‘dirty fuel’ and will cause enviccnmental and health problema. Suppose you were living near Drax power station. Who would you trust to tall you whether petcoke was a safe fuel? Explain your answer. BIODIESEL} DIVUIESEL |The Fuel of the Future? eres ee eer etonlaltrea Sate Slt ingly tormaking biodiesel ee area yeeca erase) except sepia ae eee eer ey erertee “etter schas tones a pst bog, Figure 1 The Hubble space telescope ccan look doop into epace and tall ue things about the universe's beginning ‘rom the formations of eerly galaxies Com er etry Pocudubto cushion that points out clearly how Re ritaneeucet Baca) contain any bias from the experimenter, Sec uate checked to appreciate Net ear oe Lies Soren) Ce baekeulan ca Ce uni CeRu eae rsa ened Cece Pie eects Or uy oreo ‘When you are making a blank table or drawing a graph or bar chart, make sure that you use full heacings, eg, @ the length of the lea’, not just ‘length’ © the time taken for the reaction’, not just ‘time’ @ the height from which the ball was dropped’, not just ‘height’ and don't forget to include any units. How Science Works There are several different stages to the ISA. Stage 1 ‘Your teacher wil tal you the problem that you are going to investigate, and you will have to develop your own typothesis. “Thay wll also set the problem in context in otner words, whare in real life your investigation could ba useful. You should have a discussion about t, and tak about different waye in which you might solve the problem. Your teacher should show you the equipment that you can use, and you should research one or two possible methods for carrying out an experiment to test the hypothesis: ‘You should also research the contoxt and do a risk aseosemont for your practical work. You will be allowed to make one side of notes Figure 1. Doing practical work allows you to on this rosaarch, which you can develop the oil needed to do well nthe ISA take into the written part of the ISA. ‘You should be allowed to handle the equipment and you may be allowed to carry out a preliminary experiment. ‘Make sure that you understand what you have to do - nowis the time to ask questions if you are not sure. Section 1 of the ISA At the end of this atage, you will anewer Section 1 of the ISA. You will need c develop a hypothesis Identity one or more variables that you nead to control describe how you would carry out the main experiment Identify possible hazards and say what you would do to reduce any risk make a blank table ready for your results. What features should you include in your written plan? bh What should you include in your blank table?Stage 2 AC QA Examiner's tip ‘This is whore you carry out the experiment and get some rasuts. Dor'twory — P'when you are comparing your too much about soending a long time getting fantastically accurate results -it | conclusion with the Fypethesis, ie more important to get some results that you can analyee. make sure that you also tak about tho oxtent to which your results support the hypothasis. Which of these answers do ‘© How do you decide whather you should draw a bar chart or a lino graph? you think would score the most After you have got results, you will have to compare your results with those of others. You will also have to draw a graph or a bar chart. marks? ‘© My results suppor the Stage 3 hypothosie. ‘This ie whero you answor Section 2 of the ISA. Section 2of the ISA isall about | @ Inmy results, asx got your own results, so make sure that you look at your table and graph when bigger, y gotbigger, as you are answering this section. To get the best marks you will need to quote stated in the hypothesis. some data from your results. © Inmy results, ao x got oo bigger. y got bigger. as, stated in the hypothesis, but unlike the hypothesis, y stopped increasing after a while, Section 2 of the ISA In this section you will need to: © say what you were trying to find out © compare your results with those of others, eaying whether you think they are similar or different analyse data that is given in the paper. This data will be in the same topic area as your investigation ideas from your own investigation to answer questions about this © write a conclusion © compare your conclusion with tha hypothesis you have tested. ‘You may neod to change or oven reject your hypothesis in response to vyour findings. read ruc hi) Ci er es De ee cana Cu SE hd eos Seu! two possible hazards, and Arab baT oh eaten a en Aire cee ee Ed hypothesis that you are given 1. Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: Rr tral control independent dependent ‘When wring a pan, you need to state the varicble thet you are Soran nant deliberately going to change, called the variable. You also need to say what you expect will change because of this; this is called the ‘Always refer back to the uw Vatiable. You must also say what......... variables you will keep. Dr cy constant in order to make it a fair test. Ree TeGCM) Summary questions 4) Put these words into order. They should be in the order that you might use them in an investigation. design; prediction; conclusion; method; repeal; controls; graph; results; table; improve; safety; hypothesis 2) a How would you tell the difference between an opinion that was scientific anc a prejuciced opinion? b Suppose you were investigating the amount of. gas produced ina reaction. Would you choose to investigate a catogoric or a continuous variable? Expiain why. ) You might have seen that marble statues weather badly where there is air pollution. You wantto find out why. ‘@ You know that aulfur dioxide in the air forms en acid. How could this knowledge help you ta make a prediction about the effect of sulfur dioxide on marble statues? b Make a prediction about the effect of sulfur dioxide on marole statues. ‘© What experiment could you do to test your prediction? Suppose you are not able to carry out an experiment. How else could you test your prediction? @ a Whatdo you understand by a ‘fair test"? b Suppose you were carrying out an investigation into what effect diluting acid had on its pH. You would need to carry out a trial, Describe what atrial would tell you about how to plan your method. ¢ How could you decide if your results were reliable? d Itis possible to calculate the offect of dilution on the PH of an acid. How could you use this to check on the accuracy of your results? 5 Suppose you were waiching a friend carry out an’ investigation using the equipment shown on page 13. ‘You have to mark your friend on how accurately he is, making his measurements. Make a list of points that you would be leaking for. ‘a How do you dacide on the range of a sat of data? b How do you caloulate the moan? ‘© When should you use a bar chart? d When should you use a line graph? @ a What should happen to anomalous results? b What does a line of bast ft allow you to do? ‘¢ When making a conclusion, what must you take into consideration? d_How can you check on the repeatability and reproducibility of your results?® a Why is it important when reporting science to ‘tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’? b Why might come pooplo be tomptod not to bo ‘completely fair when reporting their opinions on scientific data? ® a ‘Science can advance tachnology and tachnology can advance science.’ What do you think is meant by this, statement? b Who answers the questions that start with ‘Should we...’? 10 Glass has been used for windows in buildings for along time and is increasingly being uses for structural paris 28 wall. itis important therafare to be able to find out the strangth of glass. One measure cf this is the force that can be applied to glass before it breaks. Glass bends under pressure. Laminated glass is in three layers, glass on the outside sandwiching a polyrner layer. This strangthens the glass. ‘An experiment was carried out to find out how far laminated glass would bend. The glass was supported ‘on two wooden blocks and a load line drawn halfway between the blocks. A load was then placed an this load line and the amount of bend in the glass was measured, ‘The load was gradually increased. Another plate of glass was then used for a second sat of results. Lune oad (Vm) wth 2-sided support ‘ppylozd | Line oad Ww Breet ed ‘The results of the investigation are in the table. Line load added | Bending Teet1 | Bending Test2 (tty) (rom) (mm) 1 18 20 2 7 29 3 5 ST 4 4 76 6 2 08 a What was the prediction for this test? b What was tho independent variable? ‘© What was the dependent variable? d Suggest a control vaviable that should have been used @ Ie there any evidence of a systematic error in this investigation? Exolain your answer. Is thera any evidence of a random error? Explain your ansvrer. 9 How could the investigation have its accuracy improved? hh Was the precision of the bencing measurement satisfactory? Provide some evidence for your answer from the data in the table. 1. What is the mean for the results at a line lead of skNim? {Draw a graph of the results for the first test, ke Draw a fine of bast fit 1 Describe the patter m What conclusion can you reach? fn How might you develop this technique to show the ceffact of the thickness of the polymer on the breaking Pont of the glass? (© How might this information be used by architects wanting to protect buildings?Fundamental ideas Atoms, elements and compounds A — Look at the things around you and the aubstances that they are made from. Learning objectives You will ind wood, matal, plastic, glass ... the listis almost endless. Look ETP SSES SNES furtherand the number ef different substances is mind-boggling. All substances are made of atoms. There are about 100 different types of atom found naturally on Earth, These can combine in a huge variety of ways. This gives us all those differant substances. SOIREE some substances ere made up of only one type of atom, We cal hese Co substances alaments. As there ara only about 100 different types of atom, there are only about 100 different elements. © How do we represent atoms ‘a How many different types of alom are there? b Why can you mako millions of difforont substancos from these difforont types of atom? Elements can have very different properties. Elements such as silver, copper and gold ere shiny solids. Other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are gases. Atoms have their own symbols (C3) ‘The name we use for an element depends on the language being spoken. For example, sulfur is called Schwefel in German and azutre in Spanish! However, alot of scientific werk is international. So itis important that we have symbols ‘poo of atom inthis caoo bromine for elements that everyone can understand. You can see these symbols in the dic table. ‘Group purrs 7 i w]e] | me | & | | | 2 | 2 vee_| caw | ia | cee te | a | an | ta | Bla) oe] oe | a | erein| nomi | ein | as | she pw po] ef om | a B| ol) | | a jorin | cin | voi | nonn | e_| “Te tansiion metals The The habgers noble cases, The The kai akaine metas earth metals Lantanies tomes — [E22] 2/2) 2/2) 2] 22S ur 2 Th pao tole shows th yal he leiCee Tne symbols in the periodic table represent atoms. For example, O represents an atom of oxygen; Na represents an atom of sodium. The elements in the table are arranged in columns, called groups. Each group contains elements with similar chemical properties. The ‘staircase’ drawn in bold is the dividing line between metals and non-metals. The elements to the left of the line are metals, Those on the right of the line are non-metals. ‘© Why isituseful to have aymbois for atoms of ciffarent elements? d_ Sort these elements into metals and non-metals: phosphorus (P), barium (Bal, vanadium (V), mercury (He) and krypion (k") Atoms, elements and compounds Most of the substances we come across are not pure elements. They are made up of differant types of atom joined together. These are callad compounds. Chemical bonds hold the atoms tightly together in compounds. ‘Some compounds aro made from just two types of atom (e.g. water, mado ‘from hydrogen and oxygen). Other compounds consist of mors different types of atom, Anatom is made up ofa tiny central nucleus with electrons around it Figure 2 Each atom consists of 2 small nucleus surrounded by electrons 1 Copy and complete using the words below: atoms bonds molecule compounds Allelements are made up of... . When two or more atoms join together 2......... is formed. The atoms in slaments and......... are held tightly to each other by chemical .. Explain why when we mixtwo elements togzther we can often separate them again quite easily. However, when two elements are chemically combined in a compound, they can be very difficult o separate, Draw diagrams to explain the difference between an element and a ‘compound. Use a hydrogen molecule (H,) and a hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl) to help explain. 4 Draw a labelled diagram to show the basic structure of an atom. CO links For more information on tho periodic table, see 03 1.2 The ‘modern periodic table. Only 92 elements ccour raturally on Earth. The other heavier elements in the Periodic table have to be made artificially and might only exist for fractions of a second before they decay into other, lighter elements, CO links For more information on what is Inside an ator, see C1 1.2 Atomic sirueture and 1.9 The arrangement of electrons in atoms. Figure 4 A grouping of two or more atoms bonded togetner Is caled a ‘molecule, Chemical bonds hold the hydrogen and oxygen atorns together in ‘the water molecule, Water @ an example ofa compound Com ern) Ce «© Elements cortaln only one Dr Ae et id than one type of atom. @ Anatom has a tiny nucleus ri ieg Caseu ead error ott Proton, a neutron and an Cees ‘© What can we say about the feetol areal Cha cad Cea et mo ea Totactaen lal Peat) 7 Cpa eee In 1808, a chemist called John Dalton publishad a theory of atoms. Ii explained how atoms joined togother to form now substances (compounds). Not everyone liked his theory ‘though - one person wrote ‘Aloms are rourd bits of wood invented by Mr Dalton!" CO links For more information on the structure of atoms, see C2 3.1 The Fundamental ideas Atomic structure In the middle of an atom there ie € very emall nustous. Thie containa two types of particles, which we call protons and neutrons. A third type of particle orbits the nucleus. We call these really tiny particles electrons. Any atom has the same number of electrons ortiting its nucleus as it has protons in its nucleus. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge - they are neutral. So the nucleus itself has an overall positive charge. ‘The electrons orbiting the nucleus are negatvely charged. The relative charge ona proton is +1 and the relative charge on an electron is —1. Because any atom contains equal numioers of protons and electrons, the positive and negative charges cancel out. So there is no overall charge on any atom. Its charge is zara. For example, a carbon atom is neutral. It has 6 protons, so we know it must have 6 electrons. a What are the names of the three particles that make up an atom? b An oxygen atom has 8 protons - how many electrons does it have? Fectron Prion ewan Nucous Figure 1 Urderstandirg the structure ofan atom gives us mpertant cluas tothe way cchemicels react together Type of subatomic particle Relative charge Proton 4H Noutron ° Electron a To help you remember the charge on the subatomic particles: @ Protons are Po: © Neutrons are Neutral; © co that means Electrons must be Negative! Atomic number and the periodic table All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. For ‘exemple, hydrogen has 1 proton in its nucleus, carhon has 6 protons in its nucleus and sodium has 11 protons in its nucleus. \We call the number of protons in each atom of an element its atomic number. aWwe In an atom, the number of protons is always equal to the umber of electrons. You can find out tho numbor of protons and electrons in an atom by Figure 2 Tha elements in the pariadic tab atoms are neuital, his also the sere order as their numer of electrons) ‘The elements in the periocic table are arranged in order of their atomic umber (number of protons). If you are told that the atomic number of an element is 8, you can identify it using the periodic table. It will be the th element listed, In this case itis oxygen. © Whatis the ‘4th elementin the periodic table? You read the pariocic table from left to right, and fram the top down — just like reading a page of writing, Look al the elements in the last group of the abbreviated periodic table jn Figuro 2. What patton do you notice about the number of protons: going from helium to neon to argon? Mass number ‘The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number. © So, fan alom has 4 protons and 5 neutrons, is mass number will be 4 + 5 = 9. © Given the atomic number and mass number, we can work out how many protons, electrons and neutrons are in an atom. For example, an argon atom has an atomic number of 18 and a mass number of 40. Its atomic number is 18 so it has 18 protons. Remember that atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. So argon also has 18 electrons. ‘Tha mass number is 40, so wa know that: 48 (tho numbor of protons) + the number of noutrons = 40 ‘Therefore argon must have 22 neutrons (as 18 + 22 = 40) We can summarise the last part of the calculation as: number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number Aire toe Copy and completa using the words balow: electrons atomic negative neutrons In the nucleus of atoms there are protons and Around the UCIOUS there 2F@ «non WHICH NAVE a... Charge. In the periodic table, atoms are arranged in order of their... number. ‘Atoms are always neutral. Explain why. How many protons, electrons and neutrons do the following atoms: contain? a Anitrogen atom whose atomic number is 7 and its mass number is 14. b Acchlorine atom whose atonic number is 17 and lis mass number is 35. ra arangad in order of their atomic number (Ae looking up its atomic number in the periodic table. GO links For more information on the patterns in te perlocic table, ‘s9e C1 1.3 The arrangement of electrons in atoms. Poa © Atoms are made of protons, eta ead Deke bakes) electric charges. Protons ‘are positively charged, and Sey Cire ear) charge. They are neutral. a Sei (= numberof electrons) De ea [iccobdiadidaa dubouleal Ne ny Pde econ Psdeu ead ea eh Boel uke ad OT ueel Cre aL od energy level of an atom ee ry periodic table? Ol Cee at sd Cera Cee ou fake © Why are the atoms of Ce td Meer Figure 1 A simple way of representing the arrangement of elections inthe fa carbon alom Wwe ‘Make sure that you can draw the electronic structure af the ‘ators for all of the first 20 elements. You will always be civen their atomic number or ‘their position in the poricdic table (which tells you the umber of electrons) —s0 you don't have to memorise these numbers, Fundamental ideas The arrangement of electrons Ua oh es (One model of the atom which we use has electrons arranged around the rucleus in shells, rather like the layars of an onion. Each shell represents a different energy level. The lowest energy level is shown by the shell which is nearest to the nucleus. The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest availeble energy level (the shell closest to the nucleus). ‘@ Where are the electrons in an atom? b Which sholl roprosonts tho lowest onergy level in an atom? Electron shell diagrams () ‘We can draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in an atom. A carbon atom has 6 protons, which means it has 6 electrons. Figure 1 shows how we represent an atom of carbon, ‘An energy level (or shell) can only hold a certain number of electrons. e ‘The first, and lowest. energy level holds 2 electrons. @ The second energy level can hold up to 8 electrons. © Ones there are & electrons in the third eneray level, the fourth begins to fil up, and so on, To save drawing atoms all the time, we can write down the numbers of electrons in each energy level. This ie called the electronic structure, For ‘example, the carbon atom in Figure 1 has an electronic structure of 2,4. Aslicon atom with 14 electrons has the electronic structure 2,84, This represents 2 electrons in the first, and lowest, energy level, then B in the next energy level, There are 4 in the highest energy level (its outermost shell) ‘The best way to understand these arrangements is to look at soma examples. 1 23 26 Hydropen H Boron B Oygend 28,1 288 28,82 Sedium Na ‘argon ar calaum Ga Figure 2 Once you know the pattem, you should be able to draw the eneray levals (shells) and electrons nary ofthe first 20 atoms (given their atomic number)ec © How many electrons can the first energy level hold? d. Whatis the electronic structure of sulfur (whose atoms contain 16 electrons)? Electrons and the periodic table Look at the elements in any one of the main groups of the periodic table. Their atoms will all have the same number of electrons in their highest energy level. These elactrons are often called the outer electrons because they are in the outermost shell. Therefore, all the elements in Group 1 have one electron in their highest energy level Penne Properties of the Group 1 elements Your teacher will show you the Group 1 elements lithium, sodium and potassium, Tho lemons in this group are called the alkali metals. Make sure you wear eye protection for all the demonstrations. © In what ways are the elements similar? ‘© Watch the'r reactions with water and comment on the similarities. reer igure 3 The Group 1 metals are all reactive metals, © You mightalso be shown their reactions with oxygen. ‘Figure The The chamical properties of an elemant depend on how many electrons it has. ‘The way an element reacts is determined by the number of electrons in its highest energy level (or outermost shel). So as the elements in a perticular group all have the sama number of alactrons in their highest energy leval, they all react ina similar way. For example: lithium + water lithium hydroxide + hydrogen sodium — + water > sodium hydroxide + hydrogen potassium + wator — potassium hydroxide + hydrogen The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the nable gases Do) because they are unreactive, Thelr alors have a very siable arrangement of SS electrons. They all havo & olectrons in their outormost sholl, except for helium, aS which has only 2 electrons. pe ‘Summary questions SSE TS Sa 1 Copy and complete using the wards below: ound electrons energy group nucleus shells piece eed) ee ‘than those close to the nucleus, All elements in the same. Ret el of the periodic table have the same number of... in their outermost No sllleadelid Rhodl ‘choll. Ce ou ae Using the periodic table, draw the arrangement of electrons inthe following atoms and label each one with its alactroniz structure. ot au »6bOlhCOUOPTCO noble gases (in Group 0) kaka 3 What is special about the electronic structure of neon and argon? SecsFundamental ideas Forming bonds Itis useful for us to know how atoms bond to each ether in difforont substances. Ithelos us to predict and explain thair properties. G eu ead elu Geckos ean etd Cee ees Ce Predicting what material to use ‘Ateam of research chemists and material scientists are working to make new ‘compound for the latzst surfboard. Knowing about chemical bonding will make the process of dasigning a new compound a lot quicker. Figure 1 Surfboards have to be ‘The substances used tomake a surfboard very strongand have a relatively have to be very strong (to wthstand large! rey forces) and have a relatively low density (to float on water). Chemists help dasign materials with suitable properties. They wil know bafore thay start which combinations of atoms might prove useful to Investigate. JA Examiner’s tip ‘When counting atoms, think of each symbol as a single aiom and the formula of each ion as a single ion. Small numbers ‘a chemical formula only multiply the symbol they follow. Brackets are needed when ‘there is more than one atom in the ion being multiolied. For ‘example, a hydroxide ion has the formula OH". So calcium hydroxide, in which Ga’* and OK” combine, has the formula ‘ca(Oh),. ‘Sometimes atoms react together by transferring electrons to form chemical bonds. This happans when metals react with non-metals. Ifthe reacting atoms are all non-metals, then the atoms share electrons to form chemical bonds. Forming ions When a metal bonds with a non-metal, the metal atom gives one or more electrons to the non-metal aiom. Both atoms become charged particles called ions. ‘© Motal atoms form positively charged ions (+). © Non-metal atoms form nagatively charged ions (-). Opposite charges attract each other. There are strong attractions between the positive and nagative ions in a compound of a metal and non-metal, These strong forces of attraction are the chemical bonds that form. They are called ionic bonds. Figure 2 The pocitive and negative ‘charge on the lons in compound balance each other, makng the total ‘charge 700 To see how ions are formed we can look at an example. Lithium metal will react with the non-metal fluorine. They make the compound lithium fluoride. Lithium atoms have 3 electrons, each negatively charged. As all atoms are neutral, we know It also has 8 positive protons in lis nucleus. The charges on the nagative electrons are balanced by the positive protons. When iithium reacts with fuorine t loses | electron. This leaves it with only 2 electrons, However there are stil3 protonsin the nucleus Therefore thelithium fan eames a+ charge. protons =ar 2electrans 2- Charge on ion We show the formula ofalitnium jon as LI ie The electron lost from ithium is accepted by a fluorine ator. A fluorine atom has 9 electrons end 9 protons, making the atom neutral. However, with the extra electron from lithium, ithas an extra + charge: 8 protons 10 electrons Charge on ion We show the formula of fluoride lon as F Notice the speliing — we have a fluorine atom which turns into ‘a negatively cnarged fuotide ion,In compounds between metals and non-metels, the charges on the ions always cancel each other out. This means that their compounds have no overall charge. So the formula of lithium fluoride is written as LiF. ‘a Potassium (} is a motal. It loses one oleciron whan it forms an ion. ‘What is the formula of a potassium ion? Forming molecules Non-metal atoms bond to each other in a different way. The outermost shells Cf thoir atoms evorlap and they share electrons. Each pair of shared aleotrons forms a chemical bond between the atoms. These are called covalent bonds. No ions are formed. They form molecules, such as hydrogen sulfide, H,S, and methane, CH, (see Figure 3) b What do we call the bonds between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in an ammonia molecule, NH,? Chemical formulae ‘The chemical formula of an ionic compound talls us the ratio of each type of fon in the compound, We use a ratio because when Ions bond together they form structures made of many millions of ions. The ratio depends on the charge on each ion. The charges must cancel each other out. ‘An example is magnesium chloride, Magnesium forms Mg® ions and chlorine forms Ci- ions. So the formula of magnesium chloride is MgCl. We have 2 chloride ions for every one magnesium ion in the compound (e00 Figure 4). In covalont molacules wa can just count the number of each type of atom in 2 ‘molecule to get its formula. Figure 3 shows two examples, Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: covalent lose gain ionic negative attract share positive Metal ators form ions because they ‘one or more electrons when they combine with non-metals. Non-metal atoms lactrons in the reaction, forming ions. The oppositely chargad lons each other. This is callad ....... bonding, When non-metals combine with each other, they form Their aloms ____.. electrons. bonds. Sodium (Na) ators lose one electron when thay combine with fluorine (PF). Each fluorino atom gains one olectron in the rozction. a What is the name of the compound formed when sodium reacts with fluorine? b Write down tho formula of a sodium ion and a fluoride ion. © What is the formula of the compound made when sodium reacts with fluorine. Hycrogen sue Figure 3 Thare are strong covelent bonds between the nonmetal ators ineach of hase molecules, Trese are shawn as ines botween each atom oF betwean the symbols f each atom inthe ‘molecule (H,Sand CH) Metiane Mu?) or) or Figure 4 Ths 2+ positve charge on the ‘magnesium on balances the two 1 - negative cherget on tha chloride ions in ‘magnesium chloride (MgCl) Conn out utkuk oad Cenc De hears Se iets) Seat Chi eda) Peed Coes Seta cos Ce ea) Cocos Toe hokculesced Cos) Cee Ce aac ‘oppositely charged ions pee aaa os echo Ded ee olectrons. This ie called eeeFundamental ideas Chemical equations &« Chemicel equations show the reactants (the aubstances we etart with) and the products (the new substances mada) of a reaction. eeu Kea Tek cu) Wo can roprosont the test for hydrogen gas using a word equation: li Lhasa hydrogen + exygon > water une (reactants) (product) ee eae Cad) LOTTE DO State what happens in a positive test for hydrogen cas. Cie ee ucd SP Se In chemical reactions the atoms get rearranged. You can think of them area ety ‘swapping partners’ Now you can investigate what happens to the mass of BASSET SENET) reactants compared with mass of products in a reaction. Practical Investigating the mass of reactants and ‘The precipitate (@ solic suspended inthe solution) products formed in the reaction is lead iodide, Pol, (oxic). You are given solutions of lead nitrate (toxic) and ¢ Pradiet a word equation for the reaction potassium iodide. «¢ How do you think that the mass of reactants Wearing chemical spiashproof eye protection, add a. compare with the mass ofthe products? smal volume of each solution together in 2 tact Uub®. Now plan an experiment to fest your answer to this ‘© What do you seo happen? quoction “The formuia of load rittateis Pb(NO,), and potassium iodide is KI. Using symbol equations helps us to see how much of each substance is reacting, Representing reactions in this way is better than using word equations, for three reasons. © Word equations are only useful ifeveryone who reads them speaks the ‘same language. © Word equations do not fell us how much ef each substance is involved in ‘the reaction. © Word equations can get very complicated when lots of chemicals are involved. For example, calcium carbonate decomposes (breaks down) on heating. We can show tho reaction using a symbol equation like this: Caco, -» CaO + CO, This equation is balanced — thoro is the samo number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation. This is very important, because atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. This also means that: ‘The total mass of the products formed in a reaction is equal to the total mass of the reactants. one. | See oO). its uses. equation is balanced.Ee Look at the chemical equation on the previous page. (a) that we start with musi be 2.8 + 2.2 (b+) which ‘We can work out the mass of CaCO, CaO or CO, given equals 5.0g. the masses of the other two compounds. Rearranging the equation for a, b and ewe got Because the total mass of the products formed ina a~c =. reaction is equal to the total mass of the reactants we So if the reaction starled with 100 tonnes of CaCO, (a) ccan writ: and it gave off 44 tonnes af CO, (c), _ 6260, > G20 + CO, Then the mass of CaO (b) made is 100-44 (ac) Mass= a b+ vse tonnes, So ifthe mass of CaO formed is 2.8g (b above) and the mass of CO, is 2.2 g (c above); the mass of CaCO, E Making an equation balance In the case of hycrogen reacting with oxygen itis not so easy to balance the equation. First of all we write the formula of each reactant and product: ca H, +0, 5H,0 unting the atoms on either side uation wo see that we have: BO Counting the atoms on either side of the equation we see that we h: es Reactants Products (00% enough 2H atoms, 2 0 atoms 2H atoms, 1 Oatom reectans ators) ‘So we need another oxygen atom on the product side of the equation. We n't simply change the formula of H,O to H,0,.. (H,O, — hydrogen peroxide Not balanced is @ bleaching agent which i certainly not suitable to drink’) But we can have 2water molecules in the reaction this is shown in a symbol equation as: H+ 0, > 2H,0 Counting the atoms on either side of the equation again we get: H+ O, Reactents Products trtenin | thy? 2H toms, 20 atoms 4H atoms, 2 0 atom Although the oxygen atoms are balanced, we now need two more hydrogen ‘atoms on the reactant side. We do this by putting 2 in front of H, ‘Sil not balanced! 2H, + 0, + 2H,0 Now we have: Reactants Products 4H atoms, 2.0 atoms 4H atoms, 2.0 atom ah 0, 70 +s» and the equation is balanced. © Balance the following equation: H, + Cl, > HCI ‘anced atest! Aimee toe read 1 Why must all symbo! equations be balancad? Soo 2 a Amass of 8.49 of magnesium carbonate (MgCO,) completely beara geanks decomposes when itis heated. It made 4.0g of magnesium oxide Paliaoriraheity = (MgO). What isthe total mass of carbon dioxide (CO,) produced in Coe ere this reaction? b Write a word equation to show the reaction in parta. ue each type of atom on each Pe ee : TGerOnsGa0 DATO ALO, ©Na+H0-NeoH +H, 101) [oor miaialigSummary questions @ 4 a What is the difference in the definitions of an elament and a compound? b The chemical formula of ethanol is written 2s C,H,OH. | How many atoms of hydrogen are there in an ethanol molecule? How many different elements are there in ethanol? ‘What i the total number of atoms in an ethanol molecule? 2 a Diawa table to show the relative charge on protons, neutrons and electrons. b inwhich part cf an atom do we find: | protons ii neutrons lit electrons. © | What is the overall charge on any atom? li Anitrogen atom has 7 protons. How many electrons does it have? @ This question is about the pericdic table of elements. ‘You will need to use the periodic table at the back of this, book to help you anewer some parts of the question. Argon (Av) is the 18th element in the periodic table. | Is argon a metal or a non-metal? Il Are thare more metals or non-metals in the periodic table? How many protons does an argon atom contain? Iv State the name and number of the group to which argon bolongs. v How many electrons dogs argon have in its highest energy level (outermost shell)? b The element barium (Ba) has 86 electrons. | How many protons are in the nucleus of each barium atom? How many electrons does a barium atom have in its highest nergy level (outormost shell? How did you decide on your answer? is barium a metal or anon-metal? @ The diagram below shows the arrangement of electrons in an atom, ‘a How many protons aro in tho nucleus of this atom? b Use the periodic table at tha back of this book to give the name and symbol of the element whose atom is shown here. © This element forms ions with a 1+ charge. 1 Whatis anion? How dos tho charge on the ion tell us whether the element above is a metal or non-metal? Describe what happens to the number of elections when the atom forms a 1+ ion lv Write the chemical formula of the fon, v_ This ion can form compounds with negatively, charged ions. What type of bonding will we find in these compounds? dA compound is formed when this element reacts with chlorine gas, i Whatis the name of the compound formed? Il Chloride ions carry a 1~ charge. Write the chemical formula ef the compound formod. ‘What is the missing number needed to balance the ‘following symbol equations? a 2Na+C,—... NaCl b 22n +O, > Zn © 1. Or +30, > 26r,0, d OH, + ....0, +800, + 44,0 IH] Balance the following symbol equations: a H+ Br, HBr b Mg +0, ->Mg0 © HO, +H,0 +0, dL +H.O>LIOH+H, ¢ NaNO, > NaNO, + 0, 1 Fe +0, Fe,0, [HI ‘When a mixture of iron and sulfur is heated, a compound, called iron sulfide is rade. Inan experiment 2.89 of iron made 4.49 of iron sulfide. @ What mass of sulfur reacted with the 2.8g of iron? b Explain how you worked out your answer to part a.End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 7 Us numbers from the list to complete the table to show the charge on each subatomic partice. 42 410-1 2 ‘Subatomic particle electron Charge neutron proton @ 2 Use the periodic table at the back of your book to help you to answar this quastion ‘a How mary protons are in an atom of fuorina? (1) b How many elections are inan atom of carbon? (1), © Complete the electronic structure of aluminium: 28, a d Whatis tho oloctronic structure of potassium? (1) 8 Noon is a noble gas. ‘@ What does this tell you about its electronic structure? ay b Draw a diagram to show the electronic structure of neon, @ @ a Magnesium has the electronic structure 2.8,2. Explain, in terms ofits electronic structure, why magnesium is in Group 2 of the poriodic table. wy b Give one way in which the electronie structures of the atoms of Group 2 elements are: [the same 1 ifforent. a © When magnesium is heated in air it burns witha bright flame and produces magnesium oxide. Calcium is also in Group 2. Doscribe what you oxpoct to happen and what would be produced when calcium is heeted in ar. @ 5 Sodium reacts with water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. The word equation for this reaction is ‘sodium + water — sodium hydroxide + hydrogen a Name one substance in this equation that is: 1 anelement w ‘a.compound «) has ionic bonds a) iv has covalent bonds « b 112.39 of sodium reacted with 1.89 of water, what ‘would be the total mass of eodium hydroxide and bydrogen produced? Explain your answer. ® ¢ Balance the symbol equation for this reaction Nat HO+ NaOH +H, [H1 (1) d Lithium isin the same group of the periodic table as, sodium. i. Write a word equation for the reaction of lithium with water. iO) What is the formula of lithium hydroxide? a) How many atoms are shown in the formula of lithium hydroxide you have written? 0)Figure 1 St Paul's Catnedtal in London is uit fom limestone blacks halk is a form of limestone, It vas formed milions of years ago from the skeletal remains of tiny sea piants called coocaliths. Thay were deposited on the seabed between 65 and 130 million years ago. It has been atimated that i took almost 4100000 years to lay down each metre of chalk in a clif face. CO links For information on the formutae of compounds mace up of ions, look S- at C7 1.4 Forming bonds. Limestone is @ rock that is made mainly of ‘Some types of limestone were formed from the remains of tiny animals and plants that lived in the sea millions of years ago. We dig limestone out of the ground in quarries all around the world. It has many uses, including its use as a building material. Many important buildings around the world are made of limestone. We can cut and shape the stone taken from the ground into blocks. These can be placed ‘one on top of the other, lke bricks in a wall. We have used limestone in this way fo make buildings for hundreds of years. Powdered limestone can also be heated with powdered clay to make ‘When we mix cement powder with water, sand and crushed rock, a slow chemical reaction takes place. The reaction produces a hard, stone-like building materiel called Figure 3 This bulding contains plenty of iemade from limestone Figure 2 Those white clifs are mace ‘of chal. Thi is ono type of imeatone, ferred rom the shel oftiny sea plants. ‘a Whatis the main compound found in limestone? How do we use limestone to make buildings? ‘The chamical formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO,, Itis made up of calcium ions, Ca®*, and carbonate ions, CO,*". The 2+ and 2~ charges tell us that there are the same number of calcium ions and carbonate ions in calcium carbonate, Remember that the charges on the ions cancal out in compounds. When we heat limestone strongly, the calcium carbonate breaks down to form ccaloium oxide. Carbon dioxide is also produced in this reaction. Breaking ‘down a chemical by heating Is called ‘We can show the tharmal decomposition reaction using the following equations: hat Word equation: calcium carbonate — calcium axide + carbon dioxide Balanced symbol Caco, + Cad + 0, equation: The calcium oxide made is elso a very useful substance in the building and farming industries.Practical Thermal decomposition In this experiment you can carry out the reaction that takes place in a lime kiln, ‘Safety: Make sure the rubber tube is tightly secured to the gas tap and the Bunsen burner before starting the experiment. Do not ovarstretch the tubing. Do not touch the decomposed caroonate as itis corrosive. Wash your hands if you get any chemicals on them. Wear eye protection. Place a limestone chip on a tripod and gauze. Using a roaring ame, hold the base of the Bunsen bummer and heat a limestone chip strongly from the side, It's best Ifthe tip of the blue cone of the flame heats the limestone directly. You will see signe of a reaction happening on the surface af the limestone. ‘© What do you see happen as the limestone is heatad strongly? A rotary lime kiln ‘To make lots of calcium oxide this reaction is done in a furnace called a lime kiln. We fil the kiln with crushed Imestone and heat it ¥ strongly using a supply of hot a, Limestone in —: Calcium oxide comes out of the foes Hot bottom of the kiln, Waste gases, including the carbon dioxide mada, leave the Kiln atthe top. Air carbon ddd Kiln rotates WW spate rns aun Calbum oxides on rosuced Sec a arotary kiln, where the limestone ‘ravals through the kin is heated in a rotating drum. This Figure 4 Calcium oxide i produced in a rotary line kiln makes sure that the limestone Is thoroughly mixed with the steam of hot air. Diinks This helps the calcium carbonate to decompose completely. For more information on the uses of ealoium oxide, ceo C1 2.9 The ‘limestone reaction cycle’ SETS rT 1 Copy and complete using the wards below: word building caicium cement concrete To ua uc kal Limestone is mostly made of......... carbonate (whose chemical formula calcium carbonate, is CaCO,). As well as making blocks of building meterial, limestone can Pere reer be used’o produce... and....... that are also used in the coterie industry 2 Produce a poster or PowerPoint presentation to show how limestone is DO ilee used in building. Rr 3. The stone roof of a building is supported by columns made of calcium oxide and carbon limestone. Why might this bo unsafe after a fire in the building? Explain Ce ae) the chemical reaction involved in weakening the structure. DOO LeBuildings and statuses made of limestone sufier badly from damage by acid rain. ‘You might have noticed statues where the fine features havo boon lost. Limestone is most calcium carbonate, which reacts with acid, A gas is given off in the reaction. 9 You can use a simple test to find out if the gas given off is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide tums solution cloudy. ‘The tast works as follows: @ Limewateris a solution of calcium hydroxide. Itis alkaline, © Garton dioxide is a weakly acidic Gas SO Figure 1 Limestone is attacked and it reacts with the alkaline limewater. éamagoe by acide ¢@ Inthis reaction tiny solid particles of insoluble calcium carbonate are ‘ormed as a precipitate. © The reaction 's calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide > calolun carbonate + water fimowater) {an insoluble procipitato) CaOH, + =O, Caco, + HO ‘Sculptures from the Parthenon (@ temple), built by the ancient Greeks in Athens, have had to be removed and replaced by copies to avoid any more damage from acid pollution from vehicle exhausts. © This preciptate of calclum carbonate makes the Imewater turn cloudy. ‘That's because light can no longer pass through the aolution with tiny bits of white solid suspanded in it a Whatis a preciptate? Carbonates react with acids to give a salt, water and carbon dioxide. For calcium carbonate the reaction with hydrochloric acid is: calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid + calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide ‘The balanced symbol equation is: CaCO, + 2HCI— CaCl, + H,0 + CO, Figure 2 The Partienen in Greece 1b Write a word equation for the reaction of magnesium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, 9 & up the ar tus as shown. fin a Sot up the apparat he hycrochleric % AY Vo eee S en, 7 ‘© What conclusion can you draw?Le Decomposing carbonates (3) In G1 24 we saw that limestone is made up mainly of calcium carbonate. This decomposes whan wa heat ft. The reaction produces calcium oxida and carbon dioxide. Calcium s an element in Group 2 of the periodic table. As we have already soon, the elements in a group tond to behave in the same way. ‘So, does magnesium carbonate also decompose when you heat it? And what about other carbonates too? © Why might you expect magnesium carbonate to behave ina similar way to caloium carbonata? eel Investigating carbonates ‘You can investigate the thermal decompositon of carbonates by heating samples ina Bunsen flame. You wil have samples of the carbonates listed below. Powdered carbonate samples: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, ‘magnesium carbonate, zinc cerbcnate, copper carbonate ‘© What observations might tell you if a sample decomposes when you heat it? © How could you test any gas givon off? Plan an investigation to find out how easily different carbonates decompose. © How will you try to make ita fair test? ‘© How will you make your investigation safe? Before you start any practical work, your teacher must check your plan. Safety: Itis importantto remove the dalivary tube from the imewater before ‘Figure a vestgeing the ermal You stop heating tne carbonate. if you dom’, the cold limewater willbe ‘sucked “eComsiton of «solid ‘back’ into the hot boiling tube causing it to mash. You must wear eye protection when doing this practicel. Investigations like this show thai many etal carbonates decompose when ‘thoy aro heated in 2 Bunsen flame. They form tho motal oxide and carbon dioxide — just as calcium carbonate does. Sodium and potassium carbonate do not decompose at the temperature of the Bunsen flame. They need a higher temperature Magnesium carbonate decomposes lika this: magnesium carbonate > magnesium oxide + carbon dioxice MgcO, = > MgO +} CCO, Roa - eet Emre ete Perens kes] 1 Give a general word equation for: Cece ‘tho reaotion of a carbonate plus an acid Te a b the thermal decomposition of a carbonate. Perera 2 Write a word equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate with dilute co Npce ee Ten hydrochloric acid, Gocrpelpet = 3 The formula of zine carbonate is 2n00,. 2 2 Zine carbonate decomposes whan heated, giving zinc oxide and Olea carbon dioxide. Write the balanced equation for this reaction. [11] decompose on heating to bb Write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction of zinc carbonato Seo) with dilute hydrochloric acid. [H] Ch ataeeu Kea eal Die ute) ray Peete FXQQA Examiner's tip Make sure that you know the limestone reaction oycle and the equations for each reaction CO links For information on the test for carbon dioxide, look back at 01 2.2 a of carbonates. Rocks and building materials The ‘limestone reaction cycle’ (« Limestone is used very widely as a building material. We can also use it to make other materials for the construction industry, ‘Aa we sew in C1 2.1 calcium oxide is made when we heat limestone strongly. ‘The calcium carbonate in the limestone undergoes thermal decomposition. ‘When we add water to calcium oxide it reacts to produce ealeium hydroxide, ‘This reaction gives outa lot of heat. calcium oxide + water > calcium hydroxide C20 + HO > Ca(OH), Although itis net very soluble, we can dissolve a little calcium hydroxide in water. After filtering, this produces 2 colourless solution called limevrater. We can use limewater to test for carbon dioxide, ‘@ What subsiance do we get when calcium oxide reacts with water? by Doscribe how wo can make imawator from caloium hydroxide. Ere ene the ‘limestone reaction cycle’ (9) — cabsium [a] ie N ae 4 oS patria poe ca Bunsen Boiling ‘bumer cal Couress |) fitte d cf imewatr / Calcium fycroie ard Wat ungectd calcium carbonate Heat the calcium carbonate chip very strony, making tt glow. Make sure you are wearing eye protection. The greater the area cf the chip that glows, the better the rest of the experiment wil be. This reaction produces calcium oxide (corrosive). Let the calcium oxide cool down. Then, using tongs, add itto the empty boiling tube. Then you add a fow crops of water to the calsium oxide, one drop at a time, This teaction produces calcium hydroxide. When you dissolve this calcium hydroxide in more water and fiter, i produces Imewater. Carbon dioxide bubbled through the Imewater produces calcium ccarbenata. This tums the solution cloudy. ‘© The reaction between calcium oxide and water gives out a lot af energy. What do you observe during the reaction? ‘© Why does bubbling carbon dioxide through limewater make the solution go cloudy?ee a ‘The reactions in the experiment can be shown on a flow diagram: ‘The saying ‘to bein the limalight’ originated from the step Limestone step theatre, well betore the days er ep of electricity. Stagos wors lit Add carbon cxite Heat # oloctricty. Stagos woro lit (tisis to ‘est forC0,) Carton cosce up by heated limestone before vin of electric or gas lamps were invented. Calcium carbonate Calcium tyeroxce mare Calcium oxide Limowator ‘Step 3 Step? Add more water Ad aie water and ther Calcium tycrodide Figure 1 The limestone reaction cycta" Neutralising acids Calcium hycroxide is an alkali. It reacts with acids in 2 neutralisation reaction, ‘The products of the reaction are @ calcium salt and water. Calcium hydroxide is used by farmers to improve seil that is acidic. Becausa it is an alkali, it will raise the pH of aoidic soll. I is also used to neutralise acidic waste gases in industry before releasing gases into the air. Summary questions Copy and completa using the words balow: carbon limewater hydroxide carbonate water oxide When limestone is heated, the calcium in it decomposes to PrOdUCE CALCIUM en. €?N nn GlOXide gas. If calcium oxide is reacted with water, calcium... is preduced. Whon wo add more rm 5 and filter we make a solution of calcium hydroxide called : a/c) Deseriba and explain the positive tast or carbon diaxide gas. Include a ‘© When water is added to word equation in your answer. (See C1 2.2). Se aed ‘2 When calcium oxide reacts with water, calcium hydrox Rall alten produced. Write a word equation and a balanced symbol equation to ore show the reaction tH] ey) b Calcium hydroxide is an alkali soit reacts with acids, pees 1 Give one use of calcium hydroxide thet reies on this reaction. i 7 ‘ ‘© The reactions of limestone ji What do we call this type of reaction? Sees Why co we refer to the savies of reactions in the practical box on the et al previous page as the limestone reaction cycle’? Dna te toedFigure 2 The original ime moriar has ‘ake away tram the suriace ofthe Sphine in Egypt, anc many of the stones af now missing ‘About 6000 years ago the Egyptians heated limestone strongly in aire and then combined it with water. This produced a material that hardened with ago. Thay usad this material to plaster the pyramids. Nearly 4000 years later, the Romans mixed calcium hydroxide with sand and water to produce ‘Mortar holds other building material's together —for example, stone blocks or bricks. It works because the lime in the mortar reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, producing calcium carbonate again. This means that the bricks or stone blocks are effectively held together by rock. celcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide + calcium carbonate + weter caOH, = + CO, CaCO, + HO ‘Tne amount of sand in the mixture is very important. Too litle sand and the mortar shrinks as it drias. Too much sand makes it too week, Even tocay, mortars still used widely as a building material. However, modern mortars, made with cement in place of calcium hydroxide, can be used in a much wider range of ways than lime mortar,Cement Although lime mortar holds bricks and stone together very strongly, it does have some disadvantages. For example, lime mortar does not harden very quickly. Itwill not set at all whore water prevents it from reacting with carbon dixie. ‘Then people found that heating limestone with clay in a kiln produced cement. Much experimenting led to the invention of Portland cement. This is manufactured from 2 mixture of limestone, clay and other minerals. Thay aro heated and then ground up into a fina powder. ‘This type of cament is stil in use today. The mortar used to build a modern house is made by mixing Portland cement and sand. This sets when itis mixed thoroughly with water and left for a few days. ‘a What does lime mortar need in order to set hard? b Why will ime mortar not set under water? Concrete ‘Sometimes builders adc small stones or crushed rocks, called aggregate, to ‘the mixturo of water, coment and sand, When this sots, it forms a hard, rock. like building material called concrete. ‘This material is very strong. to squash or crush it. We can make concrete even stronger by pouring the \wet micture around steel rads or bars and then allowing it to set. This makes reinforced concrete, which is also good at resisting forces that tend to pull It apart. Gee Which mixture makes the strongest concrete? Try mixing different proportions of cement, gravel and sand, then adding water, to find out how to make the strongest concrete. © How can you test the concrete’s strength? © How could you improve the qualty of the data you collect? Emre ero 1 Copy and complete using the words below: mortar concrete clay sand bricks ‘Cement is made in industry by heating limestone with Itean be mixed with sand to produca........., used to hold building materials like in piace. An even stronger material is made by mixing cement, snes aNd aggregate to make. 2 List the different ways in which limestone has been used to build your home or school, 3 Concrete and mortar are commonly used building materials. Evaluste the use of: concrete to make @ path rather than using mortar b mortar to bind bricks to oach othor rather than using conorete. especially good atresisting forces which tend ‘The Romans realised that they naedad to add something to lime mortar to make it set in wot conditions. They found that ‘adding brick cust or volcanic ash improved ite setting. The modified mortar mixture could harden even under water. This method remained in use until the 18th century, Figure 3 Portland cement was invented neatly 200 years ago. I i i faround the world today,Limestone is a very useful raw material, bbut mining for limestone can affact the local community and environment, a Limestone is quarried from the ground. | Wa ‘Aquarry forme a huge hole in the Pipes trial ground. The limestone is usually blasted from a quarry by explosives. Then its Figure 1 Limestongis often found in ‘taken in giant lorries to be processed. eauiful countryside. Quavrying the limestone scars the landscape. ‘Much of the limestone goes to cement factories which are often found near the quarry. Explosive charges are used to dislodge limestone from the rock face. This is known as blasting. Aa wall as scarring the landscape the blasting noise scares off wildlife and can disturb local residents. Eventually a huge crater is, formed. These can later be fled with water and can be used as a reservoir for leisure activitios. Thero is also the possibility of use as landfil sitos for housshold rubbish before covering with soil and replanting. Figure 2 Explosive charges are used! to logge mectene from the rock face Alarge mining company wants to open a new limestone quarry on the eC pee Tonal Park Look athe ews offeent people alected by AGH jon to allow the quarry or nat. wo'vo bor quary: eee Take the role of one of tha people shown and debate the issues involved. Assign a chairperson to make sure each person gats their say. © Write your own response to the planning application in a letter to the mining company’s managing director aftor your debate. “acest! igre “This quary wid beable w get ‘ebviowsy dost lob arcurd the habtate hore! Iwas ‘of bis and ‘born hora and Gnimais. Arco I raaly dont ‘Spootes ortoas want to leave” ‘fauna near tte proposed sit.” ‘¥m woned about all the dust hat wit otto ‘nm erops. Thy won't grow the seme, ‘Well bo able to supply limestone forthe glass, ‘Stel end coment nasties Ys region TON. WO smnotomnes ‘predict wellbe quanying here fer 10 years then, 0 wal andscapo the erator befere moving on canying tmestone wil have 00. Straight thraugh our village. My daughters ‘primary sohoe! fs ‘onthe main road.’ “hi gota lotmore ete reckoeeoae iho quary. {might sao Sendutches and empoy SS Soroane nate on rosy oe eachDevelopments in limestone, cement and concrete Bathioom tiles have traditionally been made from ceramics with a glazed finish ‘to mako thom watorproot. They aro vory hard wearing, Nowadays more tiles are made trom natural stone, such as travertine. These look very attractive with each iile having unique markings. However, travertine tiles are porous and can be easily scratched. They need to be sealed with a waterproof coating, Cement is used to make mortar and conerate on building sites. Before cement mortar was invented, bullders used lime mortar. However, this takes much longer to set fully than cement mortar, especielly in wet conditions. The restoration of old buildings stil needs lime mortar ta repair brickwork. Often the old buildings have shallow, if any, foundations. Their brick walls are rnuch ‘more likely to move than modorn buildings. With hard coment mortar this results in cracking along weak points in the walls. However, Ime mortar offers more flexibility and will not crack as easily. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. The manulacture of cement contributes about §% of the CO, gas produced by humans emitted into the air. About half of this comes from burning fuels used to heat the kilns that decompose limestone. The rest comes from the reaction itself: calcium carbonate — calcium oxide + carbon dioxide Using lime mortar would contribute less to carbon dioxide omissions as it absorbs CO, asit sets. Concrete is the world's most widely used building material. Concrate was first reinforced using a wire mesh to strengthen it. Nowadays we can also use: © glass fibres @ carbon ‘fibres @ steol rode @ poly(propene), nylon, polyostors and Kevlar. ‘Some of the latest research uses pulp from wood, plants and reeycled paper. A\littlo recycled paper can improve conoreto's resistance to cracking, impact (making it tougher) and scratching. These reintorcing materials are shredded into small pieces before adding them to the concrete mixture. Itis much cheaper to use reinforced concrete to make a bridge than to make itfrom iron or steel. However, steel is much strongar (harder to snap) than concrete. Over long spans, suspension bridges can use steel’s high-tensile strength in cables between conerete towers. This will support the cheap reinforced concrete sections of bridges on which cars travel. Short span bridges will always be made from reinforced concrete because of lls low cost. BME ed 1 Give one effect of starting up anew limestone quarry in a National Park in oach of the following: a an environmental effect b asocial effect an economic effect. ‘Anew material has boon developed called ConGlassCrete. it has largo: piecas of recycled glass embedded into concrete. Its surface is polished ‘smooth which gives a very attractive finish. Give one environmental advantage and one disadvantage of using ConGlassCrate instead of slate as a building material. Figure 3 Traverine is a form of limeatone, Becauea ‘ravertne ie made Lup mainly of calcium carbonate, tles and worktops can be damaged by acdk> solutions, CO links For information on how line mortar reacis with CO, when selling, Took back at C1 2.4 Cement and concrete. Figure 4 The ales high performance cconcretes give architects new ‘ppaitunities when designing buicings © There are good and bad points about querrying for ee ed ea Kec A eat) landscape. concrete all have useful Ext eee ae) processing of limestone and Cake Seuss ad Cee usGoer c i mec Summary questions @ @ In the process of manufacturing cement, calcium carbonate is broken down by heat. a1 Write a word equation to show the reaction that, happens inside a lime kin, What do we call this type of reaction? b Draw a diagram to show how you could test for the gas given ott in the reaction described in part a. © Write a word equation to show the reaction between calcium exide and water. (2 Wrte balanced symbol equations for he reactions in Question 1 parts aand c. tH (@ a How is imoston turnod into coment? b Given cement powder, how would you mak: i mortar it concrete? @ Potassium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, Tho gas given off gives a positive test for carbon dioxide. ‘a Wiite a word equation and a balanced symbol equation to show the reaction between potassium carbonate, K,CO,, and dilute hydrochioric acid. [+1] b Describe what you see in a positive test for carbon ionic ¢ Explain your observations made in part, Include a ‘word equation in your anewer. ¢ Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction in parte tal (2 Hore is. sot of instructions for making concrete: "To make good, strong concrete, theroughly mix together + 4 buckets of gravel +S buokats of sand + 1 bucket of cement When you have done this, acd half @ bucket of water” Design and filin a table to shaw the percentage of each substance in the concrete mixture. Give your velues to the nearest whole numer. b Describe an investigation you could use to find out which particular mixture of gravel, sand and cement makes the strongest concrete. What would you vary, what would you keep the same and how would you test the ‘strangth’ of the concrete? Paes ein an investigation into the behaviour of carbonates, a sludent draws the following conclusions when he heats samples of caroonates with 2 Bunsen burner: Calelum carbonate ‘Sodium carbonate Potassium carbonete Magnesium carbonate Zine carbonal2 Coppar carbonate: (V = decomposes, X = does not decompese Safi o)s) ‘@ What was the independent variable in the investigation? b To which group in the periodic table do sodium and potassium belong? ¢ To which group in the periodic table do magnesium and calcium belong? d What do these conclusions suggest about the behaviour of the carbonates of elements in Group 1 and Group 2? @ Can you be certain about your answer to question d?, Give reasons. 1 Write a word equation for the thermal dacomposition of copper carbonate. g Write a balanced symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of magnesium carbonate. TH]Erm ror ced AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 Use words from the list to complete the sentences. caicium carbonate calcium hydroxide eaicium oxide carbon dioxide Limestone is mainly made of the compound When limestone is heated strongly it decomposas producing the gaa and solid = When the solid reacis with water it produces . 4 2 Match the compounds in the list with the descriptions. caicium carbonate copper carbonate sodium carbonate zine carbonate ‘@ When heated with a Bunsen burner it does not decompose. a b It decomposes when heated to givezinc oxide. (1) ¢ itis a blue solid that produces a black solid when heated, a) ¢ it can be heated with clay to make cement. a 3) Limestone blocks are damaged by acid rain, Use words from the list to complete the sentences. cissolves escapes produces reacts Calcium carbonate in the imestone with acids in the rain. With sulfuric acid it calcium sulfate, carbon dioxide and water. The carbon cioxide into tho air. Tho calolum sulfato inthe rainwater, 4 @ A student wanted to make calcium oxide from limestone. ‘The student heated a piece of limestone strongly in a Bunsen burner flame. ‘@ Complete the word equation for the reaction that, happened: calcium carbonate — calcium oxide + a ‘The student wanted to be sure he had made calcium cxide. Ho crushed tho heated limastone and added water. The mixture got hot. The student cooled the mixture and fitered it. This gave « colourless solution and a white solid that was left in the filter paper. b The student added universal indicator to the colourless solution and it turned purple. i Name the compcund in the solution that causes the indicator to turn purple. w Explain how the student's observations show that he had made some calcium oxide by heating Iimastone. @ ¢ The student addad dilute hydrochloric acid to the ‘white solid from the filter paper. ‘The misture fizzed and producad a gas that tumed limewater cloudy. i What doos this tell you about the white solid? (1) ji Was the student successful in changing al of the limestone into calcium oxide? Explain your answer. a d Write balanced equations for the three chemical reactions that the student did. [x] @) eb} Residents living near a cement works are concemed because more children ave sutfering asthma attacks. Rasidents have also noticed that parked cars are becoming dirty because of smoke particles from the chimney. ‘The table shows the possible medical risk from smoke Particles. Particle alze In mm Larger than 0.8 No medical risks known 0.3 and emailer Causes aethma attacks 0.2and smaller May cause cancer Itis also recommended that to avoid damage to health, the concentration of any particles should be no higher than 2 parts por milion (ppm). Scientists were brought in to moniter the emissions from the cement works’ chimnay. They positioned four sensors around the cement works to monitor airborne emoke particles, o @ sul cireoton of wind ‘Osment ® Local esidorts 3 lneinths area cirney ‘Sensor. a & ‘These four sensors only detect particle sizes larger than 0.5mm and measure the concentration of particles in Ppm. The scientis's reported that the particle sensors showed that the average concentration of particles was 1.8 ppm. The eciontists concluded that there was no risk to health, a Suggest two reasons why the local rasidents objected lo the positions of the four sensors. @ b What evidence did the scientists use to conclude that there was no risk to health? a) © The local residents were stil concerned that there was a risk to health. Suggost three reasons why. @ QA, 2009 47Metals and their uses Extracting metals Metals have been important to people for thousands of years. You can follow the course of history by the materials paople usec. Starting from the Stone eeu Kea Eee eee Age, we go lo the Bronze Age (copper/tin) and then on to the ron Age. roe 2 oboe Whero do metals come from? (3 Melais are found in the Earth's crust. We find most metals combined chemically with other chemical elements, ofton with oxygen. This moans that the metal must be chemically separated trom its Compounds before you can use Potasm 4 Most reactive In some places there is enough of a metal or soso metal compound in arock to make it worth extracting the metal. Then we cal the rack a ation metal ore. Gres are mined trom the grounc. Some need to be concentrated before he stagsiom metal is extracted and purifiec. For example, Copper ores are ground up into a powder. The param thoy aro mixed wih water anc achemical that eng makes the copper compound repel water. Air “mn is then bubbled through the mixture end the Frguret Tre angalotte orm ange copper compound foalson top as a roth. The lon seem actel Neeoteciweclane, rocky bits sink end the concentrated copper Gerla sara ammuntt copper Compound is scraped off the top. itis then ready ‘in to have its copper extracted Whether itie worth extracting a particular metal Leas depends on Gold in Wales is found in P , copper came [atitocoel atthough | © howeasyitisto extractt from ts ore rot as thick, unfortunately! © how much metal the ore contains. sir Sele semen was worn Be ‘Thess two factors can change over time. For carly Welsh prinoos as a badge i ae ag ere , carly Welsh pincas ce abadge | exape, anew, chaeper metod might be Gots ank. Welsh gold has been | scoyered for extracting a metal, We might also Lned in moderntines to meke | crovera iow way to edracta metal eicently pain \//_ Lens eaten ‘the wedding rings of royal brides, from rock which contains only small amounts Figure 2 Tha voachity eoroe of a metal ore. An ore that was once thought of sows how reactive each as ‘low grade’ could then become an economic _elementis compared to the Source of a metal. other elements Afew metals, such as gold and silver, are so unreactive that they are found in the Earth as the metals (elements) themselves. We say that they exist in their native stato, Sometimes a nugget of gold is so large it can simply be picked up. At other times tiny flakes have to be physically separated from sand and racks by panning. If there is enough metal in a rook to make it economic to extract it, what do wo eall the rook? Figure 3 Penning for gol. Mud and ‘ i Cee oe a i ase __B Why is gold found as the meial rather than combined with other a wmains nthe pan elements in compounds?How do we extract metals? (9) ‘The way that we extract a metal depends on its place in the reactivity series. The reactivity series lists the metals in order of their reactivity (see Figure 2). ‘The most reactive are placed at the top and the least reactive at the bottom. ‘Amore reactive metal wil displace a less reactive metal from its compounds, Carbon (a non-metal) will also displace less reactive metals from their oxides. ‘We use carbon to extract some metals from thelr ores in industry. © Armeial cannot be extracted from its ore using carbon. Where is this metal in the reactivity series? ‘We can find many metals, such as copper, lead, iron and zinc, combined with ‘oxygen. The compounds are called metal oxides. Because carbon is more reactive than each of these metals, we can use carbon to extract the metals, from their oxides. ‘We must heat the metal oxide with carbon. The earbon removes the oxygen from the metal oxida to form carbon dioxide. The metal is also formed, as the element: metal oxide + carbon + metal + carbon dioxide: For example: lead oxide + carbon + lead + carton dioxide 2PbO + C— 2Pb + CO, ‘We call the removal of oxygen from a compound chemical reduction. ‘d_ What do chamists moan when thoy say that a metal oxide is reducad? Moials that are more reactive than carbon aro not extracted from their ores by reduction. Instead they are extracted using electrolysis. Eine 1 Copy and complete using the words balow: crust lead extracted native elements reduced Metals come from the Earth's. . Some metals are very unreactive and are found as......... in their... state. Metals, such as zing, iron. and ...... are found combined with oxygen in compounds. These metals can be ........ using chemical reactions. The metal oxides are ‘as oxygen is removed from the compound. Define the ward ‘ore. Platinum is never found combined with oxygen. What does this tell you abeut its reactivity? Give a use of platinum that denends on this, property. Zine oxide (ZnO) can be reduced to zinc by heating it in a furnace with carbon, Carbon monoxide (CO) is given off in the reaction. ‘a Write a word equation for the raduction of zine oxide. b Now write a balanced symbol equation for the reacton in part a. [HJ EE Practical Reduction by carbon Heat some copper oxide carbon powder in a test tube, gently at first then more strongly, Empty the contants into an evaporating dish. ‘You can repeat the experiment with lead oxide and carbon if you havo a fume cupboard to work in, © Expiain your observations. Include a word equation ora balanced symbol equation. Pt eed Cr kuna Decora ac) Ce rd ean ke) Perec lec Pec Di) Pues ree Dunc es Sd Petia extract a metal from its ore. Se ead Cee tol) reduced by carbon to give Pe eas Dal Seether) Deceit iayFigure 1. The iron which has just come autola bast fimace contains about 96% iron, The main impusity ie carson Figure 2 Low carbon steel called mild By. 'S easily pressed nia shapes Iron ore centains iron combined with oxygen in iron oxide. Iron is loge reactive than carbon, So we can extract iron by using carbon to remove oxygen from the iron(a) oxide in the ore, We extract iron in a ‘Some of the iron(u) oxide reacts with carbon. The carbon reduces iron(1) ‘oxide, forming moltan iron and carbon dioxide gas. This is one of the reduction reactions which takes place in a blast furnace: iron) oxide + carbon — iron + carbon dioxide Iron straight from the blast furnace has limited uses. It contains about 96% iron and contains impurities, mainly carbon. This makes it very brittle, although it is vary hard and can't he easily compressed. When motten it can be run into ‘moulds and cast into different shapes. This Is used to make wood- buming stoves, man-hole covers on roads, and engines. ‘We can treat the iron from the blast furnace to remove some of the carbon. Removing all the carbon and other impurities from cast iron gives us pure Iron, This Is very soft and easily-shaped. However, IIs 100 soft for most uses. Iwo want to make iron reelly useful wo have to make sure that it contains tiny amounts of other elements. These include carbon and matals, such as nicke| and chromium, ‘We call a metal that is mixed with other elements an is an alloy of iron. By adding elements in carefully controlled amounts, ‘we can change the properties of the steel ‘@ Why Is iron froma blast furnace very brite? Why is pure iron not very useful? © How do we contrcl the properties of steal? ‘Steel s nota single substance. Like al alloys, tis a mixture. There are lots of, difforent types of steel. All of them are alloys of iron with carbon andlor other elements, ‘The simplest steels are the . We make these by removing most of tho carbon from cast iron, just leaving small amounts of carbon (from 0.03% to 1.5%). These are the cheapest steels to make. We use them in many products, such as the bodies of cars, knives, machinery, ships, containers and structural steel for buildings. Often these carbon steels have small amounts of other elements in them as well. High carbon steal, with a relatively high carbon content, is very strong but brittle. On the other hand, low carbon steel! Is soft and easily shaped. Itis not a strong, but ie much leas Ikely to shattor on impact with a hard object. Mild steel is one type of low carbon steel. It contains less than 0.1% carbon. Itie vory eacily proceed into shape. This makes it particularly useful in mass production, such as making car bodies.Alloy steels Low-alloy steels are more expensive than carbon stee's bacause they contain between 1% and 5% of other metals. Each of these metals produces a steel ‘that is well-suited for a particular usa. Figure 3 The properties of sts alloys meke thern ideal for usein suspension bildges Even more expensive are the high= alloy steele, Thase contain a much higher percentage of other metals. The chromium-nickel steels are known as stainless steels. We use them to make cooking utensils and cutlery. They are also used to make chemical reaction vessels. That's because thay combine hardness and sirengih with great resistance to corrosion. Unlike most other steels, they do not rust! ln Figure 4 The propattias 0 sainless ‘Sols make them idea! for making Utensils anc eationy 4 Copy and completa the following sentences using the terms below: carbon pure steel cast reduced Iron) oxida is........ fhas its exygen removed) in a blast furnace. Iron from the blast furnace, poured into moulds and loft to solidify is called... ron. lf all the carbon and othar impurities are remaved from cast iran we get ton, Iron that has been alloyed with carbon and other elements is called... Iron that contains just a small percentage of carbon is called steel. 2 How doos cast iron differ from puro iron? 3 a Make a table to eummerise the properties and some uses of low carbon steel, high carbon steel and chromium-nickel steal, b Why are surgical instruments made from steel containing chromium and nickel? ‘We use nickel-stee! alloys to build long-span bridges, bicycle chains and miltary armour-plating. That's becauso they are very resistant to stretching forces. Tungsten steal operates well under very hol conditions so itis used to make high-spaed tocls such as cil bits. WW Know how the hardness of steals is related to their carbon content. ON uueuleiea) Pe Leu becca) ees Seed ede eels Cc eke) oe eel fount ‘with different properties, ee are: Se eicakes Sala) ee Stu Uc) Cn Seed resistant to corrosion,Metals and their uses PNT ema) , ae Aihough they are vary strong, many metals are also very dence. This means Learning objectives that we cannot use them ifwe want to make something that has to be both Tec ne strong and light. Examples are alloys for making an aeroplane or the frame of Cbd cd aracing bioycio. ete we nud asic afebot tong ard have alo desig Sens SEAM Surnncn'sdiastmns acnctocon tarcnesesetae atch acer not corrode. ied Dee i Properties and uses of aluminium Ce Aluminium is a silvery, shiry metal. itis surprisingly light for a metal as thas a relatively low density. It is an excellent conductor of eneray and electricity. We can also shape itand draw it into wires very exaly. Although aluminium is a relatively reactive metal, it does not corrode easily. This ie because the aluminium etoms at ite eurface react with oxygen in air. They form a thin layer of aluminium oxide. This layer stops any further corrosion taking place. Aluminium is not a particularly strong metal, but we can use it to form alloys. ‘These alloys are harcer, more rigid and stronger than pure aluminium, Because of thase proparties, we use alu goods. These include: drinks cans ium to make a whole range of cooking foil saucopans high voltago electricity cablos aeroplanes and space vahicles icycles. Figure 1 Wo uos aluminium alloys i frnake biogobs because ofthat a Why does aluminium resist corrosion? combination cflow censty andsrength bb How do we make aluminium stronger? Extracting aluminium Because alurinium is a reactive metal we cannot use carbon to displace it from its oxide. Instead we extract aluminium using electrolysis. An electric current is passed through molten aluminium oxide at high temperatures to break it down. First we must mine the aluminium ore, This contains aluminium oxide mixed with impuritias. Thon the aluminium oxido is separated ‘rom tha impuritios. The oxide must then be melted before electrolysis can take piace. Tho problem with using electrolysis to extract motals is that itis a very expensive process. That's because we need to use high temperatures to melt the metal compound. Then we also need a great deal of electricity to extract Figure 2 Wo use aluminium alloys to fikearcat Tealoyareatengyet the metal from its molten compound. There are also environmental issues to have a low densty so the plane can cary considar when using so much energy. ove passengers and cargaProperties and uses of titanium Titaniumis a silvery-white matal. IIs very strong and very resistant 10 corresion. Like aluminium it has an oxide layer on its surface that protects it Aithough itis denser than aluminium, itis less dense than most other metals. Titanium has a very high melting point - about 1860°C - so we can use it at very nigh temperatures. ‘We use titanium for: @ the bodies of high performance airoratt and racing bikes (because of its combination of strength and relatvaly low canstty) © parts oft engines (because it keeps its strength even at high temperatures) @ parts of nuclear reactors (where it can stand up to high temperatures and its ‘tough oxide layar means that it resists corcosian) @ replacement nip joints (because ofits low density, strength and resistance to corrosior), © What properties make titanium ideal to use reactors? jetengines and nuclear Extracting titanium Titanium is not particularly reactive, so we could produce it by displacing itfrom its oxide with carbon. But unfortunately carbon reacts with titanium metal making it very brittle. So we have to use amore reactive metal to displace titanium. We use sodium or magnesium, Howevar, bath sodium and magnesium have to be extacied by electrolysis themselves in the frst place. Before displacement of thanium can take place, the ttanium ore must be processed. This involves separating tho titanium oxide and converting it to a chloride. Then the chioride is distilled to purity it. Only then is it ready for the nium to be displaced by the scdium or magnesium. Each one of these: stops takes time and costs money. d_ Why do we need electricity to maker T aluminium and it thanium? ‘Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: corrode energy expensive high low oxide reactive strong Alurninium and tianium alloys are usetul as they are ........ and have @ suse Gonsity, Although aluminium is reactive, it does not because its surface Is coated with a thin, tough layer of aluminium, «Titanium does rot corrode because it is not very... and also has its oxide layer to protect it. We use large amounts of... the extraction of both metals from their ores which makes them... ‘The large number of steps involved in the extraction of the metals also contributes to their cost. Why is ttanium used to make artificial hip joints? ‘@ Explain the different reasone why carbon cannot be used to extrac aluminium, or ii titanium, b Name two processes in the extraction of aluminium that require large amounts of enargy. = Figure 2 We ean use ftanium inside the body as well as uiside. This is an artical hip jr, used to replace & natural joint damaged by dsease or wear ‘and teat CO links For more information on the environmental impact of extracting metals, see Cf 3.8 Metalic issues. ar ae eee ews Ce Tad Crh hated aluminium oxide to extract it eu Pe cue ee eae ees) a ee! many stages and requires DearMetals and their uses Extracting copper Extracting copper from copper-rich ores (9 eeu Kea ‘We extract mast of our copper from copper-rich ores. These are a limited CES Ren lnen) | 50urce and aein danger of running out C “ ‘There are two main methods usad to remove the copper from the ore. Ou @ In one method we use sulfuric acid to produce copper sulta‘e solution, ch eeceirer ily before extracting the copper. bow gemais creed) ‘© Tho othor process is called smolting (roasting). We heat copper ora very ee ‘strongly in a furnace with air to produce crude copper. For example, copper can be found in an ore callad chalcocite. This contains coppar(|) sulfide, Cu,S. If we heat the copper() sulfide in alr, it decomposes to give copper meta copper() sulfide + oxygen > copper + sulfur dioxide Care has to be taken to avold leiting sulfur dioxide gas into the alr. This gas causos acid rain. So chimnoys aro fittod with basio ‘sorubbors" to neutralise the acidic gas, ‘Then we use the impure copper as the positive electrode in electrolysis calls ‘to make pure copoer. About 80% of copper is stil produced by smeiting. Figure 1 Mining copper ores can leave huge scars on the lancscape. This & callod oper-cast miring. Abcut 99% of sulfate? ‘copper comes from open-cast mines. Our Supples of copperrich ores are a limites a What chemical do we use to treat copper ore in order to form copper ‘Smotting and purifying copper ore uss huge amounts of heat and electricity. ‘This costs a let of money and will have an impact on the environment. CO links re For information on the charges Extracting copper from malachite (on meial ions, look back at C1 1.4 Malachite is a copper ore containing copper carbonate. To extract the Fovnning bonds. ‘copper we fist heat the copper carbonate in a boiling tube. Tharmal decomposition takes place. Copper oxide is tin the tube ‘© Which gas is given off? We then add dilute sulfuric acid to the copper oxide. Stopper and shake the tube. This makes copper sulfate soluton. Filter off any excess black copper oxide in the solution. ——+ = To extract the copper metal, either S = 1. Put an iron nail into the copper sulfate solution © What haopens to the iron nail? Or Carbon Copper 2, Collect some extra copper sulfete solution and place itin @ small ‘tectroes sutate beaker. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Tum the power on until saluton you s2e copper metal collecting, © Wihich electrode - the positive or the negative — does the copper form Figure 2 Extracting copper metal using a ®—Metal ions are always positively charged. Therefore, in electrolysis they are attracted to the nagative electrode. So metals are always daposited at the nagative electrode. in industry the elactrolysis Is carried out in many calls running at once. This method gives the very pure copper needed to make alectrical \wiring. Electroysis is also used to purity the impure copper extracted by ‘smelting. In the industrial process, the electrolysis cells use copper electrodes. ‘The copper can also be extracted from copper sulfate solution in industry bby adding serap iron. Iron is more reactive than copper, soit can displace copper from its solutions: iron + copper sulfate -> iron sulfate + copper Extracting copper from low-grade copper ores Instead of extracting copper from our limited copper-tich ores, scientists are developing new ways to gat capper from low-grade ores. This would be uneconomical using traditional methods. We can now use bacteria (bioleaching) and ovon plants (phytomining) to holp extract copper. In phytomining, plants can absor’ copper ions from low-grade copper ore as ‘they grow. This could be on slag heaps of previously discarded waste from the processing of copperrrich ores, Then the plants are burned and the metals can ba extracted from the ash, The coppar ions can be ‘leached’ (dissolved) from the ash by adding sulfuric acid, This makes a solution cf copper sulfate, Then we can use displacement by scrap iron and electrolysis to extract pure copper metal. In bioleaching, bacteria feed on low-grade metal ores. By a combination of biological and chemical processes, we can get a solution of copper ions (called a ‘leachate’) from waste copper ore. Once again, we use scrap Iron and electrolysis to extract the copper from the leachate. About 20% of our copper comes from bioloaching, This is likaly to increase as sources of copper-tich ores run out Bioleaching is a slow process so scientists are researching ways to speed it up. At presentitcan take years to extract 50% of the metal from a low-grade ore. Atego 4 Copy and complete using the words below: bactorfa smelting olectricity phytomining iron Traditionally, copper can be extracted from some of its ores by heating (com): I COppEr OFe Is treated With .......€Cld, We get a solution of copper sulfata. We can obtain copper metal from this solution either by adding ........ metal or by passing through the solution. Now new ways are being developed to extract coppar using ....... (bioleaching) or plants (........). These can extract the copper from........-grade Ores. Explain briefly two traditional ways of extracting copper metal. low sulfuric b State an advantage of extracting copper using bacteria rather than tracitional mathods. ‘© Why can copper eometimes be found native (as the element itself)? 4 When cooper is purified by electrolysis, which electrode do you think thal the pure copper collects at? Why? Write a balanced chemical equation for the extraction of copper: a from coppor(i) sufide from copper sulfate solution using scrap iron. [iH] [iH] ee Copper metal is so unreactive that some samples of capper existin nature as the element itsolf. tis found natve. A huge copper boulder was discovered by adivor at the bottom of Lake ‘Superior in North America. It was| raised to the surface in 2001. It ras a mass of about 15 000 ko, CO links For more information on the environmental impact of extracting metals and phytomining, see C1 3.6 Metallic issues. Figure 2 In Auetrals Dr Jazon Plumb looks for bacteria that can extract metals ‘om ores. His search takes him to some fexcting places - includirg velearoes! Otel ‘smetting (roasting) copper rich ores, although our Tees eer) eeu Meee Tec See Reeis Ce seks Ceo) ee edd uss peu s ata) ‘ways to extract copper eter ee oda) Ce eae) CayFigure 2 Copper ia particularly usc bbacause itis Such a good conductor of electrcty 9 In the centre of the periodic table there is a large block of metallic elements. They are called the . Many of them have similar properties. Lke all metals, the transition metals are very good conduciors of electricity and energy. They are strong but can also be bent or hammered into useful shapes. ‘rancton matals Figure 1 The position ofthe transition metals nthe periods able {_ In.which part of the periodic table do we find the transition metals? 1b Name three properties of these elements. ‘Tne properties of the transition metals mean that we can use them in many different ways. You will find them in bulldings and in cars, trains and other types of transport. Their strength makes them useful as building materials. ‘We use them in heating systems and for alactrical wiring because energy and electricity pass through them easly, Copper is a very useful transition metal. It can ba bent but is sill hard enough, for plumbers to use as water tanks or pipes. Fortunately, It does not react with water. Coppar also conducts electricity and anergy very well. So itis ideal where we need: © pipes that will carry water, or © wites that will concuct electricity. © What makes copper so useful for a plumber? seta propertios Figure 9 Transition metals are usad in many cffarant waye because of theCopper alloys Bronze was probably the first alloy made by humans, about 5600 years ago. It Is usually mace by mixing copper with tin. We use it to make ship's propellers bacause of its toughness and resistance to corrasicn. ‘We make brass by alloying copper with zine. Brass is much harder than, copper but itis workable. It can be hammered into sheets and prassed into intricate shaoes. This property is used to make musical instruments. Why are copper alloys more sultable for some uses than pure copper metal? Aluminium alloys Aluminium has a low density for a metal. Itcan be alloyed with a wide range of other elements. There are over 300 alloys of aluminium available. These alloys have very different properties. We can use some to build aircraft while others can be used as armour plating on tanks and other military vehicles. Figure 4 The Statue o Libery in New ‘York containe over 89 tonnes of capper Gold alloys ‘As with copper and iron, we can make gold anc aluminium harder by adding other elements. We usually alloy gold 2 with copper when we use it in jewellery, Fre gid eare sway more saaty nen its alloy with copper. By varying the f ‘expressed in ‘carats’, where proportions of the two metals we also 2a-carat golds almost pura get different shades of ‘gold’ objects. Figure 5 Aloying with copper makes (old (99.97%). I you divide the fH more hardening, Te is especially fpotartin weddng ange, wrichmeny” | Carat number by 24, you get the zi ‘The purity of gold is often people wear mast the time fraction of gold in your jewellery. Soan 18-carat gold ring will © What property of aluminium makes it useful for making alloys in tha contain % (75%) gold. aircraftindustry? Apart from making gold harder, what alse can alloying change? ‘Summary ques ‘Copy and complete using the words below: bo aluminium brass aircraft bronze sott transition rn Ty The ...--- Metals ate found in the central block of the periodic table. found in the central block Famine rot ehtc\aerer elec maa al eoerttee cise i Crore! ‘copper harder by alloying it with tin to make . and with zinc to Ld make... ue) ‘There are over 300 alloys of the low-density metal ......... Many of these Lie sala all ‘aro used to make whore strength ie also an important proporty. eae) r i making things. For example, ‘a Write alist of the properties ofa typical transition metal. fe pA hes b Why is copper metal used so much in plumbing? borers Siver and gold ave transition metals that conduct electricity even better conductivity. than copper. Why do we use copper to make electric cables instead of re ac ns otro) eee ee hou Why can aluminium alloys be used in so many different ways? Dee cd19 How Science Works Ru ocd ‘ What issues arise in ELE ee Cd eal ec fn Sra or) Pee hoe) out “—Gompleing agents may be ‘dee to enhance etal uptake of erep \ PU RUE Sy UY Ces eel feat SST =S Exploiting metal ores Itis ciffcult to imagine our lives without metals. They play a vital role in our technological society. Just think ofall those electrical davices we depend Con! Howaver, whenever we mine metal ores ‘rom the Earths crust there are consequences for our environment, You have seen that open cast mining is often used to get copper ere from the ground. The ores of iron and aluminium are also mainly mined like this. Huge pits thal scar the landscape are made, creating noise and dust and destioying the habitats of piants and animale, The mines also lecve large heape of waste rock. “Tho water in an area can also be affected by mining. As rain drains through exposed ores and slag heaps o/ waste, the groundwater can become acidi “Then the ores must be processed to extract ihe metals. For example, sulicle oFes are heeted strongly in smetting. Any sullur dioxice gas that escapes into the air will cause acid Phytomining ‘As plants grow, they absorb dissolved ions inthe soil through their roots. Some plants are very effective et absorbing metal ions. Once harvested, wo can extract the metals from ash left after burning the plants. This can be used in the phytomining of low-grade metal ores, such as copper ores. Copper metals extracted from the plant by dissolving the esh fn sulfuric acid frst of all Then the solution made can be electolysed to get the copper. The capper collects atthe negative electrode, Alternatively, scrap iron can be added to the solution to displace copper iron + copper sulfate ~>iron ulate + cooper Possible prstetion ofaleovioty ey — Et —- & -B ‘copper nickel faim gold Crop grews en so enrasng mate Pht atria urna Smal vor of lant Set iors coreetton to lw for corrtcnl 2h bo-cro) cotaning —tayblé mat ‘expotaton high concerto af Figure 1. Metal one ars absorbed by plants which can then be processed ‘apa neal to exvact:he metals Recycling metals (D CO links In the UK each person uses around 8 kg of aluminium every year. This is why For more information on open cast copper mining and phytomining, Took back at C1 3.4 Extracting copper. itis important to recycle aluminium. It saves energy, and therefore money, since racyoling aluminium does not involve electrolysis. Comparing reoycled aluminium with aluminium extracted from its ore, there is a. 95% energy saving. We aiso recycle iron and steel. Tin cans’ are usualy steal cans with a very thin coating of tin to prevent rusting. These cans are easy fo separale from rubbish as they are magnetic. Using recycled stael saves about 50% of the energy used to extract iron and turn it into steel. Much ot this eneray is supplied by burning feasil fuels 20 recycting helps save our dwincling supplies of the fuels. Copper is also recycled but this is tricky as itis often alloyed with other metals. So it would need to be purfied for use in electrical wiring,Reeycling metals reduces the need to mine the motal ore and conserves the Earth's reservas of metal ores. It also prevents any pollution problams that arise from extracting the metal from tis ore, ‘Stee! Is the most commonly used metal. Itis often used in the consiruction industry where strength is needed. For exampl @ skyscrapers have steel girders supporting them @ suspension bridges use thick steal cables @ concrete bridges aver motorways are made from concrete, reinforced with steel rods. However, steel does have some drawbacks. Unfortunately the iron in it ends. to rust. Stainless steel could ke used but cnly for small specialist jobs. That's because it is much more expensive than ordinary steel, Even so, protacting the steel from rusting also costs money. Coatings, such as paint or grease, also have to be reappliad regularly. Rusting wil affect the strongth of stael and can be dangerous. ‘Some benefits of using metals in construction ‘© Coppers a good electtical conductor for witing; itis nat reaative ¢o ean be ‘made into water pipes @ Lead cen be benteasly co is used 10 seal joints on reals © Sieel|s stong for girders anc seatfolcing © Aluminium alloys are corrocien- resistant, ‘Some drawbacks of using metals In ‘construction © tron and steel can rust, severely weekening structures, ¢.g, the Iron rods used Inside reinforced concrete rust, structures can collapee © The exploitation cf metal ares to extract metals causes polution and uses up the Earths limited resourees (© Metals are more expensive than ether rmateriais such as concrete. ‘Make a list of the processes required in ona of the following: @ extracting iron from its ore and then making stee! @ extracting aluminium from its ore @ recycling steel or aluminium. Highiight those processes that use a lot of energy. Then write a paragraph justifying the claims that recycling metal saves energy. 11 What can a mining company do to help the environment when an open- cast mine is no longer economic? 2 Each person in the UK uses about Bkg of aluminium each yeer. ‘a Recycling 1 kg cf aluminium saves about enough energy to run small electic fre for 14 hours. If you recycle 60% of the aluminium you use in one year, how long could you run a small electric fire on the eneray you heve saved? b Explain the benefits of recyciing aluminium, nyt Figure 2 Recycing cans saves energy ‘and reduces potion Figure 2 The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco uses thick steel cables te supportitMetals and their uses: C1 3.1-C1 3.6 Summary questions @ (Write simple definitons for the following terms: a metalore b native state © chemical reduction. (2 We can change the properties of metais by alloying them with other elements. Write down three ways that a metal alloy may be cifforont from tho pure metal. @ 2 What name ie givon to the mothod of extracting copper from an ore: using bacteria using plants using heat iv using electricity? b Which methods in part a are being developed to oxtract copper from low. grade coppor ores? @ Describe how brassicae can bo used to decontaminate ‘brown-field’ sites and recover the polluting metals. [H] ‘6 Carry out some research to fing the advantages and cisadvantages of using bioleaching to extract copper metal, \6 By tho micdlo othe dooado scrap car doalors are roquirod to recover 95% of all materials used to make a car. The following table shows the metals we find in an average car: Material ‘Average mase ‘% mace 3) Ferrous metal 780 62.3 (steels) Light non-ferrous 2 63 ‘metal (mainly aluminium) Heavy non- w 18 ferrous meatal (for example lead) Other materials used includ plastios, ruober and glass. ‘a Whatis the average mass of metal b What percentage of a car's mass is made up of non. ‘metallic materials? What is the main metal found in most cars? Which of this meta's properties allows it to be separated easily fram other materials in tha serap) from a car? acar? gf? The following vas overheard in a jeweller’s shor “I would like to buy a 24-carat gold ring for my husband.” "Well madam, wo would advise that you buy one which ie a lower carat gold. It looks much the same but the more gold there is, the softer itis.” Is this actually the case? Let's have a look scientifically at tho data, Pure gold is said to be 24 carats. A carat is a twenty- fourth, s028 x 3 = 1 or pure gold. So 2 9-carat geld ting will have 2 Gold and # of another metal, probably copper or cometimes silver. Most ‘gold’ sold in shops i thersfore an alloy. How hard the ‘gold’ is will depend on the amount of gold and on the type of metal used to make the alloy. Here are some data on the alloys and the may hardness of ‘gold’. umn Gold alloy (carat) Maximum hardness (BHN) ° 170 4 100 8 230 22 90, 24 7 ‘a Which metals are used to alloy gold in jewellory? b Tho shop assistant said that ‘the mora gold thre is, the less hard itis’ Was this based on science or was it hearsay? Explain your answer, ¢ In this investigation which Is the independent variable? d Which type of variable is ‘the maximum hardness of the alloy’ ~ continuous or categoric? @ Plota graph of the results. 1) Whatis the pattem in the results?End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 Bicycle frames are often made from metal tubes. The metal tubes are produced using the steps in this lst: mining > concentrating > extracting —> purifying > alloying — shaping Match each of the following statements with the correct word from the list. @ The metalis procuced using chemical reduction. (1) b The metal is mixed with other metals to make it harder and stronger. a ¢ The metal ore is dug from the ground a) Waste rock is removed from the metal ore. a € Other elements are removed from the metal. a) 2 Choose the correct words from those shown to complete each sentence. Gold is found in the Earth as a gold chloride gold metal gold oxide b Iron is exiracted by reacting iron oxide with a carbon copper nitrogen © Aluminium is extracted from aluminium oxide using a combustion distillation electrolysis 8 Copper metal is used for electric wires. An alloy of copper, caled brass, is usad for pins and terminals of electric plugs. a Copper metal is relatively soft and flexible. Give another reason why copper is used for elactic wires. (1) b Brass is an alloy. What is an alloy? a © Open-cast mining of copper ave makes a very large hole. [Suggest one environmental problem that is caused by open-cast mining of copper ore. a ii Some copper ores contain copper sulfice, Gus. Copper sulfide in heated in air to produce copper and sulfur dioxide GuS + 0, Gu + SO, Suggest one environmental problem caused by heating copper sulfide in ai a 4d The amount of coppertich ores is estimated to last only 2 few more years. New houses need several kilometres of copper wire | Explain why the need to use so much copper will cause a problom in tho future. w ii Suggest two ways in which society could overcome this problem. @ AQA, 2008 @ In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms whare appropriate. Most of the iron we use is converted into steels. Descrive and explain how the differences in the properties of the three main types of steel allow them to BS. used in different ways. 6 5 Titanium is used in aircratt, ships and hip replacement joints. Titanium is as strong as steel but 45% lighter, and is more resistant to acids and alkalis. Most tianium is produced from its ore, cule (titanium ide), by a batch process that takes up to 17 days, Titanium oxide is reacted with chlorine to produce titanium chloride —> Titanium chioride is reacted with magnesium at 00°C in a sealed reactor for 3 days > ‘The reactor i allowed to ccal, then opened and the ‘thanium is separated trom the magnesium chloride byhand, Titanium reactors produce about 1 tonne of the metal per day. lron blast furnaces produce about 20000 tonnas of the metal per hour. @ Give one property of titanium that makes it mora useful than steel for hip replacement joints. “ b Suggest three reasons why titanium costs more than steel. @) AQA, 2008 @ Phytomining uses plants to absorb matal compounds from the ground. It is often used on land that has been contaminated by normal mining. It involves these stages: Sow seeds + grow plants > harvast plants + dry plants — burn plants collect ash ‘The ash is then treated like a metal ore obtained by normal mining. ‘a Suggest one environmental advantage of phytomining compared with normal mining. ) ‘The table shows information about some metals that are absorbed by plants used for phytomining. Metal | Value of | Maximum mass | Percentage metal In £ | of metal in planta| (%) of metal in perkg | Ingperkg | normel ore Gold__| 25000 040 0.0ca Nickel 7 38 2 Copper 48 4 05 Zine 82 40 5 Lead 15 10 3 'b The plants used for gold phytomining give a maximum yield of 20 tonnes of plants per hectare, Calculate the maximum value of the gold that can be recovered from 1 hectare, @ ¢ One kilogram of plarts used for nickel phytomining produces 150g of ash. What is the percentage of nickel in the ash? @ Suggest reasons why phytomining has been used 10 produce gold, nickel and copper, but is only raroly used to produce zinc and lead. @eeu Kea ron Cd Figure 1 The price of neatly everything \we buy is affected by cil because the cost ‘oF moving goods tothe shops affects the rice we pay for them Crude oil and fuels Rice mech e(-Ke)|| ‘Some of the 21st century's most important chemicals come from crude oll. ‘These chemicals play a major part in our lives. We use them as fuels to run our cars, to warm our homes and to make electricity. Fuels are imoortant because they kaep us warm and on the move. So whan oil prices rise, itaffects us all. Countries that produce crude oil can affect the whole world economy by the price thay charge for their cil ‘a Why is ol so important? Crude oil Grude oil is a dark, smelly liquid. itis a mixture of ots of diferent chemical compounds. A mixture contains tive or more elements or compounds that are not chemically combinad together. Crude oil straight from the ground is net much use. There are too many substances in it, all with different boiling points. Bafore we can use crude oil, we must separate It into different substances with similar boling points. These are known as fractions. Because the properties of substances do not change when they are mixed, we can separate mixtures of substances in crude oil by using distillation. Distilation separates liquids with different boiling points bb Whatis crude ol? © Why can we separate crude oil using distillation? Demonstration Distillation of crude oil Mixtures of liquide can be separated using distillation. This can be done in the lab on a small scala, We heat the crude oil mixture so that it boils. The different fractions vaporise between different ranges of temperature. Wo can collect the vapours by cooling and condensing thom. ‘Thermometer A (min can measure up 10 390°C) rade a Receiving tute cald weer tT Heat fraction Sesond Fist ‘© What colour are the first few drops of liquid collected?[ —Fusistromerudoot Hydrocarbons (9) Nearly all of the compounds in cruce oil are compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon. We call these compounds hydrocarbons. Most of the hydrocarbons in cruce oil ara alkanes. You can see some examples of alkane molecules in Figure 2. i if iit hi eo A ha Aad had Nenana hana Prepare tiara Figure 2 We can represent alkanes like ths, showing allofthe atoms in the molecule, They fare called displayed formulae. The Ine dravm between two atoms in a molecule represerte the covalent bond halding ther tagather. CD links Look at the formulae ot the first five alkane molecules: For information on covalent bonding look backat O74 CH, (mothano) Foming bones 4H, (thane) C,H, (propane) Ci, (outa) 4A, (pentane). ‘Can you see a pattern in the formulae of the alkanes? We can write the general formula for alkane molecules like this: CoH iano which means that ‘for every n carbon atoms there are (2n + 2) hydrogen atoms’ For example, if an alkane contains 12 carbon atoms its formula willbe 5 links, cH, aH For more information on organic We describe elkanes as saturated hydrocarbons. This means that they compounds, see 03 5.1 Structures contain as many hydrogen etoms as possible in each molecule. No more of alcohols, carboxylic acids and hydrogen atoms can ba added. esters. Summary questions 1 Copy and complate using the words below: carbon disilation hycrocarbons. hydrogen mre el: Crude cil is... of compounds. Many of thase only contain atoms ork Of sores AND renee THEY at Calle... «The Compounds in crude us oll can be separated using... eel 2 We drill crude oil from the ground or secbed. Why is this crude ol not ent OnE nS very useful as a product itself? De ace a) 3a Write the formulae of the alkanes which have 6 to 10 carbon atom ied ‘Then find out their names. ey wo] Ee cremate (Se ¢ How many carbon atoms are there in an alkane which has 30 acute hycrogen atoms? Pere dasa odCrude oil and fuels Fractional distillation The compounds in crude oil eu ead Hydrocarbon molacules can be very different. Some are quite small, with SEES ere relatively fev carbon atoms in short chains. These short-chain molecules are Cs ‘the hydrocarbons that tand to be most useful. They make good fusls as they renee i bum wel. They are very flammable. Other hydrocarbons have lots of carbon PRP RN POMPEI atoms, and may have branches or side-chains. Ro Ld ‘The balling point of a hydrocarbon depencs on the size of its molecules. We Seen can use the differances in boiling points to separate the hydrocarbons in Peet crude oil Demonstration ye <7 a Comparing fractions ‘Shertctain Long eran ‘Your teacher might compare the viscosity and fammabiity of same fractions (mixtures: cf hydrocarbons with similar oiling points) that wo get from The crude oil, ag | = QT a verry ‘mew (ow viscosity) (high viscosity) a fame Figure 1 Tha properice af hydroserbone de ed on tho chain-longth of ther molecules a How does the length of the hydrocarbon chain affect: i the boiling point ii the viscosity (thickness) of a hydrocarbon? b Ahydrocarbon catches fire very easily. [sit likely to have molecules with long hydrocarbon chains or short ones?Fractional distillation of crude oil (9) We saparate cut crude ol into hydrocarbons ints, called fractions, We call this process fractional jon, Each hydrocarbon fraction contains molecules with similar numbers of caroon atoms. Each of these fractions boils at a different temperature range. That is because of the different sizes of their molecules. Relinry/petooun gas =— (short-chain tyerceatos an ow Boling pai akanes, used 2) =; escli/petrel — (_eed for fuolin cer enginas) oh — Kerosene fo. (used for arora fet) Diesel oi/cas of —I (sed as funn dese — engines and es bol fuel FG The ol is vacorsed eéor| i.gos into the tower ese {ary thick, stoly miure ot long-chain hydrocarbons, used inmaking roads ard lt ro0!s) Figure 2 Wo use factional dstlation to eaparata the mixture of hydrecarbane in crude cil into factiens. Each faction contains hydrocarbons with similar ball points. Crude oil is fod in near the bottom of a tall tower (a fractionating column) as hot vapour. The column is kept very hot at the bottom and much cooler at the top. The temperature decreases going up the column. The gases condense whon they rach the temperatura of their boiling points. So the cifforont fractions are collected as liquids at different levels. Crude oil enters the fractionating column and fractions are collected in a continuous process. Hydrocarbons with the smallest molecules have the lowest boiling points, They are collected at the cool top of the column. At the bottom of the column, the fractions have high bolling paints. Thay cool to form vary thick liquids or solids at room temperature. Once collected, the fractions nead more processing before they can be used. ‘Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: easily distilation fractions high mixture viscosity Crude oll Is a......... of many different hydrocarbons, We can separate crude oil into difforent......... using faotional......... . A hydrocarbon molecule with many carbon atoms will have a. boiling point and - Hydrocarton molecules with few carbon atoms catch fire ‘and burn with a cleaner flame. ‘4 Explain the steps involved in the fractional distillation of crude ol. b Make a table to summarise how the proparties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of thelr molecules. Cerny A.quarter of the world's reserves of crude oil are found In Saudi Arabia. ‘There are many cifferent types of crude oil. For example, caude oil from Venezuela contains many long-chain hydrocarbons. It is very dark and thick and we call it heavy ‘crude. Other countries, such as Nigaria and Saudi Arabia, produce crude oil which is much paler in colour and runnier. This is ‘ight’ crude. Figure 3 An cil inary at night ror Deen Cees Oe uo eee tuk ek kal their hydrocarbon molecules. Orie kcc Ca ud eka ees udued eri al Ce fuels in a good supply of air? ‘What pollutants are produced Std DO links For information on useful fractions from crude oil, look back at C1 4.2 Fractional distiation. ad Figure 1 On cold day we can often see ‘the water arocuced when fossil fuels bum Crude oil and fuels Burning fuels {* ‘The lighter fractions from crude oll are very useful aa fuels. When hydrocarbons bumn in plenty of air they release energy. The reaction produces two new substances ~ carbon dioxide and water. For example, when propane burns we can write: propane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + wator C,H, + 50, + SCO, + 44,0 ‘The carbon and hydrogen in the fuel are oxidised completely when they burn like this. ‘Oxidised’ means adding oxygon in a chemical reaction in which oxides are formed. Gre Products of combustion We can tast the products given off when a hydrocarbon bums as shown In Figuie2, To water pum Bunsen fare (a@irhole dosed) leobah — Buu coat che nauralges—_E ana paper Figure 2 Testing the products formed when a hydracarsone burns ‘© What happens to the limewater? Which gas ia given off? ‘© What happens in the U-tube? Which substance is present? a What are the namas of the two substances produced when hydrocarbons bum in plenty of alr? b Methane is the main gas in natural gas. Write a word equation for ‘methane buming in plenty of air. Pollution from fuels All fossil fueis - oil, coal and natural gas ~ produce carbon dioxide and water when they bum in plenty of air. But as well as hydrocarbons, these fuels also contain other substances. Impuritias containing sulfur found in fuels cause us maior problems.EES All fossil fue!s contain at least some sulfur. This reacts with oxygen when we bum the fual. it forms 2 gas called sulfur dioxide. This gas is poisoncus. Itis also acidic. This is bad for the environment, as its a cause of acid rain, Sulfur dioxide can also cause engine corrosion. ‘© When fuels burn, what element presentin the imouritias in a fossil Fuel ‘may produce sulfur dioxide? d_ Which pollution problem does sulfur dioxide gas contribute to? When we burn fuels ina car engine, even more pollution can be produced. © When there is not enough oxygen inside an engine, we get incomplete combustion. Instead ofall he carbon in the fuel turning into carbon dioxide, we also get carbon monoxide gas (CO) formed. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. Your red blood cells pick up this gas and carry it around in your blocd instoad of oxygen. So even quits small ‘amounts of carbon monoxide gas are very bad for you. © The high temperaturs ince an engine cleo alow the nitrogen and oxygen iin the air to react together. This reaction makes nitrogen oxides. These are poisoncus ard can tigger some peoples asthma, They also ceuse acl Fawe Asonbiaonofrany cars rain, ‘conditione can cause emag ta be formed. ‘This ise mbture o! SMoke and (0G. © Diesel engines burn hycrocarbons with much bigger molecules than petrol engines. When these big molecules react with oxygen in an engine they do not alvrays burn completely. Tiny solid particles containing carbon and unbburnt hydrocarbons are produced. These particulates get carried into th a Sent hat oy ray damage cles cr binge a even cause cancer. ‘© When we burn hydrocarbon fuels In plenty of air the Cee ard fuel are completely oxidised. Deu et and water, Panne al Pec eg Cee us eae a 1 Copy and complete using the words below: Peele keeacal monoxide carbon nlirogen oxidised particulates sulfur water CNEL ID eee When hydrocarbons bur in a good supply of ar... oxide and ss ‘are mado, a6 the carbon and hydrogan in tho FU6l 20 ever AS re oer well as these compounds other substances such as. ... dioxide may Do Re bbe made which causes acid rain, Other pollutants that may be formed Peery ns include. oxides, carbon on. AND nonce Dt teas especially if the fuel is diesel. Explain how a sulfur dioxide b nitrogen oxides and e particulates aro produced when fuels burn in vehicles. a Natural gas is mainly methane (CH,), Write a balancad symbol Ge ae engines, nitrogen from the air equation for the complete combustion of methane. [HI pol oo b When naturel gas burs in a faulty gas heater it can produce carbon vas ° Lice ube elnentoraed ee ey a (ae eo euCrude oil and fuels fos [=F Vat=] NTE} ‘When we burn fuels, as well as producing carbon dioxide and water, we produce other substances. Mary of these harm the environment, and can aifect our health. eu ead ea kad CO tens tekena Pollution from our cars does not stay in one place but spreads through the Cece atmosphere, For a long time the Earth's atmosphere seemed to cope with all TT this pollution, But the huge increase in our use of fossil fuels in the past 190 Psat years means that pollution is a real concern now. ‘@ Why is there more pollution in the air from fossil fuels now compared with 100 years ago? What kinds of pollution? (3) When we bur any fusl containing carton, makes carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas in the air. it absorbs energy released as radiation from the surface ofthe Earth, Most scents think that this is causing global warming, which affects tomperatures around tho world. Look atthe increase in our production of carbon dioxide and average global temperature data over recent times Difference from sage ‘lobal temperature (°C) _~ ot w7s0 1801850 19001960 20002060 go i940 1900 «1980 += 2co0«= 200 Yoo Year Figure 1 Cumulative caroon diovide emissions ftom burning fessil Figure 2 Diferencas fram average glabal temperatures overtime: fuels and the manufacture of cement People are worried abeut changing climates, and metting ice caps that could aiee coa ovale Burning fuels in engines also produces other substances. One group of pollutants is called the particulates. These are tiny solid particles made up 6 carbon (e00t) and unbumt hydrooarbons. Scientists think that these may be especially bad for young children. Particulates may also be bad for the environment too. They travel into the upper atmosphere, reflecting sunlight back into space, causing global dimming. Carbon monoxide is formed when there is not enough oxygen for complete combustion of a fuel. Then the carbon in itis partially oxidised to form carbon monoxide. Garbon monoxide Is a serious pollutant because it affects the amount of oxygen that our blood is able to carry. This is particularly serious for paople who have problems with their hearts.EEE Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from burning fue!s damage us and our environment. In Britain, scientists think that the number of peapla who suffer from asthma has increased because of air pollution, Suifur dioxide and. nitrogen oxides also form acid rain. These gases dissolve in watar droplets in the atmosphere and react with oxygen, forming sulfuric and nitric acids, The rain with a low pH can damage plant and anitrals. b Name four harmful substances that may be produced when fuels burn. Cleaning up our act We can reduce the effects of burning fuels in saveral ways. For example, we can remove harmful substances from the gases that are produced when we burn fuels. For some time the exhaust systems of cars have been fitted with catalytic converters. A catalytic converter greatly reduces ‘tho carbon monoxide and nitragon oxides produced by a car engine. They are expensive, as thay contain precious metal catalysts, bul once warmed up they are very effective. Caaytic cemertar ‘The metal catalysts are arranged so that they have a very large surface area. This causes the carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases to react together. They produce carbon dioxide and nitrogen: ‘carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxides > carbon dioxide + nitrogen ‘So although catalytic converters reduce the toxic gases given out, they do not hhalp reduce levels of carbon cioxide in the air. Filtora can also remove most particulates from modem diesel engines. The filters need to bur off the trapped solid particles otherwise they gat blocked. In powar stations, eulfur dioxide is removed from the waste or ‘ue’ gases by reacting it with calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide, This is called flue gas desuifurisation, The sulfur impurities can also be removed from a fuel before the fual is burned. This happens in petrol and diasel for cars, as wall as in the natural gas and oll used in power stations. Summary questions ‘1 a Why is carbon dioxide called a greenhouse gas? b How do you think particulates in the atmosphere Earth's temperature? © Which gases are mainly responsible for acid rain? 2 a Which pollutants irom a car does a catalytic converter remove? b Why will catalytic corverters not help to solve the problem of, greanhouse gases in the atmosphere? 3a Explain how acid rain is formed and how wo are reducing the proolem. b Compare the effects of global warming and global dimming. ¢ Particulates in the atmosphere could eventually settle on the polarice caps. What problem might this make worse? engine exhaust gases, CO links For more information on how we can also use altemative fuels to reduce pollution, see 014.5 Alternative fuels. ese engines can now be tad wh ‘ites 0 remove solid particulates 12 Modem cere aro fited with cetaiyic converters, Fills can also remove mest ofthe particulates frm closet Pore Substances that spread Rue Peetu Cee euskal Re ed Ree ee a Carbon dioxide produced from buning fuels is a Greenhouse gas. It absorbs ‘onorgy which ie lost from Peed radiation, Dec) bby buming fuels may be ee ee hd Peek haaukenats cat iid eked Sac fers Prue Pe ecu) Pe cee cd gas being formed.Rou ocd ed etre) Oe eae) end et tee) De er ano nr Figure 1. This coach runs on biodiesel Activity In a group of three, each choose a different task: A Write an article for a local newspaper describing the arguments for using biodiesel instead of other fuels made from crude oil. B Writo a lottor to the Newspaper pointing out why the article in A should not claim that biodesel makes no overall contribution of globel warming. Write an article for the newspaper focussing on the drawbacks of using biodiesel, Read each other's work and decide whether biodiesel will be @ major fuel in 20 years lime, Crude oil and fuels PVM (ats) Biofuels Biofuels are fuels that are made from plant or animal products. For example, biodiesel is made from ola extracted from plants. You can even use old cooking oil as a biofuel. Biogas is generated from animal waste. Biofue's will bacorne more and more important as aur supplies of crude oil run out. a Whatis biodiesel? Advantages of biodiesel ‘There are advantages in using biodiesel as a fuel. @ Biodiesel is much less harmful to animals ang plants than diesel we get from crude oi. if itis spilled, it breaks down about five times faster than ‘normal diesel. ‘© When we burn biodiesel in an engine It burns much more cleanly, reducing ‘the particulatos emitted. It aleo makes vory little sulfur dioxide, © As crude oil supplias run out, its price will increase and biodiesel will become cheaper to use than petrol and diesel. @ Anothor really big advantage over petrol and diesel is the fact that the crops used ta make biodiesel absorb carbon dioxide gas as they grow, So biodiesel is in theory ‘CO, neutval. That means the amount of carbon dioxide given off whon it burns is balanced by the amount absorbed as the plants it is made from grow. Therefore, biodiesel makes little contribution to the greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Howover, wo can't claim that biodiasal makes a 2010 cortribution to carbon icxide emissions. We should realy take into account tha CO, released when: ~ fertlising and harvesting the crops ~ extracting and processing the oil = transporting the plant matecial and biadiasel made. © When we make biodiesel we also produce cther useful products. For example, we get a solid waste material that we can feed to cattle as a high- enargy food. We also get glycerine which we can use to make soap. Disadvantages of biodiesel “There are however disadvantages in using biodiesel and other bicfuels as a fuel. © The use of large areas of farmland to produce fuel instead of food could pose problems. If we start to roly on oil-producing crops for our fuel, land (once used for food crops will turn to growing biofuel crops. co, Paris absarb CO, C0, produned as as they grow Convertdto Biociosoli brad ‘tes 1 Y. => Figure 2 Cars that run on biodiesel produce vey litle CO, overall 2s CO,is absorbed by the plants used 10 make the fuel‘This could resultin famine in poorer countries if the price of staple food crops rises as demand overtakes supply. Forasts, which absorb lots of carbon dioxide, mightalso be cleared to grow the biofuel cropsiff they get more popular. © People ara also worried about the destruction cf habitats of endangered species. For example, orang-utans are under threat of extinction. Large aroas of tropical forest whore thay lve are boing turned into palm plantations for palm oil used to make biodiesel. © Atlow temperatures biodiesel wil start to treeze before traditional clesel. It ‘tums into a sludge. Athigh temperatures in an engine it can turn sticky a its molecules join together and can ‘gum up’ engines. Using ethanol as a biofuel Another biofuel is ethanol. We can make it by fermenting the sugar ftom sugar beet or sugar cane. In Brazi they can grow lots of sugar cane. They add the ethanol made to patrel, saving money as well as our dwindling supplies of crude oll. As with biodiese), the ethanol gives off carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) when itbuins, but the sugar cane absorbs CO, gas during photosynthesis. b Why is buming othanol a botter choice of fuel than petrol ifwe wantto ‘igure 3 Ethanol can be madefrom reduce carbon dioxide emissions? ‘sugarcane SO links Far more inforration on ethanol Hydrogen ~a fuel for the future sae 015.5 Ethanol Sciantists are very interested in developing hydragen as afual Ir burns well with avery clean flame as thete is no carbon inthe tusk hydrogen + oxygen — water 2H, +0, 3 2H,0 ‘Aa you can 22° inthe equation, waioris the only product nthe combustion of hycragen. There are no palitants made when Fydragen burns and no extra Ccaroon oxide is added 1 the alt Not only tat, water is porewaly a huge natural eurce of hydrogen. The hydrogen can be obtained from wator by ectolysis. But the alectcty must be supplied by a renewable energy source ifwe want 0 conserve fosst fuels and convrel carton divide emissions, However, there are problems o cove before hydragen becomes a common fuel. When mixed with air and ignited itis explosive, So there are safety cconcams in case ofeaks, or accidents in vehicles powered by hydrogen Vehicles normaly run on qual fuois but hycragan isa gas, Thorafore it takes up a much larger volume than quid fuss. So storage is an issue. We can use Plt) high-pressure cylinders but these also have safety problems in crashes. Te Summary questions Sere ee eal Ca ees! errr) Seer hasten} 11 Copy and complete these sentences using the words below: carbon dioxide diesel plants Biodiesel i a fuel made from.......... lt produces less pollution than ‘obtained from crude cil, and absorbs nearly as much \when the plants that make it grow as it does when it burns. 2 Where does the energy in biodiesel come from? 3 a Explain why hydrogen is potentially a pollution free fuel. bee b Why isn’t hydrogen used as an everyday fual at tha moment? for the future. ore tiaateh Ce cud asCrude oll and fuels: C1 4.1-C1 4.5 Summary questions 8 © This question is about the alkane family of compounds, a The alkanes are all ‘saturated hydrocarbons” i What is a hydrocarbon? What does saturated mean when deser alkane? ing an b i Give the nama and formula of this alkane: it Hoe HoH Il What do the letters represent in this displayed formula? What do the linas between latters reprasent? © What is the general farmula of the alkanes (where a the number of carbon atoms)? Give the formula of the alkane with 20 carbon atoms. (2 One alkane, A, has a boiling point of 344°C and another, B, has a boiling point of 126°C. a Which one will be collected nearer the top of a ‘ractionating column in an oil refinery? Explain your choices b Which one will ba the better fuel? Explain your cheice. © Give another difference you expect between Aand B. 1 2 Name the two products formed when a hydrocarbon burns in enough oxygen to ensure that complete combustion takes place. bb What problem is associated with the increased levels of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere? © 1 What gas Is glven off rom fossil fuel power stations that can cause acid rain? Give two ways of stopping this gas getting into the ‘atmosphere from power stations. Name the other cause of acid rain which comes from car engines? Iv How do car makers stop the geses in pert entering the air? ¢ Why are diesel engines now fitted with after for their exhaust fumes? @ a Which one of these fuels could be termed a ‘biofuel’? Hydrogen Propane Ethanol Petro! Coal 'b Biodiesel is potentially “CO, neutral’. What does this, moan? ¢ Scientists are concerned about the issue of global warming. Why is the use of hydrogen as 2 fuel one way to tackle the problem? d State two problems with the use of hydrogen 2s a fuel. @ Write a word and a balanced symbol equation to show the combustion of hydrogen. TH ef This apparatus can be used to compare the energy given out when different fuels are burned. ‘The burners waighed before and after to detarmine the amount of fuel burned, The temperature of the water is taken bofore and aftr, to got the tamporaiure rise. The investigation was repeated. From this the amount of energy released by burning @ known amount of fuel can be caleulated Design a table that could be used to collect the data as you carry out this experiment. A processed table of rasults is given balow. Fuel ‘Mass burned (g) | Temperature rise eo) Ethanol 43 4a Proparol 54 5856 Butane! 52 (6 70 Pentanol 54 7% 76 b List three variables that nead to be controlled, ¢ Describe how you would take the temperature of the ‘water to got the most accurate meaaurement possible. d Do these results show precision? Explain your answer? ‘e How might you present these results?Erp uk cu! AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4) The table shows some information about the first four alkanes. Tiana afalane | Fermule | Boting pontine Methane cH, “162 on, 5 Propane oH, Butane ° ai Name the alkane missing from the table. a What is the formula of butane? () Estimate the boiing point of propane, 0 b Which one of the following is the formula of the alkano with 6 carbon atoms? CH, CH Cig Core a © Explain why alkanes are hydrocarbens. @ 4 A molecule of methane can ke represented as: 4 I H-o-H H Drawa molecule of propane inthe sameway. (2) 2 Some crude cil was distilled in a fractionating column. ‘The table shows the boiling ranges of three ofthe fractions that were collected. Fraction | Bolling range inc A 60-420 . 60-280 ° 240-820 ‘@ Which of these fractions is the most flammable? (1) b Which of these fractions is the most viscous? w © Which of these fractions has the smallest hydrocarbon molecules? a Why do the fractions have boiling ranges and not boiling points? a 3) Some landfil sites produce a gas that can be collected and burned as a fuel. The gas is mainly methane. ‘@ Choose the word from the list to complete the sentence. condensed distilled oxidised During the combustion of mothane the olemonts in tho fuel are a) bb Wiite a word equation forthe complete combustion of methane, CH, @ © Under what concitions could mathane burn to produce carbon monoxide? “) 4 A sample of landill gas was burned. The waste gases contained sulfur dioxide, Explain why. ‘) @ Crude oil is a resource from which fuels can be separated. a Tha name of the main fuel fractions and one of tha Fydrocarbons in each fraction are shown in the table. ‘ina Sai a clon trioexton — ee 2 Er tt re He Orsi ue enoot = 1 How does the number of carbon ators in a hydrocarbon affect its boiling point? 0 ‘Suggest the lowest temperature to which crude oil needs te be heated to vaporise all the hydrocarbons in the tabla. Temperature “c? @ Dodecane boils at 218°C. At what temperature will dodecane gas condense to liquid? Temperature = “co? w In this questicn you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using ‘specialist terms where appropriate. Describe and oxplain how the fractions are separated in a fractionating column, 6) 73eu ead re unca De Ae tec ery io Re eee are they cifferent from alkanes? Figure 2 Inan cil refinery, huge crackers like this are used to break down large hhycrocarbon molecules into smaler ones c=o 7’ H # Bene auble bond 4 4 Liye H-¢—c4c i N, 4 4 Propone Figure 2 A molecule of ethene (G,H,| end a molecu of propane (G{H). These are both akenes ~ each ‘molecule hes a carbon-carbon double Products from oil ole Cel ute M NC eer lates ‘Some of the heavier fractions that we get by distilling crude cil are not very useful. The hydrocarbons in them are made up of large molecules. They are thick liquids o: solids with high boiling paints. They are difficult to vaporise and do not burn easily - so they are no good as fuels! Yet the main demand from crude oil is for fuels. Luckily we can break down larga hydrocarbon molecules in a process we call cracking, The process takes place at an cil refinery in a steel vessel called a cracker. In the cracker, a heavy fraction produced from ccude oil is heated to vaporise the hydrocarbons. The vapour is then either passed over a hat catalyst or mbed with steam, It Is heated to a high temperature. The hydrocarbons are cracked as thormal decomposition reactions take place. The large moloculos split apart to form smaller, more useful ones. a Why is cracking so important? b How are large hydrocarbon molecules cracked? Example of cracking (@) Dooane is a medium-sized molecule with ton carbon atoms. When we heat itto 500°C with a catalyst it breaks down. One of the molecules produced is pentane which is used in petrol. riggy “errr H Figure 1 Pextane (C.H,,) can be used 2s a fuel. This isthe displayed formula of pentane, We also get propane and ethene which we can use ta produce other chemicals. 900°C + catalyst > OH, + pentane Oy Hey CH, decane propene + OH, ethene This reaction is an oxamplo of tharmal decompesition. Notice how this cracking reaction produces different types of molecules. ‘Ons of the molecules is pentane. The first part of its namo tolls us that it thas five carbon atoms (pent). The last part ofits name (-ane) shows that it is an alkane. Like all other alkanes, pentane is a saturated hydrocarbon. Its molecules have as much hydrogen as possible in them, The other molecules in this reaction have names that end slightly differently. They end in -ena. We call this type of molecule an alkene. The cifterent ending tells us that these molecules are unsaturated. They contain a double bond between two of their carbon atoms. Look et Figure 8. You can see that alkenes hhave one double bond and have the general formula C,H.)Cracking Medicinal paraffin is a mixture of hydrocarbon ‘molecules. You can crack it by heating It and. passing the vapour over hot piaces of broken ot. The oroken pot acts as a catalyst. ‘© Why must you remove the end ofthe delivery ceric ‘tube from the water before you stop heating? woo! scahed in Ifyou carry out this practical, collect at least —-madcina two test tubes of gas. Test one by putting a parafin lighted splint into it. Test the other by shaking it with a few drops of bromine water. Cepheid Acimple experiment like the one above shows that alkenes burn. They also react with bromine watar (which is orange). Tha products of this reaction are colourless, This means that we have a good test to see if a hydrocarbon Is unsaturated: Positive tost: unsaturated hydrocarbon + bromine water -> products (orange-yelow) (colourless) Negative test: saturated hydrocarbon + bromine water > no reaction (orange) (orange) Emre ten 1 Copy and complote using the words bok alkenes catalyst cracking double hoating unsaturated Large hyérocarbon molecules ara broken down by........them and passing them over ahot........ This is callad........ . Some of the molecules produced when we do this contain a... bond. They are called... hydrocarbons. They ara examples of a group of hydrocarbons called the... 2. Cracking a hydrocarbon makes two new hydrocarbons, Aand B. When bromine water is added to A, nothing happens. Bromine water added to B turns from an orange solution to colourless. @ Which hydrocarpon is unsaturated? b Which hydrocarbon is used as a fuel? € What type of raaction is cracking an example of? Cracking can be carried out by passing large hydrocarbon molecules over a hot catalyst. Stato anothor way to crack a hydrocarbo: industry. {An alkene molecule with one double bond contains 7 carbon atoms. How many hydrogen atoms does it have? Write down its formula. Decane (with 10 carbon atoms) is cracked into octane (with 8 carbon atoms) and ethene, Write a balanced equation for this reaction. [1] eer Ethene gas makes fruits such as bananas ripen. Bananas ara picked and stored as the unripe green fruit. When they are required for display in a shop ethene gas is passed over the stored bananas to start the ripering process, YA Examiner's tip Remamber: alkanes are saturated alkenes have a double bond = (equals) Com Ore Pron cabbinsoas eda Coa tana Saar utara Fee ue Sed — by passing the vapours Cs Cire Taek! Pritt h aut tee) ee) hydrocarbons (called Ce Oe kukeca cd Seen CsProducts from oil Making polymers from alkenes The fractional distillation of crude oil and cracking produces a large range of hydrocarbons. These are very important to our way of life. Oil products are all around us. We simply cannot imagine life without them, Hydrocarbons are our main fuels. We use them in our transport and at home to cook and for heating. We also use them to make electricity in oll-ired power stations, ‘Then there are the chemicals we make from crude cil. We use them to make things ranging from cosmetics to explosives. But one of the mast important ways that we use chemicals from oll is to make plastics. Plastics Plastics are made up of huge molaculas made from lots of small molecules joined together. We call the small molecules monomers. We call the huge moleaules they make polymers. (Mono means ‘one’ and poly means ‘many’). ‘We can make different typas of plastic which have very different properties by using different monomers. Figure 1 Allof these products were andasuredusrgcremcas Male rg ways hat wo use fuels b What are the small molecules that make up a polymer called? MONOMERS =» PoLwnien e e e e => & cocceocoe « e Ply(ather) =>" BHfeeee te. Plyipopore) remade fram meny erallr molaculze called monomers Ethene (C,H,) is the smallast unsaturated hydrocarbon molecula. We can turn it into a polymer known as poly(ethene) or polythene. Poly(ethene) is a really useful plastic, Itis easy to shape, strong and trensparent (unless we add colouring material to it). Plastic’ bags, plastic drink bottles, dustbins and cingilim are all examples of poly(ethene). Propene (C,H,) is another alkene. We can aiso make polymers with propene as the monomer. The polymer formad is called poly(propene).Itforms a very strong, tough plastic. We can use it to make many things, including carpets, milk cratas and ropes. Figure 3 Polymers produced ftom oll ¢ Isethene an alkane or an alkene? ‘areal arourd us and are par cf our Which polymer can we make from propene monomers? rerylay ives 8Se How do monomers join together? ‘When alkene molecules join together, the double bond betwaen the carbon aioms in each molecule ‘opens up’. Itis replaced by single bonds as thousands of molaculas join togethar. The reaction is callod polymerisation. H HoH HoH HH y \, rbd td + Nomcl + oe ego t ato " Ho# HHH HOH A Ethene monomers Poly(ethena) ‘We can also write this more simply as: n ded bab) waanis =F PY, rata Many single Long chein tamene manarners ot poycetnene) Activity Modelling polymerisation Use « molecular model kt to show how ethene molecules polymerise to form poly(ethene). Make sure you can see how the equation shown above represents the polymerisetion reaction you have modelled. You should also be able to describe what happens to the bonds in the reaction. Think up a model to demonstrate the polymerisation of ethene, using people in your class as monomers. Evaluate the ideas of other groups. (QA Examiner's tip ‘The dotislo C=C bond in ethene (an alkene) makes itrmuch more reactive than ‘ethane (an alkane). Amro etn 1 Copy and complete using the words below: polymerisation ethene monomers polymers Plastics are made of large molecules called.......... We make these by pining together lots of small, reactive molecules called, One ‘example of a polymer is po¥ylethene), made trom... Poly(ethene) is formed as a result of... reaction. Com 2 Why is ethene the smallest possible unsaturated hydrocarbon See molecule? sa pe displayed formula of a propene molecule, showing all its OR eater ciation b Draw a diagram to show how propene molecules join together to form Pa pease poly(sropens). Join together, The reaction Is ¢ Explain the polymerisation reaction in b. polled poipaveriention’Products from oil RET To MET ole tere , a Chemists can design new polymers to make materiale with special properties Learning objectives 10 do particular jobs. Medicine is one area where we are beginning to see big Honan uig now benefits irom these ‘polymers made to order’ eat New polymer materials will evertually take over from filings for teeth which > contain mercury. Working with the toxic mercury every day is @ potential bebiahdillntl bia hazard to dental workers, Other davelopmerts include: @ new softer inings for dentures (false teeth) ¢ new packaging material €@ implants that can slowly release drugs into a patient. ‘What do we mean by a ‘designer polymer’? Light-sonsitive plasters We all know how uncomfortable puling a plaster off your skin can be. But for somo cf us taking off a plastor is roally painful. Both very old and vory young people have quite fragile skin, But now a group of chemists has made a plaster where the ‘stickiness’ can be switched off before the plaster is, removed. The plaster uses a light-sensitive polymer. Figure 1 sticking plaster is often needed when wo cut aurecivee, Getting hurt isnt much fan and sometimes taking the paster off can be pantul tco. 1 The pastes puton just ike ary normal plaster 2 To remove the plaster, the payers peeled 3 Once the lower layer fs exposed tothe ig, the nay ‘ram the ower layer which stays stuck adhesive becomes ls stick, mang i easy to tothe skin ed ff your stn Evaluating plastics Plan an investigation to compare and evaluate the suitability of different plastics fora particular use. Figure 2 This plasier uses. lightsensitve polymer Hydrogels Hydrogels are polymer chains with a few cross-Inking units between chains. ‘This makes a matrix that can trap water, Those Fydrogels are used ae wound ethanol + carbon dioxide (glucose) CH,,0, —>20,H,0H + — 2€0, 1a Which gas is given off when sugar is fermented? 1b Yeast is a living thing. It is a type af fungus. What type of molacuias in yeast enable Il to ferment sugar? Practical Fermentation Inthis experiment you can ferment sugar solution with yeast and test the gas given off, Ifyou leave your apparatus til next losson, your teacher can cclloct some fermented mixtures together and distil it to collect the ethanol formed. We use fractional distillation for the best separation as water and. ethano| have similar boiling points. Ethanol boils at 78°C. The ethanol collected will ignite anc burn with a ‘clean’ blue flame. Ethanol is also usad as a solvent. Methylatad spirit is mainly ethanol Decorators can use it to clean brushes after using an ol-based paint. ILis also used to make perfume. We have already seen how ethanol can be used as a fuel. It can be mixed with petrol or just used by itself to run cars. a fuels,EET Making ethanol from ethene (hydration) Ethanol for industrial use as a fuel or solvent can be made from ethene gas instead of by fermentation. Remember that ethene is made when oll ‘companias crack hycrocarbons to make fuels. Ethane is the main by-product, made in cracking. Ethene gas can react with steam to make ethanol, catalyst ethene + steam——> ethanol ©,H, + H,O ——>©,H,OH This reaction is called hydration. ‘© Where do we get the ethene from to make industrial ethanol? “The reaction requires eneray to heat the gases and to generate a high pressure. The reaction is reversible so ethanol can break down back into ethene and steam. So unreacted ethene and steam noed to be racyclod over the catalyst. This process Is continuous. It also produces no waste produots. Both of those are advantages when making products in industry. When ethanol is made industrially by fermentation, the process is carried cout in large vats which have to be left. This is called a batch process, which takes a lot longer than a continuous proceas. Carbon dicxide, a grenhouse: 925, is also given aff in fermentation, However, using ethene to make ethanol relies on caude oil which is a non-renewable resource Therefore making ethanol as a biofuel, by fermenting sugars from plant material (a ronewalblo resource), will become ever more importart. The sugars are from crops. such as sugar cane or sugar beet. Any cereal crop can also be used as the raw material. These naad their starch to be broken dawn to sugars before ‘fermentation takes place. However as we have seen before there are issues that need to be addreased when using orops for large-scale industrial processes. Etre ons Copy and complete using the words below: catalyst sugar yeast steam Ethanol can be made by two processes, ethene reacting with... undor pressure in tho prosencs of a... 0F the fermentation oF using enzymes in... . Write a word equation to show the production af athanol from: a ethene b glucces. is a continuous process better than @ batch process for making a industry? How can people claim that the ferment contribute to the increase in carbon of plant materi CD links For information on cracking, look back at C1 6.4 Cracking hydrocarbons. Figure 2 Industrial fermentation is a siow batch process. The ethanol ‘must be distlled af fram the fermented mixture. Tris requires energy even though the fermentation proceea fielfie onorgy effciant OD Kinks For information on the issues of using crops for large scale industrial processes, [ook back at C1 4.5 Alternative fuels, ee teal Ceca a ec L ce Mee rca eo ud Parke k tec} Peet Carbon dioxide is also made yest Td ethanol needs non-renewable ee el Se eon acd eee!ee oR bey Summary questions @ @ Write simple definitions for the following words: 2 hydrocarbon oracking distllation saturated hydrocarbon unsaturated hydrocarbon monomer polymer biodegradable polymer fermentation. Propene is a hycrocarben molecule containing three carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms. What is the chomical formula of propeno? b Draw the display formula of propene, showing all its bonds, ¢ Is propene a saturatod molacule or an unsaturated molecule? Explain your answer. d You are given two unlabelled test tubes. One test {ube conlains propane gas, while the other test tube ‘contains propene gas. Explain how you could tost which tube contains which gas, stating clearly the results obtained in each case. e Propene molecules will react together to forrn long chains. i What do we call this type of reaction? ii Compare the properties of the reactants to those of the product. Amolecule of ethene ie a similar to a molecule of propene. Give an equation to show the reaction of ‘ethene to make poly(ethene). Why does the disposal of much of our plastic waste ‘cause probleme? b How can chemists help to solve the issues in part a using a plant material such as starch fram corn? Write a ward equation and a balanced symbol ‘equation for the reaction between ethene and steam. [HI b Write a word and balanced symbol equation for the fermentation of glucose. [HI \ Draw a tablo showing the advantages and disadvantages cf making ethanol rom ethene or from sugar obtained from plant material. {© Chemists have developed special waterproof materials, made from polymers. The polymer materials have pores that aro 2000 times smallor than a drop of water. However, the tiny pores are 700 times larger than a water molecule. Explain why these materials are descrived as ‘breathable! ‘9 Non-biodagradable plastic has been used for many years for growing melons. The piants are put into holes in the plastic and their shocts grow up above the plastic. The melons are protected from the soil by the plastic and grow with very few marks on them. Biodegradable plastic has been tested - to reduce the amount of nan -recyoled waste plastic. Inthis investigation two large plots were used to grow melons. One using biodegradable plastic, the other using normal plastic, The results were as follows: Plastic used Total yield | Average mess (kgiheetare) ‘of melons. produced (kg) Non-biodegradable 4829 24 Biodegradable 3560 22 a This was a fiald investigation. Describe how the experimenter would have chosen the two plots. b What conclusion can you draw from this investigation? ¢ How could the rallability of thase results be tested? d_ How would you viaw thase results if you were told that they were funded by the manufacturer of the traditional, non-biodegradeble plastic?End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4 Large alkanas from crude oil are broken down to give smaller molecules. Large alkane (2.0. O,Hy,) —> vaporised and passed cover hot catalyst ~» smaller alkane (a.g. C,H,) + alkene 9.0.4) Choose the correct word from the list to complete each sentence, a This process is called cracking distillation fermentation (ty b The reaction is an example of thermal decomposition evaporation polymerisation (1) ¢ The smaller alkane can be used as a plastic monomer fuel (ty d The alkene will turn bromine water blue colourless orange (ty The general formula for an alkene is. CyHene CHa, CyHeore a 2 Ethene is used to mke the plastic poly(ethene). a Complete the equation to show the formation of poly(ethene), @ tl = HoH b Inthe equation, what does the lettern represent? (1) ¢ What name is used for the small molecules that join to make a polymer? (i) d_ Name the polymer that is made from butene. (y e Which one of the following could be used in a similar way to make a polymer? CH, CH, CH a @ Ethanol can be used as a fuel for cars. Pure ethanol (100%) can be used in specially adapted car engines. Petrol with up to 10% ethanol can be used in ordinary car engines, To mix with petrol tho ethanol must not contain any water. Ethanol can be made from plants or from crude cil. fermentation —disililation dehydration planta —> sugars > 15% ethanol -> 98% ethano! > 100% in water ethanol cracking catalyst + steam 100% ethanol ‘@ Suggest one environmental advantage of making ethanol fuel from plants rather than from crude oil. (1) istilation crude ol fractions > ethene > bb Suggest one economic disadvantage of producing ethanol fuel from plants rether than from crude oil. (1) © Suggest one environmental cisadvantage of procusing ethanol fuel from plants. “0 d 10% ethanal in petrol can be used in ordinary car engines. Suggest one other advantage of using 10% ethanol in petrel as ¢ fuel rather than pure ethanol. (1) A Sciontists devolop now polymers and modify existing polymers. Polylactic acid (PLA) is a bioplastic that is biodegradable. It can be used to make sandwich containers, plastic cups and plastic cutlery. PLA is made from cornstarch. In the USA large amounts cof maize are grown and used to make cornstarch, which has many uses. To make PLA the cornstarch is fermented with microbes to make lactic acio, which is then polymorisod. i oom The structure of PLA is + toh o—CH—-G \ n i Give one way in which the structure of PLA is different from the structure of poly(ethene). (1) ii Give one way in which the structure of PLA is, similar to the structure of poly(ethene). “ ‘Suggest what is meant ky bioplastic. “ Iv Suggesttwo reasons why PLA was developed. (2) 'b In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Copper was considered to be the most suitable material to use for hot water pipes. PEX is now used san alternative material for hot water pipes. PEX is, mada from poly(ethene), Copper is extracted from its ore by a series of processes. 1. The low-grade ore is powdered and concentrated. 2 Smelling is carried outin an oxygen flash furnace. This furnace is heated to 100°C using a hydrocarbon fuel. The copper ore is blown into the furnace with air, producing impure, molten copper, 8 Oxygen is blown into the impure, molten copper to remove any sulfur. The copper Is cast into rectangular slabs. 4. The final purification of copper is done by electrolysis. ‘Suggest the possible environmental advantages of using PEX instead of copper for hot water pipes. (6) AQA, 2009Plant oils Extracting vegetable oil Piants use the Sun's energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis: Ru ec ee so ear trom una, Cae? carbon dioxide + water SO POP NY, cose + oxygen Seber aca 8CO, + 6HO ——___+C,H,0, + 60, uo ude ered SO etc iants than turn glucose into other chemicals they need using mare chemical reactions. In some casas these otner chemicals can also be very useful to us. For example, the vegetable oils from plants, euch as oilseed rape, make bioiuals and foodstutts. Wo find these oils in the seeds of tho rape plant. Farmers collect the seeds ‘from the piants using a combine harvester. The seeds are then taken toa faciory where they are crushed and pressed to extract their oll, The impurities are removed from the oil. Its then processed to make it into useful products. We extract other vegetable oils using steam. For example, we can extract lavender oil from lavender plants by distllation. The plants are put into water and boiled. The oil and water evaporate together and are collected by condensing ‘them. The water and other impurities are removed to give pure lavender cil Figure 1 Oieced rape ie acammon eight incur countryside. As ts name tells ust m isa goed source cf vegerable al firtare Extracting plant oil by distillation (microscale) Take care not 10 let the contents of the small vial boil over. ‘© What does the liquid collected look and smell Distilason column wit glass beads (eats as condenser) ——__ _= Thesmometer Droplts of amuision— Small wel ina second comboplae or receNing — equipment Eee and art-bumping granuks: antibumong Figure 2 Norfolk averdercilis eduacted © a_ Write down two ways we can use to extract vagatable oils from plants, B. Tavendar parts by ditilaton[Extracting vegetabieot Vegetable oils as foods and fuels (3) CO links For information on biofuels, ok i i f i . Vegetable oils are very important foods. They provide important nutrients, babs Cs sa Atematve nicl, For example olive oil is a source of vitamin E. They also contain a great deal of energy, as the table shows. This makes tham useful foods and sources of bio'uals, such as biodiesel. “There are lois of diferent vogetable cls. Each cmgjnwansis oma vegetaole of contains mxures of compeundswitn (oH OH HH jeoy vaetadle other foods Btghty ciferent molecules. However all vegetable _¢),|| | ¢ | _etmerteoas_| bis rave melecules which contain chains ofcarbon —@F FF 2° | Food Energy in atoms wih hydrogen atoms Hoa Hon AS 1009) In some vegetable ols the hydrocarbon chains contain carbon-carbon double | vegetable ol 3800 bonds (G=C). We call these unsaturated oils. We can detect the double sugar 1700 bonds in unsaturated ols with bromine water. You know the tet for double bonds from your work on alkenes. oon Protein ‘100 (meat “This provides us with an important way of detecing unsaturated oils Figure 9 Vogolzbb ol haroahigh unsaturated oll + bromine water (orange) colourless solution enetyy coma bb What wll you eee ityou tet a polyunsaturated mevgasine with bromine water? " CD links acca] For information on the test for See een er outte bonds, look tack at C7 5:1 ead Cracking hydrocarbons e. => ‘Stake tne tube and P25? Did you know ..? Ses what happens No more than 20% of the energy in your diet should Margarine dissalvee ‘Bromine waters decolourised ‘come from fats. in atbanol by unsaturated ‘ato 1 Copy and complete using the words below: Ped bromine decolorisod ditt sing unectursted rorine dao 00 energy preesing uneatural = eT ieee eee eee ence ee, Vertable ole ar paricury imporentaotoode because tay conan | oni nate a lotot . Some vegetable oils contain carbon-carbon double bonds. We call these vegetable cils. They can be detected by er ee reacting them with. _... water, which will be... ET) reed Why might dit containing too much vegetable cl be urhoainy? Cie kero peter ns eh ea Pe ouaraaeld bonds (C=C). We can detect them as they decoiorise Cd decolorised. Which of the following statements is truo? a The sample contains only unsaturated oils. b The cample contains only acturated cis. ¢ The sample may contain a mixture of saturated and unsaturated oils. Explain your answer.eu ead ‘ What are the advantages and Ce tae) Reta Leuk ‘harden’ vegetable oils? [H] uh Crd ft} — ‘ & ae) Lo Figure 1 An elec tye ke tis one tenables vegetable ol to be heated safely to's high lomperatore AXA Examiner's tip No chemical bonds are broken whan vagetable cils matt cr boil —these are physical changes. Plant oils Cooking with vegetable oils When we cook food we heat itto a temperature where chemical reactions ‘cause permanent changes to happen to the food. Cooking food in vegetable oll gives very different results fo cooking food in water. This is because the boiling points of vagetable cils are much higher than the boiling point of water. ‘Therefore, vegetable oils can be used at a much higher temperature than boiling water. What's the difference? So the chemical reactions thal take place in the food are very different in ol and in water. When wo cook using vagetable ci €@ the food cooks more quickly @ very offen the outside of the food turns a different colour, and becomes crispler © the inside of the food should be sovter if you don't cook It for to long. a How does the boiling point of a vegetable cil compare to the boiling, point of water? Cooking food in cil also means that the food absorbs some of the oll. As you know, vegetable oils | contain a lot af energy. This can — make the energy content of ‘ried food much highor than that of tho same food cooked by boiling it In water. This is one reason why regularly eating too much ‘rid food is unhealthy. Figure 2 Boiled potatoes and tied potatoes are very cifforont. One thing thet probably makes chine 29 tasly isthe contrast of spy outside and sot inside, together wit the efferent smell anc taste procuces by cooking ata higher temperature The cifferent colour may be impartant too ae golden chips lack ‘ore appetsing than «pale boiled potato, Practical Investigating cooking ‘Compare the texture and appearance of potato pieces after equal cocking times in water and cil. You might also compare the cooking times for boiling, frying anc oven- baking chips. If possible carry out some taste tests in hygienic concitions. 1b How is food cocked in oil differant to food cooked in water?Hardening unsaturated vegetable oils {[) Unsaturated vegetable ols ae usualy liquids at oom temperature The boiling and melting points of these oils can be increased by adding hydrogen to the molecules. The reaction replaces some or al ofthe carbon carbon double bonda with carbon-carbon single bonde \iith this higher melting point, the tquid of becomes a sold at room tormporature. Wo call charging a vogotable ol Ike this hardoning it. Wo harden a vegetable oil by reacting it with hydrogen gas (H,). To make the reaction happen, we must use a nickel catalyst, and carry it out at about 60°C. t 7 Figure 3 The hydrogen adds to the cattoon-carbon double bonds in a vegetable oil when it is harcened ano this can be usec to make margarine ¢ What do we call it when wa add hydrogen to a vegetable oil? Oils that we have treated like this are ‘sometimes callad hydrogenated oils. They ere solids at room temperature, This means that they can be made into ‘spreads to be put on bread. We can also use them to make cakes, biscuits and pastry, Figure 4 We can use hydrogenated vegetable cis in cooking to make a huge ‘hurbor of ferent, and delicious, ocd Bnet Copy and complete using the words below: water energy higher tastes The bolting points of vegotablo oils aro... water. This means that food cooked in oil. Intooone- Ihalso contains more... Copy and complete using the words below: hydrogen hydrogenated hardening melting nickel The...» Points of olls may also be raised by adding to their molecules. We call ths......... the oll. The reaction takes place at 60°C. in the presence of a catalyst. The reaction producas 2 oi [HI 3 a Why are hydrogenated vegetable alls more useful than olls that have not bean hydrogenated? 'b Explain how we harden vegetable oils. IH] than tho boiling point of different to food bailed Ceo ed QW ‘When oils are hardened with hydrogen, a chemical change takes place, producing hydrogenated oils (which have higher metting point than the original oll). These are used in margarines. Perey oe rar cooking because of their high Pe Taadecdnebachled ee eee! Cee hl ea ake kane ee oid Pe Poa Dee elie their melting points. This makes thom solids at room temperature which are ee oc erie etek Raeakl tee ea Cece ud vegetable oll molecules. [H]Figura 1. Mayonnaise is an emulsion ‘Smocth food has a good texture ard Tooks as ifit il aste nice ~ Butitis notalvays easy to make, orto keep it moat a 2 Ice cream contains emulsifiers ‘The texture of fcod — whatit feels like in your mouth —is a very important part of foods. ‘Some smcoth foods are made from a mixture of oll and water. Everyone knows that oil and water don't mix. Just ty it by pouring a little cooking oil into a glass of water But we can get them to mix tagather by making the cil into very small droplets. These spreac out throughout the water and produce a mixture called an emulsion. Agood example of this Is milk, Mik is basically made up of small droplets of animal fat dispersed in water. Be Figure 2 Wik an emulsion made up of ~ 4 ‘ania ft and water, together with some other susstances Emulsions often behave very differently to the things that we make them from, For example, mayonnaise is made from ingredients that include oil and water. Both of these are runny ~ but mayonnaise Is not! Another very important ingredient in mayonnaise is egg yolks. Apart from adding a nice yellow colour, egg yolks have a very important job to do in mayonnaise. Thay stop the oll and water from separating out into layers. Food scientists call this type of substance an emulsifier. ‘@ What do we mean by ‘an emulsifier’? Emulsifiers make sure that the oil and water in an emulsion cannot separate out. This means thet the emulsion stays thick and smooth. Any creamy sauce needs an emulsifiar. Without it we would soon find blobs of cil or fat floating around in the sauce. b How does an emulsifier help to make a good creamy sauce? (One very popular emulsion is ice cream. Everyday ice cream is usually made from vegetable oils, although luxury ice cream may also uso animal fats. Enulsifiers keep the oll and water mixed together in the ice cream while we fraeze it. Without tham, the water in the ice cream freezes seperately, Producing crystals of ice, That would make the ice cream crunchy rather than ‘smooth. This happens if you allow ice cream to melt and then put it back in the froezar,Other uses of emul ns Emuistfiers are also important in the cosmetics industry. Face creams, body lotions, ipstioks and lip gloss ave all emulsions. Emulsion paint (often just called emulsion) is a water-based paint with oil Groplets dispersed throughout. Itis commonly used for painting Indoor surfaces such as plastored walls. How an emulsifier works ‘An emulsifier is a molecule with ‘a tail thatis attracted (0 oll and ‘a head! that is attracted to water. The ‘tail is along hydrocarbon chain. This is called the hydrophobic part of the emuisifier molecule. The ‘head’ is a group of atoms that carry a charge. This is called the hydrophilic part of the molecule. The ‘tzils’ dissolve in oil making tiny droplets. The surface of each cil droplet is charged by the ‘heads’ sticking out into the water. As like chargas repel, the cil droplets repel each other. This keeps them spread throughout the water, stopping the oil and water separating out into two layers. Figure 4 The stucture of atypical emulsifier molecule witn ts waterdoving (hydrophilic) head andits waterhating (hydrophobic) tail Eminent 4 Copy and complote using tho words below: emulsifier emulsion cosmetics ioe mayonnaise mix separating small Oil and water do not... together. But ifthe oil droplets can be made very...» itis possible to produce @ mixture of cil and water called an ~~ - To keep the cil and water from... we can use a chemical called an... . Important examples of food made like this include cream. Emulsions are also importantin paints and 2 a Salad cream is an emulsion made from vegetable oil and water. In ‘what ways Is salad cream different from both oll and water? b Why do we need to add an emulsifier to an emulsion like salad cream? 9 Explain how emulstiier molecules do thaie job. Seu rel Making and testing emulsions Detergents act as emulsifiers. ‘Add a litle cooking oll to ‘some waterin a bolling tube. Stopper the tube and shake. Do the same in another boiling tubo but also add a drop of washing-up liquic. © Compare the mixtures when {rst shaken and when left standing a while. @ You can do some tests on other types of detergent ‘to see which is the most effactive emulsifier. Pom) eka) Cea kara) eet daettad Cie) Special properties. Sue uel De oat Cece) Cease Coa eee etd Ce Rec os oe Cee eta Pee ores ee Ud arise on cS eu ead too Ctr) Ceased nde) Te rhe eu) Otter Figure 1 Modem food contain « variety of edditves toimprove thet tase, texture ( appearance, and o give them a longer shelife CO links For information on how an emulsifier works, look back at C76.3 Everyday omulsions. rer) Food issues Emulsifying additives For hundreds of years we have added substancas like salt or vinegar to food to help keep it longer. As cur knowledge of chemistry has increased we have used othar substances too, to make food lock or taste better. We call a substance that is added to food to preserve it or to improve its taste, texiure or appearance a food additive, Additives that have been approved for use in Europe are given E numbers. These can be used to Identify them. ‘@ Whatis 2 food additive? Each group of additives is given a range of E numbers. Thess tell us what kind of additive itis. Emulsifiers are usually given E numbers in the range 400 to 500, along with stabilisars and thickeners. Ennumber | Additive What the additive does Example E4__ | emulsifiers, | Help te improva the texture ofthe | £440— pectin stabilisers anc | tood—wnat feels ike in your thickeners | mouth, Many focds contain these additives, for example, jam and ‘the soya protehns used in veggle burgers Emulsifiers stop cil and water separating out into two layers. This means that ‘emulsifiers make it jess obvious that foods are rich in oll or fat. Chocolate is a good example, The cocoa butter, which has a high energy content, is usually mid in wall, often with the help of emulsifiers. Howover, have you ever loft bar of chocolate past its sell-by date? Then you can see a white haze on the surface of the chocolate. This is the fatly butter starting to separate out. Then most people will throw the bar away. ‘So emulsifiers make oil and fat more edible in foods, They can make a mixture ‘that is creamier and thicker in texture than either cil or water. This makes it easier and more tampting for us to eat too much fatty food. a > S » Q a Figure 2 Which is more appetising ~ mayonnaise wih emustier (a) cr mayonneise without ‘emulstier (6)?Vegetable oils in our diet Everyone knows the benafits of a healthy ciet. But do you know the benefits of ensuring that you eat vagetabie olls as part of your diet? Scientists have found that eating vegetable oils instead of animal fats can do wonders for the health of your heart, The saturated fats you find In things like butter and chease can make the blood vessels of your heart bacome clogged up. However, the unsaturated ‘ats in vegetable oils (ike olive oll and com oil) are very good for you. They are a source of nutrients such as vitamin E. They also help to keep your arteries clear and reduce the chance of you having haart disease. The lavels of a special fat called cholesterol in your bioad give doctors an idea about your tisk of heart disease, People who eal vegetable cile rather than animal fats tend to have @ much lower level of ‘oad’ cholesterol in their blood. Name a vitamin that we get from live oil. ‘The fats used to cook chips and ther fast foods often contain cartain fats that are not good for us. Scientists are concerned that eating these fats might have caused an increase in heart disease Changes in food labelling are very important. But many products, including fast foods, often contain high levels of potentially harmful fats from the oil they were cooked in. Yet these are exempt from labelling reculations and may be advertised as ‘cholesterol-free’ and ‘cooked in vagetable oil. oo Food for thought 1 Write an article for a family lifestyle magazine about ‘Feeding your family’ Include in this article reasons for including vegetable cils ina balanced diet and thelr effect on people's health, 2 Design a poster with the title ‘Vegetable oils — good or bac’? 3 Write the script for a two-minute slot on local radio about the benefits and drawbacks of using emulsifiers in foods. Aimee toe 1 Draw a table to summarise the advantages and disadvantages of vegetable cils in our diet. 2 a Give a list of five foods that can contain emulsifiers as additives. b Why could it he said that emulsitiers have played a role in increasing childhood obestty rates? Figure 3 Sutter conains saturated fais ‘Which raise heath concerns Figure 4 Chips hve 2 high eneray content and may contsin potentially harmful fas from cooking cil Com re Crema unas Deena) Deke ald Pec emu} fats and hydrogenated A eek are) ‘texture of foods enabling De Ly Cy ee at ayPlant olls: C1 6.1-C1 6.4 Summary questions @ (@ Write simple definitions for the following words: a vegetable oils bb unsaturated oils ¢ saturated cils ¢ emulsion € emulsifier 2a Avegetable oil removes the colour from bromine water. Ittakes longer to decolourise the bromine water when tho vegotable oil is partially hydrogenated. When the vegetable oil has been completely hardened it does not react with bromine water. Explain these observations. b Explain why plant olle need to be hardened and the affect this has on the metting point of the oil. = [H] ¢ Give the conditions for the reaction between a plant oll and hydrogen. CH] '@ Compare the cooking of a potato in boiling water and in vegetable oll. @ 2 Some ice creamis lef standing out on a table during a meal on a het day. tis then put back inthe freezer again. When Its taken outot the tteezer a few days later, people complain thatthe ice cream tastes ‘crunchy’, Why is this? b A recipe for making ice cream says: ‘Stir the ice cream ‘rom time to time while itis freezing.’ Why must you stir ice cream when freezing homemade ice crea? ¢ Look at this lst of ingredients for making ice cream: 8 large egg yoks cup of sugar 22. cups of whipping cream ‘tBoups cold milk 4 vanilla ped wi \gredient acts as an emulsifiar in the mixture? ( Draw a diagram of the structure of atypical emulsifier. IH © State a use of vagetable oils where their high energy content is @ an advantage. b adisadvantage, {@&F A teacher decided that her class should do a survey of different cocking oils to find out the degree of unsaturated oils prosent in thm. Sho chose fvo different ils and civided them among her students. This allowed each oil to be done twice, by two cifferent groups. They were givan strict instructions as to how to do tha testing, Bromine water was added to each oil from a buretts, Tho volume added before the mixture in the conical flask was ne longer colourless was noted. Bromine water i being tested Tho results are in this tablo. Type ot cil | Amount of bromine water added (em) Group Group? Olio 242 23.0 Soleo 170 490 spre 79 a1 Tomeo 730 19 Margeo 179 174 ‘a Why was it important that the teachar gave strict instructions to all of the croups on how to carry out the tests? b List some control variables that should have been included in the instructions. ¢ Arethere any anomalous results? How did you dacide? d What evidence is there in the results that indicate that they are reproducible? @ How might the accuracy be checked? 1 How would you present these resulis on a graph? Explain your answer.Vegetable cils can be extracted from parts of plants that are rich in oils Ghoose the correct word tram the list to complete each sentence. Sunflower cil is extracted from sunflower leaves petals seeds ) b To extract olive oil the olives ara crushed and boiled evaporated pressed a ¢ The oil may contain small pieces of solid plant material that can be ramovad by condensing distilling filtering a) d IT the oll contains water it can be removed by leaving It to stand because oll and water evaporato mix separate a) 2 Lavender ol can be extracted from lavender plants by Condensor Faak Beaker Put the following staps into the correct order, 1 10 6: lavender plants are harvested > 13233343536 = lavender oll is collected, A Lavender oil and steam are condensed B Lavender separates from water © Stoam is passed into the flask D Levender plants are put into the flask E Lavender oil and water are collected F Lavender oll and water evaporate 3 End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 3 Potatoes cooked in boiling water take about 20 minutes to cook, Potato chips can be cooked in less than 10 minutos by deop frying in hot oil. This is one reasen why fast food outlets cook chips rather than potatoas. a Explain why chips cook faster in hot oil than in boiling water. @ b Suggest another advantage for fast food outlets to cook chips. « & Suggest a disadvantage for fast food outlets cooking chips. () d Suggest an advantage for consumers who eat chips rather than boilad potatoes. 0 @ Suggest a disadvantage for consumers who eat chips rather than bollad potatoes. @ @ a A vegetable cil was shaken with weter in flask 1 and with water and an emulsifier in flask 2. The diagrams show the results after leaving the mixtures to stand for ‘5 minutes. )\ ) ak ask? Norell ol Voge cl fiw" Maran ah omusior Give a reason for the result in Flask 1. a Explain the resuitin Flask 2. ® b Givean example of a product that contains an emulsifier and give twe ways in which its propertios are better than those cf the liquids from which itis made. @ © Explain how an emulsifier works. Your answer should include a diagram of a simple model of an emulsifier molecule, [H] @) AQA, 2007eu ead Write Earth? retin Ce tad edd eae Seer Peed Our changing planet By Cael UC ey nm te U0) How big do you think the Earth io? The deepest mines go down to about 3500m, while geologists have drilled down to more than 12000 m in Russia. Although these figures seem large, they are tiry compared with the diameter of the Earth. The Earths diametar is about 12800km. That's more than one ‘thousand times the deepest hole ever drilled! What's inside? (3) ‘The Earth is made up of layers that formed many millions of years ago, early in the history of our planet. Heavy materials sank towards the centie of the Earth while lighter material floated on top. This produced a structure consisting of dense core, surrounded by the mantle. Outside the mantle there is a thin outer layer called the crust. ‘Above the Earth's crust we have a thin layer of gases called the atmosphere. ‘Atmesphere rust Inner core Figure 1 The structure othe Earth ‘The Earth's crust is a very thin layer compared to tha diameter of the Earth. Its thickness can vary from as thin as $km under the oceans to 70km under the continents, Underneath the crustis the mantle. This layer is much, much thicker than the aust. Its nearly 3000km thick. The mantle behaves like a solid, but it can flow In parts very slowly. Finally, inside the mantle lies the Earth's core. This is about haf the radius of the Earth, [t's made of a mixture of the magnetic metals, nickel and Iron, The coro is actually two layars. Tho outer core is a liquid, whilo tho innor core is solid ‘Whats the solid outer layer of the Earth called? b Whatie the next layer down of the Earth called?‘Atmosphere Crust Mantle Core ‘About 80% of The average Starteundemeath | Radius of about the air in our thickness ofthe | crust and 3500km, atmospherelles | crusts atout6km | continuesto about | Made of nickel end within t0km of the | undertheeceane; | 3000kmbelow | iren surface. (Most of | about 35km under | Earty’s surface. | Outercore is the restiswithin | continental areas. | Behaves like @ | liquid, inner core is +100 ern but i Is solid, but is able to | solid hard to judge ‘tow very slow. exactly where our atmosphere ends. and space begins, Figure 2 All the resources that we dapend on come fom tha thin crust of ‘the Earth, its eceans and atmosphere All the minerals and other resources that we depend on in our lives come from the thin crust of the Earth, its oceans and atmosphere. We get all the natural materials we use plus the raw materials for synthetic and processed materials from these sources, There is a limited supply of resources available to us so we should take caro to conserve them for futuro gonorati Developing scientific ideas from evidence How do we know the structure inside the Earth if nobody has ever seen it? ‘Scientists use evidence from earthquakes. Following an eartnquake, seismic waves travel through the Earth, The waves are affected by cifferent leyers in the Earth's structure. By obsarving how seismic waves traval, sclentists have bullt up our picture of the inside of the Earth, Also, by making careful measurements, physicists have bean able to measure the mass of the Earth, and to calculate its density. The density of the Earth asa whole ie much greater than the density of the rocks found in the crust. This suggests that the centre of the Earth must be made ‘rom a different material to the crust. This material must have @ much greater density than the material in the crust. er ‘The temperature atthe cantre of the Earth ia between 600°C and 700°C. Aime oe Copy and complete using the words below: core crust mantle slowly solid thin atmosphoro euch The structure of the Earth consists of three layers =the wa. im the of layers. Starting trom the cont, HEN Te on ANG the OUteE aYEE Cf onan Wath the, tay above the eurfaca. The outer layer of the Earth is very ...... compared Co to the Earth's diameter. The layar below this is... but ean flow in Dead parts very. Pe ee) aos 2 Why do some people think that the mantle is best described as avery thick syrupy iquid’? Cie kata) 3 Why should we do our best to conserve the Earth's resources? Cneu ead ‘What are tectonic plates? Ree ea id Pcie Pe tod Ce eet Figure 1 Mesoseurus was 2 reptile that existed milion years ago, is fossis have been found in Afoa and in South Amerece, Our changing planet The restless Earth The continents are moving ‘The map of the world hasn't always looked the way it does today. Look at the map shown in Figure 2. Find the western coastline of Arica and the eastern cossiline of South America. Can you see how the edges of the two continents look lke they could siot together? “The fossils and rock structures that we find when we look in Arica and South ‘America are also similar. Fossils show that the same reptiles and plants once fed on both continents. Also, the layers of rock in the two continents have been built up in the same sequence. Scientiats now believe that they can explain these facts. They think that the ‘two continents were oncs joined together as one land mass. ‘What evidence is there that Africa and South America were once joined to each other? Tectonic plates Of coursa, the continonts moved apart very, vory slowly. In fact, thoy aro stil moving today, at the rate of a few centimetres each year. They move because the Earth’s crust and uppermest part of the mantle is cracked into a number of huge pieces. We call these tectonic platos. Deep within the Earth, radioactive atoms decay, producing vast amounts, of enargy. This heats up molten minerals in the mantle which expand. They become less dense and rise towards the surface. Cooler material sinks to take their place. Forces oreated by these convection currents move the tectonic plates slowly over the surface of the Earth. ‘Where the boundaries (edges) of the plates meet, huge stresses build up. ‘These forces make the plates buckle anc deform, and mountains may be formed. The plates may also suddenly slip past each other. Thase sudden ‘movemonts cause earthquakes, Howover, itis cifficult for eoiontisis, to know exactly where and when the plates will suddenly slip like th b What causes an earthquake to occur? Figure 2 The dstibution of voicanaes ‘and earthquakes around the world iargely follows the houndaris of the Earh’s tectonic platesTrying to predict the unpredictable! Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be devastating. But making accurate predictions of when they will take place is dificult. Markers placed across a plate boundary or across the crater of a volcano can be ‘monitored for movernent. Scientists also monitor the angles of the slopes on voleanoes. The sides of some volcanoes start io bulge outwards before an eruption. Any abnormal readings can be used as @ warning sign. Ithas also boon found that rocks heat up before earthquakes as a result of extreme compression. So satellites with infrared cameras can monitor the Earth's surface for unexpected rises in temperature, Our ability to predict those natural events, and evacuate people at risk, will improve as advances are mace by scientists. In the past, scientists thought thal features like mountain ranges were caused by the crust shrinking as tho early molten Earth cooled down. They ‘thought of it rather lke the skin on the surface of a bow! of custarc. It tends to shrink, then wrinkle, as the cusiard cools down. “The idea that huge land masses once existed before the continents we know today, was put forward in the late 19th century by the geologist, Edward Suess. He thought that a huge southern continant had sunk. He ‘Suggested thet this left behind a land bridge (since vanished) between Africa and South America. ‘The idea of continental drift was put forward first by Alfred Wegener in 1915. Howover, his follow sciontists found Wegener's ideas hard to acoopt. This was mainly because he could nat explain how the continents had moved. Se they siuck with their existing ideas. His theory was finally shown to be right almost 50 years later. Scientists found that the sea floor is spreading apart in some places, where molten rock is spewing out between two continents, This led to a new theory, called plate tectonics. —_/ Atego Copy and complete using the words be convection earthquakos mantlo toctonic volcanoos ‘The surface of the Earth ie eplit up into a series of, plates, Those: move across the Earth’s surface due to ‘currents in the Where the plates meet and rub against each other, we get... and a Explain how tectonic plates move. b Why are earthquakes and volcanie eruptions dificult to predict? Imagine that you are 2 scientist who has just heard Wegener's ideas for the first time, Write a letter to another scientist explaining what Wegener has said and why you have chosen to reject his i Figure 3 Earthquakes can be devastating to peope living close by ‘With the latest GPS (global positioning satellite) technology we can detect movement of tectonic plates down to 1mm per year. oe ‘The Earth's tectonic plates are made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle (nt just the crust) read Cy taod De ee ors number of massive pieces (tectonic plates) which ere constantly moving slowly. Dincic ees convection currents in the DO cc) a rrceedethenuced coord Dea ‘when the plates may slip past Cee add Cee Se Rec CuComeis could also have brought water to the Earth. As joy comets rained down on ‘the curfaco of the Eavth, thoy melted, adding to its water supplies. Even today many ‘thousands of tonnes of water fall onto the surface of the Earth from space every year. Figure 2 The surface of one of Jupiter's ‘moans, To, with #s active valcanaos leasing goaea into its eparoa aimosprere This gives usa reasonable impse of what our ovm Earth was like ions af years ago Scientiats think that the Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. To begin with it was a molten ball of rock and minerals. For its first billion years it was a very violent place. The Earth's surface was covered with volcanoes belching fire and gases into the atmosphere. Figure 1 Yoicanaes moved cherricals from inside the Earth to the surface and the newly Eminyamocios 6 There are several theories about the Earth's early atmosphere, One suggests ‘that volcanoes released carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrogen gas and these gases formed the early atmosphere. The water vapour in the atmosphere condensed as the Earth gradually cooled down, and fell as rain. Water collected in hollows in the crust as the rock solidified and the first oceans were formed As tho Earth bogan to stabilise, the atmosphoro was probably mainh dioxide, There could also have been some water vapour, anc traces of methane and ammonia. There would have been very litle or no oxygen at that time, Some scientists believe nitrogan was another gas present at this time This is very lke the atmospheres which we know exist today on the planets Mars and Venus. ‘@ What was the main gas in the Earth's early atmosphere? bb How much oxygen was there in the Earth's oarly atmosphoro? Aiter the inital violent years of the history of the Earth, the atmosphere remained quite stable. That is unti life first appeared on Earth® There are many theories as to how life was formed on Earth billions of years ago. Scientists think that liie on Earth began about 3.4 billion years ago. That is when simple organisms similar to bactaria appeared. Thase could make food for themseivas, using the breakdown of other chemicals as a source of energy. Later, bacteria and other simple organisms, such as aloae, evolved. They could use the energy from the Sun to make their own food by photosynthesis. This producad oxygen gas as a waste product. By two billion years ago the levels of oxygen were rising steadily as algae and bacteria thrived in the seas. More and more plants evolved. All of them wera photosynthesising, removing carbon dioxide and making oxygen. (eoeigy tom suntghy carbon dioxide + water "sugar + oxygen ‘As plants ovolved, they succosstully colonised most of tho surface of tho Earth. So the atmosphere became richar and richer in oxygen. This made it possible for animals to evolve. These animals could nol make their own food and needed oxygan to respira, Figure 3 Some ofthe fst photosynthesising bacteria probably tved Incolones ike these srorataltes. They (grew water ard released oxygen into the early atmosphere. On the other hand, many of the earliest living microorganisms could not tolerate a high oxygen concentration (because they had evolved without i). ‘They largely died out, as there were fewer places where they could live. Scientists have reconstructed what they think the atmosphare must have been lke millions of years ago based on evidence ‘rom gas bubbles trapped in ancient rocks. They also use data gathered trom the almospheres of other planets Figure 4 Not cnly do bac auch aa these ct nese! xygen- they ci they are exposed'o | and thai mocns in the solar it butthay can sunive and breed in ting save and other places were there © 20 oxygen system 1 Copy and completa using the werds below: dioxide methane oxygen volcanoes water ‘The Earth's early atmosphere probably consisted mainly of tha gas carbon ‘There could also have been vapour and nitrogen, plus mall amounts of ‘and ammonia. Thase gases wore released by as they erupted. Plants removed carton dioxide from the atmosphere and produced gas. 2 Describe how the Earth's early atmosphere was probably formed? 3 Why co scientists believe there was no life on Earth for 1.1 billion years? 4 Draw a chart that explains the early development of the Earth's atmosphere.Our changing planet Life on Earth Mest theories of how our atmoaphere developed include the arrival of ing things on Earth. The oxygan in our atmosphere today is explained by photosynthesis in plants. The plants probably evolved from simple organisms ike plankton and algae in the ancient oceans. eeu Kea Protec Sm uc ead © Why does one theory involve SS rkeee cata) Ped [4] But where did the molecules that make up the cells of even the simplest living things come from? And how were they formed? Any theorias to answer these questions are bound to be tentative. They will be based cn assumptions. The best theories will be the ones that explain most of the widely-accepted evidence. Miller-Urey experiment A We know the type of molecules that make up living things. To make these we niaed compounds callad amino acids. Thase amino acids maka proteins. CD links For information on theorfes about the Earth's early atmosphere, look back at C1 7.3 The Earth's Most amino acide contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and atmosphere in te past. ‘oxygen. So one way forward is to try to re-oreate the conditions in the early atmosphere in an experiment. Could amino acids have been made in those conditions? That is the question the soiontists Millor and Uroy tried to answor in 1952. Figure 1 shows a diagram of ther apparatus. They used a mixture of water (H,O), ammonia (NH,), methano (CH,) and hydrogen (H,) to model the early atmosphere. Under normal conditions, these ¢gases do not react together. However, Miller and Urey used a high voltage to produce a spark to provide the enargy needed for a reaction. This simulated lightning in a storm. The experiment ran tor a week then they analysed the mixture formed. It locked like @ brown soup. Init they found 11 different + Electrdes y bivetonat Tino acid. lect spa vate vapour ‘icing trees” ——@ Which elements make up most arino acids? This experiment provided evidence that it was e HD, GH, NH, He possible to make the molecules of life from gases. that may have been in our earty atmosphere. Miller and Urey published their findinge in 1953. aed They froze soma of the mixturas formed in their = (bimitveatrosphere) ‘experiments and stored ft. In 2008 other solentists, Cold Condenser Samping analysed it using modern techniques. Thoy ee probe” found 22 amino acids, as well as other molecules, in important for life. ‘Theorias of the composition ofthe early almosphere have changed since the 1960s. For ‘example many people think the atmosphere was Cool water Wetor mainly carbon dioxide and nitrogen before the frst i Pe ae tee armenenere ne are a CD ‘experiments to Miller and Urey, they still get similer Figure 1. The classic Miler-Urey experiment biological molecules made.‘There are opponents of the theory that biological material can be made from non-biolagical material. They argue that the Miller-Urey experiment only works In the absence of oxygen. They believe that oxygen would have been present afore the gonerally accopted time for its appearance. This would make any conclusions based on Miller-Urey or similar experimental rasuits invalid, Other theories Another thaary is based an analysis of meteors that crash to Earth fram space. In 1969 a meteorite fell from the sky above Australia. Known as the Murchison meteorite, ts mass was over 100 kg. Howover, mare intaresting wore the range of organic molecules found in it. Tho latost studios of fragments of the moteorite havo identified about 70 different amino acids. This shows that the molecules capable of starting life on Earth might have arrived from outer space. bb Why were acienticte interested in the Murchison meteorite? Another source of biclogical molecules could have been deep under the ‘oceans. Near to valearic vants on the seabed wa get both the conditions and chemicals needed. But just because tha ‘building blocks’ of life might have heen on Earth, it does not explain the really difficult step, How do they go on to form life? The organic molecules, from whatever source, could have formed a ‘primordial soup. All the molecules needed to start life could have been in the seas. Then thoy would have had to react together to somehow make the first primitive calls. Protein molecules capable of replicating themselves might have been involved at this stage. (Others think that simple living organisms could have arrived on Earth in meteorites or comets. Their evolution had started elsewhere. This ‘extraterrestrial seeding’ from outer space supports the theory of lfe in othar parts of the universe. Of course, nobody knows for sure but the search for evidence goes on. Aire eee 1 Look at Figure 1 a Explain what Miller and Urey cid in their experiment. b Which one of these statements best describes the outcome of their oxporiment: A It showed how lite can be formed from simple molecules. B It showed how carbon dioxide and methane are essential parts of aliving coll G It showed that biological molecules can be made from substances ‘that could have been in the early atmosphere. D It showed that the Earth's early atmesphere must have bean mace up of only carbon dioxide, ammenia, water vapour and methane. [x] 2 @ What do we mean by a ‘primordial soup"? b What role might a ‘primordial soup' hava played in developing life on Earth? (HI Figure 2 Partof the Murchison meteorite, whlch is rich in organic molecules the molecules of Ife Figure @ Velcaric venis under the soa rmighthave helped form a ‘prmordial soup’ of organic molecules Com oc Plaats tierce ead Involving hydrocarbons, such 8 methane, and ammonia. ‘The energy required for the reaction could have been [eceersek ack U © Allthe theories about how ee ry Packed pe ote) eet [H]eu ead Tooke ‘the carbon dioxide In the Ce euce eed Reed eater Peete ic) How can the gases in the air be separeted? fio] Figure 1 Thora ie clea focal evidonca in ‘carbonate rocks othe eiganisms which lived milions of years ago Practical Shelly carbonates Carry outa test to see if crushed samples of shells contain carbonates. Think of the reaction thet all carbonates undergo with dilute acid. How willl you test any gas given off? © Record your findings. Our changing planet Gases in the atmosphere We think that the early atmosphere of the Earth contained a great deal of carbon dioxide. Yet the Earth's atmosphere today only has around 0.04% of this gas. So where has itll gone? The answer is mostly into li and into materials formad from living organisms. Carbon ‘locked into! rock Carbon dioxide is taken up by plants during photosynthesis. The carbon can end up in new plant material, Then animals eat the plants and the carbon is transferred to the animal tissues, including bones, teeth and shells. Over rrillons of years the dead bodies of huge rumbers of these living craanisms built up at the bottom of vast oceans. Eventually they formed sedimentary carbonate rocks like imestone (containing mainly calcium carbonate). ‘Some of those living things were orushed by movernents of the Earth and heated within the crust. They formed the fossil fuels coal, crude oil and natural gas. In this way much of the carbon from carbon dioxide in the ancient atmosphere bacame locked up within the Earth's crust. ‘a Where has most of the carban dioxide in the Earth's early atmasphere: gone? Carbon dioxide also dissolved in the oceans, It reacted and made insoluble carbonate compounds, These fell to the seabed and helped to form more carbonate rocks. Ammonia and methane At the same time, the ammonia and methane, trom the Earth's early atmosphere, reacted with the oxygen formed by the plants. CH, + 20,» CO, + 2H,0 4NH, + 30, > 2N, + 6H,O ‘This got rid of methane and ammonia, The nitrogen (N) levels in the ‘atmosphere built up as thie is a very unreactive gas. Tho atmosphere today (9 By 200 million years ago the proportions (of gasos in tho Earth's atmesphoro had stablised. These were much the same as they are today. Look at the parcentage of gases in the atmosphere today In the 1 Non 7896 pie chart in Figure 2. Dongen 21% 5 rgan 0.08, (Can di 0.045, ace amounts of cme gases Figure 2 The lave propotions of nitagen, oxygen and cther gases in the Earth's atmosphere bb What gas did plants procuce thet changed the Earth’s atmosphere?Separating the gases in air In industry the gases are saparated by the fractional distilation of liquid air. Fractional cstillation isa process in which liquids wit differant boing points are separated, So frst we have to gat ar cold enough for itto condense into a liquid. It has to be cooled to a temperature below ~200°C. In industry they do this by compressing the air to about 190 times atmospheric pressure. This actually warms the air up. So tis cooled down to normal temperatures by passing the air over pipes carrying cold water. But the main cooling takes place when the pressure is released. As this, happens, the ait is allowed to expand rapidly. This is similar to what happens in an aorosol can when prosaure is reloasod as the acrocol ie sprayod. Tho temperature drops ‘ar enough for even the gases in airto condense to liquids. The carbon diovide and water can be removed from the mixture as they are solids at this low tamperaturo Hore are tho boiling points of tho main substances loft Nitrogen = -196°0, Argon = 186°C, Oxygen = -183°C. The quid is then allowed to warm up and at ~196°C nitrogen boils of fist. It is collected irom the top of a tall fractionating column. Liquid nitrogen is used to coo! things down fo very low temperatures. At hese temperatures most things solidly tis used to store sperm in hospitals to help in forilty treatment, Nitrogen gas is vary unreactive so wo use itin sealed food packaging to stop food going off. Itis aloo used on oil tankers when the oil is pumped ashore to reduce tho risk of explosion. i industry, nitrogen gas ie used to make ammonia whioh we : convert into fertlisers. > a” “Tho oxygen separated off is used to help peopre breathe, often at the scene Of enaccident orn hospital. is aloo Used to help things react. Examples include high temperature welcing and tho stool making process. the liquid ir mixturo: Figure 4 Bibiocical semples ate preserved in liquid nitrogen unl they aro reeded Aire 4 Copy and complete the table showing the proportion of gases in the Earth's atmosphere today. nitrogen carbon other gases % % % % % oxygen argon 2. Which technique is used to separate the main gasas in liquid air? [H1] b How can water and carbon dioxide be removed trom the air before the gases onter the fractionating column. tH] ¢ Lookat the boiling points of nitrogen, argon and oxygen above: 1 Which gas bolls off after nitrogen? Why is dificult to obtain 100% pure oxygen? tH] eneeeemememeeneenenenenennnennensnensnsenenene Mean ome SO links For information on the irectionating column used to separate crude oi into fractions, {ook back at Cf 4.2 Fractional disilation. Gaseous nitogen oat Save Liquid air inat-200 Liquid i oxygen ot Figure 3 Fractional aston ofliquid at ae Ina tractionating column the incividual gases can be soparated bocauso oftheir different boiling points. WaT ‘© Tho main gases in the Earth's So ei) cen Oe ee an kad the atmosphere is nitrogen, Peon s I Cros uaa Cdiotascledumancel istilation. These gases are Peete aseu ead Peetu is Ee iteki eu acd Retake Coie Cel foe Increasing levels of carbon dioxide Look atthe data collected by scientists monitoring the proportion of carbon clade in tho atmoephoro at ono location: 3559 350 eo Boo Sow 5 000 8 325 = © 320: yt asl “ © Why is the line not a smooth ourve? © Explain the overall trend shown by the data. CO links For information about the effect ‘humans have had on the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, Our changing planet Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Over the past 200 million years the levela of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have not changed much. This is due to the natural cycle of carbon in which carbon moves between the oceans, rocks and the atmosphere. ‘Diatear ae scot n wae, (const) paral oceans Photosynthesis Decay and respifator by dacomposers | "expiration ‘Organic compound ic compounds ding 1¢ oompounds| ints ls inctrames ans) | a Det Death avai Site Wx Figure 1 The level of carbon diasde inthe atmosphere has remained steady forthe last 200, milion years as a result of this natural cycle. However, over the past 200 years the carbon dioxide levels have risen as people started to bum mare and more fossi fue. LLatt to itsetf this cyole is self-regulating. The oceans act as massive reservoirs of carbon dioxide, They absorb excess CO, when itis produced and release itwhen itis in short supply. Plants also remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, We often call plants and oceans carbon dioxide ‘sinks’ 2. What has kept carbon leve's roughly stable over the past 200 milion years? The changing balance (3) (Over the recent past we have greatly increased the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. We burn fossil fuels to make electricity, heat our homes and run aur cars. This has enormously increased the amount of carson dioxide we produce. ‘There is no doubt that the levels of carhon dioxide in the atmosphere are Increasing. We can recard annul changes in the levals of carbon dioxide which are due ‘to seasonal differences in the plants. The variations within each year show how important plants are for remeving CO, from the atmosphere. But the overall rand aver the recent past has been ever upwards. ‘Tne balance between the carbon dioxide produced and the cerbon dioxide absorbed by ‘CO, sinks’ is very important. 0)Think about what happens vihen we burn fossil juels. Carbon has been locked up for hundreds of millions of years in the fossil fuels. Itis ralaased as carbon, dioxide into the atmosphere when used as fuel. For example, propane + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water CH, + 50, >» 300, + 4,0 ‘As carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere go up, the reactions of carbon dioxide in sea water also increase. Tho reactions make insoluble carbonates (mainly calcium carbonate). These are deposited as sediment on the bottom. of the ocean, They also produce soluble hydrogencarbonates, mainly of calcium and magnesium. These compounds simply remain dissolve: sea water. the In this way the seas and aceans act as a buffer, absorbing excass carbon dioxide but releasing it if necessary. However there are now signs that the 088 cannot cope with all the additional carbon dioxide that we are currently producing. For example, coral reefs are dying in the more acidic concitions caused by excess dissolved carbon dioxide. Thinking of solutions but at what cost? ) Most of the electricity that we use in the UK is made by burning fossil fuals. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Scientisis have come up with 2 number of solutions. One solution would be te pump carbon dioxide produced in fossil fuel power stations deep underground to be absorbed into porous rocks. This is called ‘carbon capture and storage’ Itis estimated that this would increase tha cost of producing electricity by about 10%. © Give an advantage and a disadvantage of reducing carbon dioxide emissions using ‘carbon capture and storag Summary questions 1 Match up the parts of sentences: a | Carbon dioxdelevelsinthe | A Eerth’s atmosphere - carton locked up long ago Ie released ae caren dloxide. bb | Plantsanc coeans ere known | B |... were keptsteady by the a0 natural reeyeling of carbon dioxide in the environment. © | Whenwe burnfosailfuets ... | © | ...the reactions of carbon dioxide in sea water increase, d | Ascarsondioxidelevels ree | D |... carbon dioxide sinks 2 Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate how boiling an electric kette may increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. 3 Why has the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere risen ‘60 much in tho recont past? Figure 2 Mos ofthe electicty that we tune in the UX ie made By buming fossil fuels Some eciontists predict that global warming may mean that the Earth's average temperature could rise by as much as 5.8°C by the year 21001, People are worried about ‘changing climates (including increasingly common extreme weather events) and rising sea levals as 2 result of melting Ice caps and expansion of the warmer oceans, Low-lying land then might disappear beneath the soa, ete a Pe ey eo Ce ieral Ce ay Se ty Sue aTL La Puce oe) Summary questions @ @ Write simple definitions for the following words describing the structure of the Earth: a mantle b core © atmosphere tootonie plate, (2 Wegonor suggested that al tho Earth's continonte were once joined in a single land mass. 1 Describe the avidence for this idea, and explain how the single land mass separated into the continents we aco today. b Way were other scientists slow to accept Wegener's idoas? @ Tho pio charts show the atmosphore ofa planet shortly after it was formed (A) and then millions of years later (B). trogen Ammonla 5% a B @ How did the atmosphere of the planet change? b What might have caused the change in part a? © Copy and complete the word equations showing tho chemical reactions that may have taken place in the atmosphere. 1 methane + = carbon dioxide + ammonia + .......-> nitrogen + d Why have levels of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere increased so dramatically over the past 200 yoars? @ a Doscribo how tho Mllr-Uroy oxperimont advanced ‘our understanding of how life might have first formed on Earth, THI b Why didn’t their experiment prove how life began on Earth? [fH] |B The Earth and its atmosphere are constantly changing. Design a poster fo show this. Itshould be suitable for displaying in a classroom with childron aged 10-11 years, Use diagrams and words to describe and explain, ideas and to communicate them clearly to the children. ‘o0) Core samples heve been taken of the ice irom Antarctica. The deeper the sample the longer t has been there. tis possible to date tha ica and to take lr samples from it. The ar was repped when the ice was formed. It is possible therefore to test samples of air that have been trapped in the oe for many trousards of years. This table shows some of these results. The more recent results ara from actual air samples takan from a Pacific island, Ye CO, concentration Source (ppm) 2005, 370 Pacifc island 1995 360 Pacific island 1985 345 Pacific island 1075 aa Pacific island 1965 920 Antarctica 1955 318 Antarctica 1945 310 Antarctica 1996 300 Antarotioa 1925 305 Antarctic 1915 301 Antarctica +1905 207 Antaretion 4995 204 Antarctica 1890 294 Antarctica a Ifyou have access 10 a spreadsheet, enter the data and produce a lino graph. b Draw a line of best ft. © What pattern can you detect? d What conclusion can you make? @ Snoulc the fact that the cata came trom two different sources affect your conclusion? Explain why.AQ*4/€Examination-style questions @ 4 Match a word from the list with each of the labels A, B, Cand Don the diagram of the Earth. atmosphere core crust mantle ® b From which parts of the Earth do wa get all of our raw materials? A. atmosphere, core and crust B atmosphere, cust and oceans G atmosphere, core and mantle D core, mantle and oceans “ 2 a About one hundred years ago there was a scientist callod Alfred Weganer. Ho found evidence that the continents, such as South America and Africa, had ‘once been joined and then drifted apart. iia Sout Amica Sedimentary rocks ‘centaining facil Use the diagram to suggest twa piaces of evidence that could be used to show that the continents had once bean joined. @ b About filly years ago, new evidence convinced scientists that the Earth's crust is made up of tectonic plates that are moving very slowly. Give two piecas of evidence that hava helped to convince these scientists that the tectonic plates are moving @ @ Describe as fully ac you can what causes the Earth's, tectonic plates to move. @ AQA, 2009 3 a Inthe Earth's atmosphere the percentage of carbon dioxide has remained at about 0.03% for many thousands of years, The graoh shows the percentage of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere over the last 50 years. -B End of chapter questions 0.040 0.039 0.038 0.037 0.036 0.035 0.034 0.033 0032 0.031, 1960 1970 180 1980 2000» 7010 Year 1 What was the percentage of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere in 1965? % a) ii What change hes happened to the percentage of carbon dioxide in tho Earth's atmosphore over the last 50 years? a) Suggest one reason for this change. 0) iv Why does this change worry some people? (i) ‘There are difierent theories about the Earth's early atmosphere. b Some scientists believe the Earth's early atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour. What do the acientiats believe praduced these gases? @) ¢ In 1953 some scientists beleved the Earth's early airmosphere was mainly water vapour, methane, ammonia and hycrogen. In the Miller-Urey experiment, electricity was passed through a mixture ofthese gases and produced amino acids, the building blocks for proteins and life, Give two reasons why the experiment docs not prove that lifo bogan in this way. [H] @) d Most scientists agree that there was very little oxygen in the Earth's early atmosphere. Explain how the ‘oxygen that is now in the atmosphere was produced. [H1 @) Carton die (%) ‘The elements oxygen, nitrogen and argon can be separated from the air. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed from ali, which is ten cooled to -200°C. The liquid obtained ie a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and argon. ‘The table shows the boiling points of these elements. Element Bolling point in °c ergon 496 nitrogen 196 oxygen 103 Explain how those elements can be separated by fractional distillation of the liquid, [H] @) c)STIL LLne nok net 1a The diagram shows the parts of ahydrogen atom, «>= “Use words from the list to label the diagram. So electron group nucleus symbol @ bb Hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel for cars, Se “When hydrogen burns in air, it reacts with another element. Complete the word equation for this reaction. a hydrogen + water ii Suggest ome reason why hydrogen is called a clean fuel AQA, 2008, 2. Use a periodic table to help you to answer this question, Oxygen is in Group 6 of the periodic table. i Howmany protons are in an atom of oxygen? w ii How many electrons are in an atom of oxygen? o b Chlorine is in Group 7 of the periodic table. Complete the electronic structure of chlorine: 2, o © Fluorine is also in Group 7, Explain why in terms of electronic structure, w 4 Neon and argon are in Group 0 of the periodic table. They are very unreactive elements. What does this tell you about their electronio structures? @ 3. When calcium carbonate is heated it decomposes. The equation for this reaction is: CaCO, 4 C20 +0, a Use numbers from the list to complete the sentences. 23456 i The number of products in the equation is o ii ‘The formula CaCO, shows that calcium carbonate was made from ifferent elements, o ii "The equation is balanced because there are... afomson both sides. (1) b Other metal carbonates decompose ia a similar way. i. Name the solid produced when zine carbonate decomposes. o ii Name the gas produced when copper carbonate decomposes. wo 4 Parmers can use calcium hydroxide to noutralise soils that are too acidie. Limestone is mainly calcitim carbonate, CaCO. Limestone is used fo make calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH),- a What are the two reactions used (o make calcium hydroxide from limestone? (2) Explain why calcium hydroxide noutralises soils that are too acid Q © Farmers can alo use powdered limestone to neutralise soils that are 100 Explain why. 2 4 Suggest one reason why it may be safer for farmers to use powdered limestone instead of calcium hydroxide. Suggest one reason why powdered limestone costs ess than calcium hydroxide. (1) £ Write balanced equations for the reactions in 4(@) THI) The formula of calcium chloride is CaCl, Write a balanced equation for the reaction of calcium hydroxide with hyérochloric acid, FIC. [HI @) hy Write 2 balanced equation for the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, THI 2) OE ‘When you are asked to complete a word equation for a reaction, raadthe Information in the question carefully and you should find the names of the reactants and products. QL ‘The AQA data sheet that you will have in the exam has a periodic tablo. (CJA Examiner's tip Remember that each symbol represents one atom of an element and ‘that amall (eubscript) numbers ina formula multiply only the atom they follow. re ‘Attempt all parts of a question. If you coma toa part you cannot answer do ot be put offreading the ext parts.§ Titanium is as strong as steel but is much more expensive. It is used to make jet engines for aiscralt and to make replacement hip joints for people. 4 Give two properties that make titanium better thaa steel for making jot engines and replacement hip joints Q bb dn this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly ard using specialist terms where appropriate, ‘Titanium is made in batches of about 10 tonnes that take up to 1S days. The main steps to make titanium are: + Titanium oxide is reacted with chlorine to produce titanium chloride, * Titanium chloride is reacted with magnesium at 900°C in a sealed reactor for three days to give a mixture of titanium and magnesium chloride. + The reactor is cooled for seven days, and then the mixture is removed. * ‘The magnesium chloride is removed from the mixture by distillation at very low pressure, + ‘The titanium is melted in aa electric furnace and poured into moulds. Steel is produced at about 8000 tonnes per day. The main steps to make steel are: * Tron oxide is reacted with carbon (coke) in a blast furnace that runs continuously. * ‘The molten impure iron flows to the bottom of the furnace and is removed every four hours. + Oxygen is blown into the molten iron for about 20 minutes to produce steel, + ‘The stee! is poured into moulds. Explain why titanium costs more than steel. © AQA, 2008 6 lives are the fruits of the olive tree, Olive oil is extracted from olives. Use a word from the list to complete the sentence, condensed evaporated pressed In the frst step to extract the oil the olives ate crushed and. @ bb This gives a mixture of liquids and solids that is left 0 settle. ve ol Water Solids “Why does the olive oil separate from the water? o © The olive oil is removed from the water and filtered to remove any small pieces of solids. Suggest two seasons why separating olive ol by this method is better than separating, ity distilling. a 4 Olive oil can be used asa fuel. Explain why. 2 e Food can be cooked in olive oil, Give one advantage and one disadvantage of cocking food in olive oil. a £ Olive cil ean be used with vinegar to make salad dressings. Name the type of substance that is added to salad dressings to stop them from separating. w End of unit questions KOU ‘You may be given information about faniiar ‘or unfamiliar applications of chemistry. The information you are given should help you to answer the questions. Q5(b) requires you to organise information clearly. Think about the points in the Information and decide which ones make titanium more expensive than steal Underline or cirale tho Points you are going to use on the question paper. Add brief netes, perhaps pumbers for the order that you will use, Think about how you are going to write your anewer. Rehearse it in your head before you vwrrite your answer. K@WwWaTe ‘Always be aware of the number of marks for a question. If tis two marks, you need to make two oinis in your answer. ‘Somatimes this is cbvious, asin Q6(o), but in Q6(o) you need to make sure you rave not given justa single simple statement 1mRou ocd ee eu Rn et tec al Ce a kako elements in Group 7? {{ | Sum \ 2et —<—~ 7 if ‘ { \ hat (i oma | S W\ } Figure 2 A postive sodium ion (Ne") is formed when a sodium atom loses an cron Curing ionic bonding Structure and bonding Chemical bonding « You already know that we can mix two substances together without either of them changing, For example, we can mix sand and salt together and then separate them again, No change will have taken piace. But in chemical reactions the situation is very different. ‘When the atoms of two or more elements react they make a compound. Acompound contains two or more elements which are chemically combined. ‘The compound formed is diffrent from the elemonts and we cannot get the elements back again easily. We can also react compounds together to form other compounds. However, the reaction of elements is easier to understand as a starting point ‘a Whats the difference between mixing two substances and reacting them? = = ‘Sand ‘Blue copper ‘Moxture of sand \ ‘Bue copper Blue copper Se eae ea ca Pe se SRE aes tal A Sodium Chogne /\ b+ f= / \—- ni eS ee ee Figure 1 The dference between mixing and reacting. Separating mibtures 5 usually quite 12asy, but separating substances once they have reacted can be quite dificult. Why do atoms react? When an etom has an arrangement of electrons like a noble gas in Group 0, itis stable and unreactive, However, most atoms do not have this electronic structure, When alors react they take part In changes which give them a stablo arrangement of olactrons. They may do this by either: @ sharing electrons, which we call covalent bonding @ transferring electrons, which we call Ionic bonding. Losing electrons to form positive ions In ionic bonding the atoms involved lose or gain electrons to form charged particles called ions. The ions have the electronic structure of a noble gas. So, for example, if sodium (2,8,1) loses one electron itis left with the stable electronic structure of neon (2,8).However, itis also left with one more proton in its nucleus than there are electrons around the nucleus. The praton has a positive charge so the sodium aiom has now become a positively charged ion. The sodium jon has a single positive charge. We write the formula of a godium ion as Na*. Tho electronic structure af the Na* ion is 2,8. This ‘s shown in Figure 2 chore 2a7 Gaining electrons to form negative ions Whon non-metals react with metals, the non-metal atome gain electrons to achieve a stable noble gas structure. Chlorine, for example, has the electronic structure 2,8,7. By gaining a single electron, it gets the stable electronic structure of argon (2,88), In this case there is now one more electron than there are positive protons 2.88 in the nuclous. So the chlorine aterm becomes a nagatively charged ion. This carries a single negative charge. We write the formula cf the chloride ion as l-,Its electronic structure is 2,8,8. This is shown in Figure 3. Figure 2 A negative chieride icn (Ch) ie bb Whon atoms join oyether by sharing luctrons, what type of bond fgrmod nhon cher ater gars an istormec? When ions join together as a result of gaining or losing electrons, what type of bond is this? Representing ionic bonding Metal atoms, which need to lose electrons, react with non metal atoms, which need to gain electrons. So when sodium reacts with chlorine, each socium atom 28 lose an electron and each chlorine acl (tec) atom gains that electron. Thay both form stable ions. The electrostatic attraction betwaon tho oppositaly charged Na’ ions and CI ions is called Figure 4 The formation cf sodium chloride (NsC) ~ an example of ian formation by transferring an electron bonding ‘We can show what happans in a diagram. The elactrons of one atom ara represented by dots, and the electrons of the other atom are represented by Crosses. This is shown in Figure 4. roms eee ek form compounds by gaining 1 Copy and complete using the words bek a hse) covalent difficult compound gaining ionic losing new noble CR ICEIDS When two elements react together they make a.........substance called | [ERUMASUN Ty isn) Bevin EIS ronnnet0 Separats the elements after the reaction. Some Fer ur atoms roact by sharing electrons. We cell this... bo a A nd LOM FACE BY se OF sn snne €l€CITONS. We Call 1s . atoms of Group 1 elements Shen cenretenet nitivsmiar ney aetineciecten teentetretcrs eyes) as. Pee structure of a noble gas. This electron can be given to an following atoms are involved in ionic bonding. For each one, state how om fan Gees Thich many elections have been lost or gained and show the charge on the Mapes ions formed. Ceetea tars @ aluminium (Al) bb fluorine (F) © potassium (kK) d oxygen (©) oy Draw diagrams to show the ions that would be formed whon thoStructure and bonding lonic bonding « You have seen how positive and negative ions form during some reactions. onic compounds are usuzlly formed when metals react with non-matals. ecu Tho ions formed are held next to each other by vory strong forces of attraction Dad between the oppositely charged ions. This electrostatic force of attraction, Pr orp eran er at which acts in all directions, Is called fonte bonding, Cute Mewes The ionic bonds between the charged particles result in an arrangement or of ions that we call a giant structure (or a giant lattice). If we could stand among the ions thay wauld seam to go on in all directions forever. Pe ociied ‘The force exerted by an ion on the other ions in the laitice acts equally in all directions. This is why the ions in a giant structure are hald so strongly together, The giant structura of ionic compounds is very regular. This is because the Tons all pack together neatly, Ike marbles In a box. 1 What name do we give to the arrangement of ions in an ionic: ‘compound? b What holds the ions together in this structure? Stang ioe bonds between paasioly charged ions + Nat Figure 1 Part oft giant ionic lace (@D ntwvort) of sodium and chloride ions in socium chloride ‘Sometimes the atoms reacting need to gain or lose two electrons to gana stable noble gas structure. An example is when magnesium (2,8,2) reacts with oxygen 2,6). When these two elements react they form magnesium oxide (Mg0). This is made up of magnesium ions with a double positive charge (Mg) and oxide ions with a double negative charge (O®). We can represent the atoms and ions involved in forming ionic bonds by dot and cross diagrams. In these diagrams wa only shaw the electrons in tha outermost shell of each atom or ion, This makes them quicker to draw than the diagrams on the previous page. Figure 2 on the next page shows an example.“The structure of ioric latices is Mg investigated by passing X-rays through them, 2a2 26 a a) Figure 2 Whon magnesium oxide (Wig0) io formed, the reacting magnesium etome loco two electrons and the oxygan atoms gain two electrons ‘Another example of an ionic compound is calcium chioride. Each calcium atom (2,8,8,2) naeds to lose twa electrons but each chlorine atom (2.8.7) needs to gain only one electron. This means that two chlorine atoms react with every ono calcium atom to form calcium chloride. So the formula of calcium chloride is CaCl. i -_ . * 2882 \ 298 287 cath, 288 Figure 3 Tha ‘oration cf calcium chloe (CaCl) ‘Summary questions 4 a Copy and complete the table: ‘Atomie ‘Atom — | Electronte Electronic: number structure of structure of ‘atom lon 8 arr 18 2a. Conon) 7 Se 2 2882 together by strong forces: reas b Explain vy potassium chloride is KC! but potassium oxide is K,O. Behe eat © Explain why calcium oxide is CaO but calcium chloride is CaCl, ees 2 Draw dot and cross diagrams to show how you would expect the ‘© Besides the elements in following alements to form ions together: Caren rd a ivaium and chiorine Ceuta ke uel b caloium and oxygan compounds includo those aluminium and fluorine. eee L Tseu ead ree ean of an lonle compound, given its ions? ree Common salt is sodium chloride. In just 58.5g of salt there are ovar 600 000.000 {000 000 000 000 000 ions of Nat and the same number of Gr ions. p Structure and bonding Formulae of ionic compounds In this chapter we have seen how three different ionic compounds are formed. ‘You should understand how atoms turn to ions when socium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium chloride are formed from their elements. ‘The overall charge on any ionic compound is zero. The compounds are neutral, Therefore we do not have to draw dot and cross diagrams to work out each ionic formula, As long as we know or are givan the charge on the ions in a.compound we can work out its formula. ‘@ Whatis the overall charge on an ionic compound? Ifwe look atthe three examples above, we can see how the charges on the jona ina compound cancel out: Tonle compound Ratio of lons in Formula of compound ‘compound sodium chloride NaCl magnesium oxide MgO calcium enloriae cect, 4:2 b Whatis the formula of magnesium chloride? We can work out the formula of some ions given a copy of the periodic table. Remember that in your exams you wil have a Data Sheet which includes a poriodic table and a tablo showing the chargos of common ions. Groups of metals © The atoms of Group 1 elements form 1+ ions, eg. Lit © The atoms of Group 2 elements form 2+ ions, e.g, Ca’. Groups of non-metals © The atoms of Group 7 elements form 1- ions, eg. F © Tho atoms of Group 6 oloments form 2- ions, 0g. S*. ‘The names of compounds of transition metals contain the charge on thair ions in brackets in roman numerals. This is because thay can form ions carrying ferent sizes of positive charge. For example, Iron can form 2+ and 3+ !ons. So the name ironju) oxide tells us that the iron is present as Fe** ions i compound © Whatis the formula of lithium sulfide? d_ Whatis the formula of iron(u) oxide? PS om ®Ste More complicated ions Uw) ‘Some ions ere mado up of more than ono oloment. When you stu limestone, you learned that the formula of calcium carbonate is CaCQ,, It ‘When naming compounds contains calcium ions, Ga*, and carbonate ions, CO, The carbonate fons ‘we use the ending -ide for contain carbon and exygen. However, he rule about cancoling out chargos simple non-metal ions such as stil applies as in one-element ions. Calcium carbonate is GaGO, as the 2+ oxido or sulfice, Howover, wo ‘and 2~ ions in the ionic compound cancel out in the ratio 1:1 lise ~ate for fens that include oxygen, such as sulfate, nitrate ‘Two-element ions you might come across are shown in the table below: and carbonate. Name of ion. Formula of fon Example of compound hydroxide oH caalolum nydroxide, GaiOH),, nitrate NO, ‘magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO,), cerbonate co, ‘sodium carbonate, Na,CO, sulfate 30," calcium suifate, C280, Notice how the formula of a compound containing a tiwo-element ion " sometimes contains brackets. To write calcium hydroxide asCaOH, wouldbe 4 eet misleading. It would toll us the ratio of Ca: O:H ions was 1:1:2. However, as "You do not have to learn the there are twice as many hydroxide Ions as calcium ions, the ratio should be charges on ions — they are on 4:2:2. This is why we write tho formula as Ca(OH), the data sheet. @ What is the forrnula of caloium nitrate? ‘Think of each symbol asa single atom and the formula of each ion asa single ion. Small numbers multiply only the symbol thay follow. Brackets are needed when there is more than one type cf atom in the ion being multiplied Figure 1 Haematite is an ore of iron, tte mined (ea here) and weed 2 3 source of cant) oxide forthe blast furrace in the extraction ot Aire rea) 1 Using the charges on the ions given on this sproad, give the formula of: ST a calcium oxide Poised b lithiam oxide eka ¢ magnesium chloride Se era 2 Draw a table with K*, Mg? and Fe** down the side and Br-, OH", NO,- Petiediionpreniyaiy and SO," aoross the top. Then fil in the formula of the compound in ratio of ions prosont in tho each cell ofthe table. Cees ‘3 a The formula of strontium nitrate is Sr(NO,),. What is the charge ona OG ees strontium ion? , Phe Sede) bb The formula of aluminium sulfate is Al,(SO,),, What is the charge on pemsinvetaiplnimerasieriny an aluminium ion? ie aeeu ead Oi ad eh Crekeat cuss Figura 1. Most ofthe molecules in substances which make up living things are held togetner by covalent bands between non-metal atoms OO- Hyérogen chloride HCL ® Maan Figure 3 The principles of covalent bonding remain the seme however any atoms are invalid Structure and bonding Covalent bonding « Reactions between metals and non-metele usuelly result in ionic bonding. However, many, many compounds ars formed in a very cifferent way. Whan non-metals react together thelr ators share pairs of electrons to form molecules. We call this covalent bonding, Simple molecules (9) “The atoms of non-metale gonorally need to gain aletrons to aohiove stable outer energy levels. When they react together neither atom can give away elections. So they get the electronic structure ofa noble gas by sharing elections. The atoms in the molecuies are then held together by the shared pais of alectrons. 2 cell these strong bonds between the atoms covalent bonds ‘@ Whatis the bond called when two atoms share a pair of electrons? A shared pair af = sleattona gives both — (Cin Seer Sram as Hydrogen atoms, Hycrogen moleculs a covala 1 This sa double ‘oraet tona two Darsof electrons slectons in the tighest (xygen atemna Oxygen molecule 26 nary level (cuter Shall) ae shown here Figure 2. Atoms of hyckagen and arygen join tagether to form stable molecules. The atoms in, and 0, rroloculae are held togotner by atong covalont bones. ‘Sometimes in covalent bonding each atom brings the same number of electrons to share. But this is not always the case. Sometimes the atoms of one element will nead several electrons, while the other element only needs one more electron for each atom 1o get a stable arrangement. In this case, moro atoms bacome involved in forming the molecule. ‘We can represent the covalent bonds in substances such as water, ammonia and methane in a number of ways. Each way raprasonts tho same thing. Tho method chosen depends on what we want to show. mie (low) ws oe yea, Figure 4 We can represent a covalent compound by showing a the highest energy levels {or outer shells) b the outer electrons ina dot and cross diagram or ¢ the number of covalent bondsEe. Giant covalent structures ‘Many substances containing covalent bonds consist of small molecules, for example, H,0. However, some covalently bonded substances are very difforont. Thay have giant structuros whore huge numbers of atoms are hold together by a network of covalent bonds. These are sometimes referred to as macromolecules. Diamond has a giant covalent siructure. in diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with its neighbours. This results in a rigid giant covalent lattice, Carbon atoms linked ‘gather by eovalart bonds Figure 6 Diamonds owe thei hardness. tothe way the carbon atoms aro Figure & Pact ofthe giant covalent stricture of amon arrenged iva giant covalent structure Silicon dioxide Giica) is another substance with a giant covalent structure. b What do we call the structure of a substance held together by a network of covalent bonds? Aimee oe 1 Copy and complete using the words below: covalent giant molecules macromolecules shared When non-metal atoms react together they make......... bonds. The ‘atoms in thece bonds are held together by... electrons. Most substances held togethar by covalant bonds consist of... but some have... covelent structures, sometimes called. Draw diagrams, showing all the electrons, to represent the covalent etre) bonding between the following atoms. ‘when atoms share pairs of two hydrogen atoms —— b two chlorine atoms @ alhycrogen atom and a fluorine atom © Many substances containing erent kai) Draw dot and cross diagrams to show the covalent bonds when: testy @ anitragen atom bonds with threa hydrogen atoms een te) b acarbon atom bonds with two oxygen atoms. PatteeStructure and bonding ee = (Metal crystals The atoms in metals are built up layer upon layer in a regular pattern (see Figure 1). Cc ek ee) hes sabata fio} Figure 1 The close-packed errangement of copper atoms in copper meta! ‘This means that they form crystals. These are not always obvious to the naked, ‘eye. However, sometimes we can see them. You can see zinc crystals on the surface of some steel. Steel can be dipped into motten zinc to prevent it from rusting. For example, look at galvanised lamp posts and wheelie bins, a Why do metals form crystals? rte Growing silver crystals You can grow orystals of siver metal CoE by suspending a length of copper wire in sitver nitrate solution. The crystals of siver will eppear on the wire quite quickly. However, tor the best results they need to bs left for several hours, Boling tube centring sive nate soliton ‘© Explain your observations, Figure 2 Growing siver crystals Practical Survey of metallic erystals Take a look round your school to sea if you can find any galvanised steel. See if you can spot the metal crystals. You can also look for erystals on odes beanies aie we of brass fittings that have been left outside and not polished. = arrangedlin regular peterns Figure 9 Metal eryotal, auch ao the zinc ‘ries shown on this wheelie bin, vef Metallic bonding Meta's outer elector Metals are another example of giant structuras. You can think ofa metal as a lattice of positively charged ions. The metal ions are arranged in rogular layors, ‘one on top of another. ‘The outer electrons from each metal atom can easily ‘move throughout the giant structure. The cuter electrons (in the highest occupied energy level) form a'‘sea' of free alactrons surrounding positively charged metal ions. Strong electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions bond tha matal ions to each other. The electrons act a bit lke a glue. b Which electrons do metal atoms use to form metallic bonds? N _ q The ‘sea’ of free electrons are called delocalised ° i, eT . electrons. They are no longer inked wth any eh feb fer led particular ion in the giant metallic structure. These _. Y »: Geotons help us explain the properties of tats ty vo tn ety (See G2, 2.4 Giant metallic structures.) a: .: ae fo. “The ‘se’ of detocalsedslectons Figure 4 A metal consisis of postively charged metal ions surrounded by 2 ‘sea’ of delccalised electrons. Ths diacram ‘Shows us @ model of metalic bonding, CO links For mere information about expleining the properties of Copy and complete using the words below: metals, soa 02 2.4 Glant metalic atoms regular crystals giant siructures. Metals have... structures. They are made up of metal... which are closely packed end arranged in... patterns. There Is evidence ofthisin the... we can sometimes see atthe surface of a metal Como Copy and complete using the words below: OCS electrons electrostatic free outennost posi cee ee) In metallic bonding, the metal ions are held together by... rom arranged In regular layers. tho ..... chal (highest enorgy love) of tho metal atoms, The We can think of metalic ions that this produces are helo together by strong... forces. Te ba sinpatabahee electrons in metals ere... to move throughout the structure, [H] Concer craco Use the theory of metalic bonding to exolaln the bonding in magnesium See ed Eimer motal. Mako sure you montion delocalised electrons. (Magnesium Cente ate have 12 protons.) iH Krcusbblleeahennsblabianed ome ne tee = ; i ry Co Explain why the bonding electrons in a metal act both like a glue and to move throughout the giant not Eke a glue. i) ees cyStructure and bonding: C2 1.1-C2 1.5 Summary questions oO «@ Define the following terms: ‘compound ionic bonding covalent bond 2 Which ofthe following substances will have i bonding? hydrogen suifide copper phosphorus(s) oxide iron() chloride potassium oxide lead bromide silver nitrate b Explain how you decided on your answers in part a. ‘© What type of bonding will the ram: the list have? 4 What is the formula of i hydrogen sulide 1H ironq) oniorice. Why does ironj) chioride have roman numerals in its name? ing substances | Copy and complete the following table withthe formula of aach compound formed (The first one ie done for you). ‘tuoride, | oxide,| carbonate, | phosphate(¥), | o& | cox Po, Withium, Lie | LiF barium, Ba’ copper, cut aluminium, Ae @ a Which of the following substances are made up of small molecules and which have a giant covalent structure? methane, CH, silicon dioxide, SiO, diamond, © ammonia, NH, b Drawa dot and cross diagram to show the bonding in ammonia. |B The diagrams show the arrangement of electrons in energy levels in three atoms: (The letters are NOT the chemical symbols.) a ‘@ Which atom bolongs to Group 2 of the periodic table? b To which group does atom R belong? © | Atom @ bonds with four atoms of hydrogen. Draw a dot and cross diagram to show tho ‘compound that is formed. What do we call the type of bonding between the atom of Q and the hydrogen atoms? Draw dot and cross diagrams to show how atom P| bonds with F atoms. What do we call the type of bonding in the compound formed by P and R? {ii What is the formula of the compound formed by P and R? 6 Describe, wth diagrams, how the particles are held together in the following substances: ‘@ amolesule of fluorine (F,) b asalt crystal (NaCl). 1 Draw a diagram which shows how the atoms in carbon dioxide, O=C=0, bond to each other TlEnd of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ Use a periocic table and a table of charges on ions to halp you to answer these questions. 1) Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence. ‘a When metals react with non-metals electrons are o combined shared transferred b When non-metal elements combine their atoms are held together by bones. o covalent ionic metallic 2 Choose a description from the list for each of the substances. giant covalent giant ionic metal_simple molecule a ammoria, NH, ¢ lithium, Li bb diamond, d sodium oxide, Nao (4) 8 Choose a number from the list to complete each sentence. 0123467 a The elements in Group in the periodic table all orm ions with a charge of 1+. a b The elements in Group in the periodic table all form ions with a charge of 2- a ¢ The elements in Group 4 in the periodic table all form covalent bonds. a 4 The aluminium ion has a charge of + a @ a Choose the correct formula from the list for iron(i) chloride. FoC! Fo,CI FeCl, Foci, bb Choose the formula from the list for each of these ionik ‘compounds. NaS NaSO, Na{SO,), NaS NaS, NaSO, 1m sulfide a im sulfate ow 5 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH), is an ionic compound. Which of these ions in the list are the ions in caloium hydroxiae? Ca’ Cat Ga" OH OH, OH Q 6 Sodium reacts with chlorine. The reaction forme sodium chloride. ‘a Use words from the list ta answer the questions. compound element hydrocarbon mixture Which word best describes: sodium w ii sodium chloride? () b When sodium reacts with chlorine the sodium atoms change into sodium ions. The diagrams represent a sodium atom and a sodiut © Soar on (N") ‘Sodium atom (a Uso tho diagrams to help you oxplain how a sodium ator tums into a sodium ion. @ © i The diagram below represents a chlorine ator When chlorine reacts with socium the chlorine forms nogative chloride ions. Copy and complete the diagram below to show how the outer electrons are arranged in a chioride ion (Cl). « OW Chioride ions are strongly attracted to sodium ions in sodium chloride. Explain why O} AQA, 2010 7 Chlorine can form compounds with ionic or covalent bonds. a Potassium chloride, KCI, has ionic bonds. Draw dot and cross diagrams to chow what happens to potassium atoms and chlorine atoms when they react to form potassium chloride. You only need to show the cuter electrons in your diagrams. @ b Hydrogen chloride, HCI, has covalent bonds. Draw dot and cross diagram to show the bonding in, hydrogen chloride. @ 8 Sodium metal is a giant structure of sodium atoms. Eee Explain how the atoms are held tagether in sodium metal. [H] @)PRK occ Rtn have high melting points? ete Cee aaa melt them or dissolve them in Peg @ Fomomber that every ionic compound has a gant structure, The oppositely charged ions in these structures are held together by strong alectrostatic forces of attraction. These act in al directions ee BE Netting point Baling point Temperature (0) Natl Kel stl Figure 2 The many strong forces ct ‘traction ina latioe of ions mean that iorie cempeunde have high melting points end boing points Structure and properties Giant ionic structures We have already seen that an ionic compound consists of a giant structure of ions arrangad in a lattice. The attractive electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions actin all directions and are very strong. This holds the ions in the lattica tagather very tightly ‘a What typa of force holds the ions together in an ionic compound? - Srong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds Figure 1. The attractive forces between the ‘ppositely charged ions in an ionic compound are very sirong. The requler arrangement cof fons in the gant latice enables nic ‘compounds te form crystals. Ittakes a lot of energy to break up a giant onic lattice, There are lots of strong ionic bonds to break. To separate the ions wo have to overcome all those electrostatic forces of attraction, This means that ionic compounds have high ‘melting points and bolting points. Look at the graph in Figure 2. b Why do ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points? (Once we have supplied enough energy to separate the ions from the lattice, they ara free to move arcund. That's when the icnic solid melts and becomes a liquid. The ions are free to move anywhere in this iquid. Therefore they can carry their electrical charge through the molten liquid. A eolid ionic compound cannot conduct electricity. That's because its ions are held in a fixed position In the lattice, They cannot move around. They can only vibrate ‘on the spot when s¢ Bulb igtts as caren fows 7 -+@e-~ Moving ions cary the elentcel charge traugh the moten potassium shiorde Miter potassium chloride Figure 3 Because the ions are free to move, a motien ionic compound can conduct electictyES Many ionic compounds will dissolve in water. When we disselve an ionic compound in water, the lattica is split up by the water molecules. Then the Ions are free to move around in the solution formed, Just as molten fonic compounds will conduct electricity, solutions of onic compounds will also conduct electricity. The ions are able ta mova to an oppositely charged electrode dipped in the solution (See Figure 3), © Why can ionic compounds concuct electricity when they are molten or dissowved In water? Tonle solid Motten fonic compound | tonic compound in solution lonsarefixedina | High temperature ater molecules separate lattice They vibrate | provides enough energy _| fons from the lattice. lone but eannat move to overcome the many. are tree to move around around—K doesnot | strongattractive forces _| within the solution - it does conduct eleaticlty. | between ions. one are tree | conduct electricty to move around within the moltgn compound —itdoes conduct electcty. Testing conductivity (3) Using a circuit as shown in Figure 3, dip a par of electrodes into a tem depth of sodium chioride crystals. What happens? Now slowly add water. @ What happens to the bulb? Ropeat the experiment using potassium chloride. «¢ Explain your observations road Ore rerin Duet tose Toad bonds which hold a giant 1 Copy and complete using the words below: Ionic lattice together, So attraction conduct high fattice molten move eae uy ‘oppositely solution Pail peta abd onic compounds havo... molting points and boiling points because Gee of the many strong electrostatic forces ot between Tua ‘Summary questions charged ions in the glart........ Ionic compounds wil... electricity Cee an WROD na OF anne BOCAUSO tho ions are able to... realy eer eta) around in the liquids. eee ee rues] . ‘reshwater lake? Perea) 2 Why is seawater a batter conducior of electricity than water from aeu ead oer has low meting polts and Perante © Why do these substances fe eoer nesses a ceadbatl fu) Be Peet. ole ice SM ty ° 20 g 60" E -a. 100 10 1 ei pot mm Big pit Figure 2 Substances made of simple molecules uaualy have low mating points end boling points Structure and properties Simple molecules When the atoms of non-metal elements react to form compounds, they share electrons in their outer shells. In this way each atom gains the electron arrangement of a noble gas. The bonds formed like this are called covalent bonds. Figure 1 Covalent bonds hold the atome found within molecules tightly tegether a How are covalent bonds formed? Many substances made up of covalently bonded molecules have low melting points and boiling points. Leak at the graph in Figure 2. ‘These substances heve low melting points and beiling points. This means that, many stiostances mad up of simple molecules are liquids or gasas at room temperature. Others are solids with quite low melting points, such as iodine ,) and sulfur (8) b Do the compounds shown on the graph exist as solids, liquids or gases at 20°C? © You have campo of ammonia (NH,) at 120°C. Describe the changes that you would sea as the tamperature of the ammonia rises to 20°C. (approximately room temperature). Intermolecular forces Look at the molecules in a sample of chlorine gas: Strong covalent bon Figure 9 Covslentbonds and the weak force bbetwean molecules in chioine gas. Its the weak intermolecular forces that are overcome wnen substances made of simple molecules mt or boil ‘The covalent Conds are not broken,d_ How strong are the forces between the atoms in a covalently bonded molecule? eHow strong are the forces between molecules in a covalent aubstance? IH] We have seen that ionic compounds will conduct electricity when thay ara liquics. But although a substance that is made up of simple molecules may bo a liquid at room tomperaturo, it will not conduct electricity. Look at tho demonstration below, There is no overall charge on the simple molecules in a compound Ika ethanol. So their molecules cannot carry electrical charge. This makes itimpossible for substances made up of simple molecules to conduct, oloctricity. Why don't simple molecular substancas conduct electricity? PEnrneenen Bulb doesnot ight Conductivity ‘as no current tows ‘© What happens? Ethanol (OaHsOH) quid Uncharged molecules do notary charge betveen ‘he elecrades Figure 4 Compounds made of simple molecules onet conduct electricity Etre een 1. Copy and complete using the werds below: boiling solids covalent melting molecules strongly liquids Non-metale react together to form......... Which are held togethar by bonds. These hold the atoms together very -lthese substances are made of simple molecules, thay have low points and... Points. So at room temperature they ofton exist as gases and or as......... which mett relatively easily. 2 Acompound called sulfur hexafluoride (SF,) is used to stop sparks forming inside electrical switches designed to conval large currents. Explain why the propertios of this compound make it particularly useful in electrical switches. 3. The matting point of hydrogen chloride is 115°C, whereas sodium chloride melts at 801 °C. Explain why. [tH] Ee QW ‘Although the covalent bonds in molecules are strong, the forces between molecules are weak, IH] CS links For information on ionic compounds conducting loctriok look back at C2 2.1 Giant ionic read er kod Suter ad Deh) (cae ey molecules are weak. These Deeded explain why substances fee osu’ Fee uu ea) Ce us co eu ee ey Soon Cr aad Ce uy Deed ieee ct esPRK occ ad Prue coud Pec Se ede ee) ee usar Or keag i Se ae Oo (oe ‘Giant covalent structuras aro held tagather by covalent bonds throughout the lattice. Figure 2 Hard, shiny and vansparent ~ damonds make beaut jewellery Ee Diamond is the hardest natural substance that we know. Artificial diamonds can be made by heating pura carbon to very high temperatures under enormous pressures. “Industrial diamionds’ made like this are used in the dill bts oil ‘companies use when driling forall Structure and properties Giant covalent structures {« Most covalently bonded substances are made up of individual molecules. However, a faw form very different structures. These do not have a relatively small rumber of atoms in simple molecules. They form huge networks of atoms held together by covalent bonds. We call these giant covalent structures. They are sometimes called macromolecules. ‘Substances such as diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide Gilica) have giant covalent structures. Diamend Silicon dioxide (8i0,) Figure 1 The structures of diamond and slicon dioxide (silca) continue in al directions All the atoms in these giant lattices are held in position by strong covalent bonds. Both diamond and silicon dioxide are examples. This givas them seme very special properties. They are very hard, have high melting points and boiling points, and are insoluble in water. Diamond is exceptionally hard. All its carbon atems each form four strong covalent bonds. ‘What do we call the structures which contain many millions of atoms Joined together by 2 network of covalent bonds? bb What kind of physical properties co these substances have? ‘We don't always find carbon as diamones, Another form is graphite (well known for its use in pencil ‘leed)). In graphite, carbon atoms are only bonded to three other carbon atoms. They form hexagons which are arranged in giant layers. There are no covalent bonds between the layers. So the layors oan slide over each other easily. I's a bit like playing cards sliding off a pack of cards. This makes graphite a soft material that ‘eals slippery. Figure 8 Tho giant etricturo.o! graatite, Vien you write with a pencil, some layers cf carbon atoms slide of the ‘ead’ and ere left on the paperBonding in graphite There are only relatively weak intermolecular forces botwoon the layers in graphite, so they can slide over each other quite easily. The carbon atoms in raphite's layers are arranged in hexagons. So each carton atom forms three strong covalent bonds (see Figure 2). Carbon atoms have four electrons in their outer shell available for boncing, This leaves one spare outer electron on teach carbon atom. This electron is free to move along the layers of carbon atoms. We call the tree electrons found in graphite delecalised electrons. They behave rather like the electrons in a metallic structure. These free electrons allow graphite to conduct electrioity. Diamond ~ and most other covalent substances — cannot conduct electricity. © What type of electrons enable graphite to conduct electricity? Fullerenes ‘Apart from diamond and graphite, there are other difforent structures that carbon atoms can form. In these structures the carbon atoms join together to make large cages which can have all sorts of shapes. Chemists have made shapes looking like balls, onions, tubes, doughnuts, corksorews and cones! They ave all built up of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. Figure 4 The fst fullerene to be ‘discovered contained 80 carson atoms, butchomats can now male giant fullerenes which contain mariy thousands cf carbon atoms Chemists discovered carbon's ability to bohavo like this in 1986. We call the large carbon molecules containing these cage- like structures fullerenes. Scientists can now place other molecules inside thesa carbon cages. This has exciting possbiltes, Including the delivery of drugs to specific parts of the body. They are eure to become vary important in nanoscience applications, for example as catalysts and lubricants. Emre tec 1. Copy and complete using the words below: atoms boiling carbon hard high covalent layers slide soft Giant covalent stuctures contain many joined by covalent bonds. They have......... melting points and points, Diamond isa vory substance bocause the.......... tems in it are held strongly to each other. However, graphite is because there are of atoms which can ......... over each other. They can do this because there ara no......... Bonds betwean its layers. Graptito is sometimas used to reduce the friction betwoon two suriaces that are rubbing together. How does it do this? Explain in detail why graphite can conduct electricity but diamond cannot, [H] CO links For information about deiocalised electrons, look back at C2 1.5 Metals, GO links For more information on nanoscience, see C2 2.6 ean beac) eet on) Pe ied have high melting points and boiling points. eat ad layers of covalently bonded Oe ed Petey PL means they can slide over Ce duean Te a) Ce Deine Cuseag Cet ey hey Re iad CT bireked electricity because of the Ce) la ha ic orn) Coy Ce ie wu Pee tebe) ee ay ss a]ett laieaereer se Figure 1. Drawing copper out into wires ‘dopenc on being able to make te layere of metal atoms cide oaally over each otner ron a DIDS Alloy Figure 2 The atoms in pure ton are arranged inlayers which ean easly side ‘over each other. In alloys the layers ‘cannot slide $0 easily because atoms Of cther elements change the regular ctu 3) ‘We can hammer and band metals into different shapes, and draw them out into wires. This is because the layers of atoms in a pure metal are able to slide easily over each other. ‘The atoms in a pure metal, such as iron, are held together in giant metallic structures, The atoms are arranged in closely-packed layers, Because of this regular arrangement, the atoms can slide over one another quite easily. This is why pure iron is soft and easily shaped. a Why can metals be bent, shaped and pulled out into wites when forces are applied? Alloys aro usually mixtures of motals. However, most steels contain iron with controlled amounts of carbon, a non-metal, mixed in its structure. So there are different sizes of atoms in an alloy, This makes it more difficult for the layers in the matal’s giant structure to slide over each other. So alloys are harder than the pure metals used to make them. This is shown in Figure 2. Tube connected toes tap, Fino peinod tube Plastic centainr with soap solution 2 rogular arrangement of bubbl ‘atoms! We can make a model ofthe structure cof a metal by blowing small bubbles on the surface of soap solution to represent atoms, © Why are models useiul in acience? A larger bubble ‘atom’ has a big effect on the arrangement around it _) Metal cooking utensils are used all over the world, hacause metals ara good conductors of heat. Wherever we generate electricity, it passes through metal wires to where it is needed. That's because metals are also good conductors of electricityExplaining the properties of metals The positive ions in a metal's giant structure are held togather by a sea of delocalised elections. These electrons are a bit lke ‘glue’. Their negative charge botwoon tho positively charged ions holds the ions in position. However, unlike glue, the electrons are able to move throughout the whole giant lattice. Because they can move around and hold the metal ions tagather at the same time, the delocalised electrons enable the lattice to distort. When. situck, the metal atoms can slip past one another without breaking up the metal’s structure, b_ How are metal atoms held togather? Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because the delacalisad @ectons can flow through the giant metalic lattice. The electrical current and, hhoat aro transfecred quickly through the metal by tho free electrons. © Why do metals conduct electricity and heat so well? ‘Shape memory alloys Some alloys have a very special property. Like all metals they can be bent (or deformed) into differant shapes. The difference comes whan you heat tham up. They then return to their original shape all by themselves. We call these metals shape memory alloys, which describes the way they behave. They seem to remember their original shape! ‘We can use tha properties of shape memory alloys in many ways, for example In heatth care, Doctors treating a badly broken bone can use alloys to hold the bones in place while they heal, They cool the alloy bofore it ia wrapped around ‘the broken bone. When it heats up again the alloy goes back to its original shape. This pulls the bones together and holds them while they heal Dentists have also made braces to pull teeth into the right position using this, technique. 4 Copy and complete using the words below: delocalised electricity energy heat shape slide ‘The positively charged ........in metals are held together by... electrons. Thase also allow the layers to........ over each other so that the metals can be changed. They also allow the metal to conduct ......and (HI 2 a Use your knowledge of metal structures to explain how adding larger metal atoms to a metallic lattice can make the matal hardar. b Whats a shape memory alloy? 3 Explain how a dental brace made out of ni brace made out ofa traditional alloy. 4 Explain why metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. [H] | is more effective than a Figure 3 Metals are essemtiat in our lives ~ the delocalised elecrens mean that they are good conductors ofboth heat and electicty GO links For more about the bonaing in metals, look back at 2 1.6 Metals. Figure 4 This dertal brace pulls the teeth into the right position es it werms up. it ig made of 2 shape memory alloy called ‘Bio It is en allay of niko and sitanium. eka ee of atoms (or ions) in a giant De toured Ceres Cert fae ku} eae uni) idea a [H] @ ita shape memory alloy is deformed, It can return to its Ce ulaStructure and properties The properties of polymers a es ‘Aa you know, we can make polymers from chemisale made from crude Learning objectives oil. Small moleculas called monomers join tagather to make much bigger OE molecules called polymers. As the monomers join together they produce a ea eo tanglad web of very long chain molecules. Poly(ethene) is an example. fede cd The properties ofa polymer depend on: © Can changing reaction @ the monomers used to make it, and conditions modify the © the conditions we choose to carry out the reaction. eee cd =a =] a How are polymer chains arranged in poly(ethene)? Pee a eve) Different monomers ‘The polymer chains in nylon are made from two diffarant monomers. One monomer has acidic groups at each end. The other has basic groups at each end. The polymer they make is very different from the polymer chains made from hydrocarbon monomers, such as ethene, So the monomers used make a big difference to the properties of the polymer made. (See Figures 1 and 2) Different reaction conditions ‘There are two typas of poly(ethene). One is called high densty (HD) and the other low density (LD) poly(ethene). Both are made from ethene monomers but they are formed under different conditions, . Z3Z Z y ; re i am some toto Bh! po Ueeeee moles in pliers) we reeiy LEAL pe fonds fee ints) bolwees te oy SERIO To a ei eofiene fairly easily when heeted. Src oP LD payathono} er é HD patjethen) or HDPE Figure 3 The branched chains of LD poly(ethene) cannot pack as tightly together as the staighter chains in HD poly(ethene). giving them cifferent properties Using very high pressures and a trace of oxygen, ethene forms LD poly(athene). The polymer chains are branched and they can't pack closely together, Using a catalyst at 50°C and a slightly raised pressure, ethane makes HD Poly(etnene). This is mace up of straighter poly(ethene) molecules. They can pack more closely together than branched chains. The HD poly(ether) has a Figure 2 Nylons very much senger_ higher softening tamperature andiis stronger than LD poly(ethene).. ‘than paly(othene). The dimbors life {depends on nylon’shighstensile strength. fy What do ‘LD’ and *HD’ stand for in the names of the two types of Nylon can withstand large forces without e- poly(ether)?Thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers ‘We can classify polymers by looking at what happens to them when they are heated, Some will soften quite easlly. They will reset vihen they cool down. ‘These are callad thermosoftening polymers. They are mada up of individual polymer chains that are tangled together. Other polymers do not melt when we heat tham. Thase are called ‘thermosetting polymers. These have strong covalent bonds forming ‘cross links’ between their polymer chains. (See Figure 4) (Chains fed together by strong covalent bonds — this is called crosslinking Tha tangled web of polar chains ar relatively 2a3y to separde Figure 4 Extensive cross Inking by covalent bones betwen polymer chains rckes a thermocattng placte Thermsotering polymer that is heabresistant ae gid Thamosetir poymer Bonding in polymers ‘The atoms in polymer chains are held together by very strong covalent bonds. This is true for all plastics. But the sizo of the foroes botweon polymor moleoules in different plastics can be vary different. In thermosottening polymers the foross betwoon the polymer chains aro weak. When we heat the polymer, these weak intermolecular forces are broken, The polymer becomes soft. When the polymer cools down, the intermolecular forces bring the pclymer molecules back together. Then the polymer hardens again. This type of polymer can be temoulded, However, thermosetting polymers are different. Their monomers make covalent boncs betiveen the polymar chains when they are first heated in order to shape them. These covalant bonds are strong, and thay stop the polymer from softening. The covalent ‘cross links’ between chains do not allow them to separate, Evan if hoated strongly, tho polymer will still not soften. Eventually, the polymer wil char at high enough temperatures, Emre etic 1 Copy and complete using the werds below: covalent thermosetting tangled cross links ‘The polymer chains in a thermosoftening polymer form a... Web, ‘The polymer softens at relatively low temperatures. Other polymers have stron, bonds between their chains which form We call thase polymers. Why do we use thermosetting polymers to make plastic kettles? Polymer A staris to soften at 100°C while polymer B softens at 50°C. Polymer G resists heat but eventually starts to char if heated to very high temperatures. Explain this using ideas about intermolecular forces. IH] Era Moditying a polymer (9) Tie some PVA gue adda ‘ow ‘reps o borax soliton Warm solution of PVA glue Str wel for ‘The glue becomes slimy because the borax makes the long polymer chains in the glue link together to form a jelly-lke substance, @ How could you investigate if the properties of slime depend on how much borax you add? Figure 6 Electrioa sackets ara made out of mermoserting plastics. tthe plug a Wires get net, the socket wil nat soften, Om Pot) Pee dake ‘© Changing reaction conditions Ceti) eed Coo SR Td Dd ‘when heated. Thermosetting Cea will eventually char if heated PeleYou can get about a million ranometres across a pin-head, and a human hair is about 80000nm wico. w Figure 1 Nanopaiticles wil save mary people ftom damaged skin and cancers ‘caused by too much UV light Figure 2 Nanopattces in cosmetic e_ ‘can work deeper in the skin is @ new and exciting area of science. ‘Nano’ is a prefix like ‘mili or ‘maga’. While ‘mill’ means ‘one-thousandth, ‘nano’ means ‘one thousand- millionth. 1 nanometre (1 nm) nth of a metre) 1x 10-* metres ( = 0.000000001m or a ‘So nanoscience is the science of really tiny things. We are dealing with structures that are justa few hundred atoms in size or even smaller (between 1 and 100nm in size). ‘We now know that materials behave very cifferently at a very tiny scale. Nanopatticles are so tiny that they have a huge surface area for a small ‘volume of material. When we arrange atoms and molecules on a nanoscale, their properties can be truly remarkable. a How many nanometros make up 1 millimetro? Here are same uses of nanoscience, © Glass can be coated with titanium oxide nanoparticles. Sunshine triggers a chemical reaction which breaks down dirt which lands on the window. \Whan it rains the water epreads everly over the surface of the glass, washing off the broken down dirt © Titanium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles are also used in modern sun- screens. Scientists can coat nanoparticles of the metal oxide with a coating of silica. Tha thickness of the silica coating can be adjusted at an atomic level, These coated nanoparticles seem more effective at blocking the Sun's rays than conventional UV abaorbers. ‘© Tho cosmotics industry is ono of tho biggest usars of this new technology. ‘The nanoparticies in face creams are absorbed deeper into the skin. They are also used in sun tan creams and deodorants. ‘The delivery of active ingredients in cosmatios can also be applied to medicines, The latest techniques being developed use nanocages of gold te deliver drugs whers they need to go in the body. Researchers have found that the tiny gold particles can be injected and absorbed by tumours. ‘Turnours have thin, leaky blood vessels with holes large enough for the gold nanoparticles to pass into. However, they can't get into healthy blood vessels. When a laser is directed at the tumour the gold nanoparticles absord energy and warm up. The temperature of the tumour increases enough to change the properties of its proteins but barely warms the surrounding tissue, This, dostroys the tumour cells without damaging healthy calls. ‘There is potential to use the gold nanocages to carry cancer-fighting drugs to the tumour at tho samo time. Tho carbon nanocages wo met in C2.2.3 ‘can also be used to deliver drugs in the body. Incredibly strong, yet light, nanotubes are already being used to reirforce materials (see Figure 8). The naw materials are finding uses in sport, such as making very strong but light tennis racquets.Silver nanoparticles are antibacterial. They also act against viruses and fungi ‘They are used in sprays to clean operating theatres in hospitals. Future developments? Nanetubes are now being developed that can be used as nanowires. This will make it possible to construct increcibly small electronic circuits. Nanotubes can be used to make highly sensitive selective seneors. For example, nanotube sensars have been made that can datact tiny traces of a gas present In the breath of asthmatics before an attack. This will let patients monitor and treat their own condition without having to visit hospital to use expensive machines. Nanowires would also help to make computers with vastly improved memory capacities and speeds Sciontists in the US Army aro developing nanotech suits - thin, or even sspray-on, uniforms which are flexiole anc tough enough to withstand bullets and blasts. The uniforms would receive aerial views of the battlefield from satellites, transmitted ciractly to the eoldiar’s brain, There would also be 2 bulltn air conditioning system to keep the body temperature normal. Inside ‘the suit there would ke a full range of nanobiosensors that could cond medical data back to a medical team. Possible risks (3) The large surface area of nanoparticles would make them very effactive 2s catalysts. However, their large surface area also makes them dangerous. Ifa spark is made by accident, they may cause a violent explosion. Ifnanoparticles are used more and more there Is also going to be more risk of ‘them finding their way into the air around us. Breathing in tiny particles could damage the lungs. Nanoparticles could enter the bloodstream this way, or from their use in cosmetics, with unpredictable effects. More research needs ‘to be done to find out their effects cn health and the environment. b Why would nanoparticles make very efficient catalysts? Activity Whenever we are faced with a possible development in science there are two possible questions — what oan we do? And what should we do? Lock atthe ideas about the uses of nanoscience and its future development hhere. Choose one idea and ask yourself ‘what can we do and what, should wa do? Prasent your answers to the rest af your group Emre etree 1 What do we mean by ‘nanoscience’? 2 Inhis bock Engines of Creation K. Eric Drexiar spaculates that ona day we may invent a nanomachine that can reproduce itself. Then the world could be overrun by e0-called ‘grey goo. Some people are so worried they have called for a halt in nanosciance research. What are your views? ey Figure 3 Nanocages can camry drugs inside them and nanotubes can rirferce rmatorals Com eres Ce raat are between 1 and 100 eeu ‘© Nanoparticles behave Ce they are made from on a. eo ‘© New developments in eed exciting but will need more research into possible issues ‘that might arise from their eeeSTC UCd id a ee rea) Summary questions o @® Match the sentence halves together: ‘a Ionic compounds have | A ‘eonduct blectriety when matten or in solution b Tonic compounds 5 held together by strong elzctrostetle forces. © The oppositely charged | © a giant latioe tans in an ionle oflons compound are @ Ionie compounds are | 0 high meting made ot, points. (@ The table contains data about some different substances: Substance | Melting Boling Electrical point (C) | polnt(‘C) | conductor cobalt 1495 2870 Good ammonia 78 =33 Poor magnesium | 2352 9600 | sold—poor oxide liquid - good manganese | 1244 1962 Good thium 805 4340 | solld—poor chloride liquid - good silicon 1610 2230 | Poor dioxide hydrogen 88, “67 Poor bromide graphite ass 4027 | Good ‘a Make a table with the following headings: Giant covalent, Giant metallic, Now write the name of each substance above in the correct column. iant ionic, imple molecules, b Which substances are gases at 20°07 © One of these substances behaves in a slightly different ‘way than its struoture suggests. Why? @ One use of shape memory alloys is to make spectacle frames. Write down one advantage and one. cisadvantage af using a shape memory alloy ike this. @ Acartain ionic compound melts at exactly 800°C. A chemical company wants to design a device to activate ‘a warming light and buzzer whon tho temperatura in a ‘chemical reactor rises above 800°C. Suggest how this, ionic compound could be used in an alarm. (® ‘Both graphite and metals can conduct electricity — but graphite is soft while metals are not Use your knowledge of the dtferent siructures of graphite and metais to explain this statement [al (@ Read the article about the use of nanoparticles in sun creams Sun creams ‘Many sun ereamns use nanoparticles. These sun crearas are very good at absorbing radiation, especially ultraviolet radiation. Owing to the particle size, the sun creams spread more easily, cewer better and save moncy because ‘youuse less. The new sun creams are also transparent, ‘ualike traditional sun croams which are white. The use of nanoparticles so successful that they are now used in more than 300 stn cream products, ‘Some sun creams contain nanoparticles of titanium oxide. Normal-sized particles of titanium oxide are safe to put on the ski. Tie thought that nanoparticles can pars through the akin and travel around the body mere easily than normal-sized parties. tisalso thought that nanoparticles might be toxic to some types of cal, nich as scia, bono, brain and liver cals a1 Howls the size of nanoparticles different from normal-sized particles of titanium oxide? ‘Suggest how the size of nanoparticles might help ther to enter the body more easily. b Give two advantages of using nanoparticles in sun ¢ Why might nanoparticles be dangerous inside the body? ‘AQA, 2008| Match each of the substances in the table with a description from the list, giant covalent fonic metal simple molecule ‘Subetance| Formula | Molting | Bolling | Doosit point (°C) | point °C)) conduct electilcity when liquia? a c 3550 | 4830 No b Co yaa | 32 Yes cH, a2 | tee No a Cac, | 105s | 1070 Yes 2 Copper can be hammered into shape. ‘The structure of copper metal can be represented as chown: R ‘a Explain why copper can be hammered into shape. (1) b Copper can be mixed with zinc to make the alloy called brass. Brace is much harder than copper. Explain why. @ ‘© Copper can be mixad with zine and aluminium to make a shape memory alloy. What isa Snape memory alloy? @ 3 Choose a word from the lisi to complete each sentence, diferent identical smart thermosottening thermosetting ‘The polymers low-density poly(ethene) (LDPE) and high- density poly(etene) (HDPE) are made irom monomers that aro....... The polymers are produced using ‘catalysts and reaction conditons that are. LOPE melts at 120°C and HDPE melts at 130°C and they have no cross links betwoon the polymer chains so thoy aro both poymers, @ 4 Chloroethene, C,H,Cl, can be polymerised to poly(chloroethene}, Ht Hoa a Explain in terms of its structure why chioroethene is gas at room temperature. @ b Explain in terms of its structure why poly(chlorocthone) is a tharmosoftening polymer.) (Hl AQA/Examination-style questions ExErrorcd 5 The picture shows a copper kettle being heated on a camping stove. _— Cooper ket seman ax es a In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist fers where appropriate. Copper is a good material for making « kettle because thas a high matting point. Explain why copper, ke many other matals, has a high metting point. You should describe the structure and bonding of 2 ‘metal in your answer. ® b An aeroplane contains many miles of electrical wiring made from copper. This adds to the mass of the aeroplane. Ithas boon suggested that tho electrical wiring made from copper could be replaced by lighter carbon, nanotubes. ‘The diagram shows the structure of a carbon nanotube, 1 What does the term ‘nano’ tell you about the carbon nanotubas? ® i Like graphite, each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms. Explain why the carbon nanotube can conduct electricity. @ AQA, 2010 coeu ead eT ota Dre ad ere as of protons, neutrons and Cel Od A o Ed single proton. How much? Owe ke ie el Gg ‘As you know, an atom consists of a nucleus containing positively charged protons, tageter with neutrons which have no charge. The negatively charged lostrons are arranged in energy levels (cholls) around the nucleus. Every atom has the same number of electrons orbiting its nucleus as it has protons in its nuclous. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. ‘The mass of a proton and a neutron is the same, This means that tha rel: mass of a neutron compared with a proton is 1. Electrons are much, much lighter than protons and neutrons. Because of this, the mass of an atom is concantrated in its nucleus. We can ignore the tiny mass of the electrons when we work out the relative mass of an aiorn. 8 ic @ Proton Number of protens gives atomic number @ Nauvon Number of pratans lus umber of neutrons ghves ass number jure An stom of carbon It would take 1836 olectrons uivere/otosbeioase pareele) Relative mass to have the same mass as a Proton 1 Neutron 1 Electron very eral @ What is the atomic number of an atom? 1b How does the mass cf a proton compare with the mass of a neutron? How does the mass of an electron compare with the mass of a nautron or proton? Mass number Almost all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus. This is because the mass of the electrons is 0 tiny. We call the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom its mass number. ‘We can show the atomic number and mass number of an atom lika this: Mass number — 2 4 Na ocium Atomic number Wo can work out the number of neutrons in the nuclous of an atom by subtracting its atomic number from its mass number: number of noutrons = mass number — atomic numb For the two examples above, carbon has 6 protons and @ mass number of 12. So the number of nautrons in a carbon atom is (12 — 6) 6. Sodium has an atomic number of 11 and the mass numbor is 23. ‘Soa sodium atom has (23 ~ 11) protons and 12 neutrons. 2 neutrons. In lis nucleus there are 11 d_ How do we calculata the number of neutrons in an atom?or ay Isotopes Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons. However, they can have different numbers of neutrons, We give the name isotopes to atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. : 1H Hydrogen Isotopes always have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For example, carbon has two common isotopes, "¥C (carbon-t2) and ‘$C (carbon-44). Tho carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the ucleus. The carton-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. ~ ‘Sometimes the extra nautrons make the nucleus unstable, so itis radioactive. However, nct all isotopes are radioactive — they ara simply atoms of the same element that have different masses. 2° Dewerum © What aro isotopos? ‘Samplos of difront isotopes of an oloment have different physical propertios. f For example, thay have a different density and they may or may note: e radioactive, However, they always have the same chemical properties. That's bbacause their reactions depend on the'r electronic structure. AS their atoms will have the same number of electrons, the electronic structure will be same Hum for all isotopes of an element Figure 2 The isotopes of hysragen— For example, hydrogen has three isotopes: hydrogen, deuterium and tritium they haveidertical chemical properties (cee Figure 2). Each hes a different mass and tritium is radioactive. However, _ it cliferent pnysical properties they can all react with oxygen to make water, 4 Which isotope of hydrogen is heaviest? Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: electrons isotopes protons mass atomic one ‘The number of pratons in an atom is called its number. The relative mass of a neutron compared with a proton is. . Compared with protons and neutrons .. have almost no mass. The total ee ead ‘Atoms of an element which have different numbers of neutrons are OSC called cet er State how many protons there would be in the nucleus of each of the (which equals its number of following elements: Cs aliBe 10 Mm SNe WP v Br ODE EES State how many neutrons each atom in part a has. ke deat) ‘a How do the physical propertes of isotoves of the same element SETI vary? eer td b Why do isotopes of the same element have identical chamical ‘same element with different progeriies? tLeHow much? Masses of atoms and moles Balanced symbel equations show us how many atome of reactants we need to make the products. But when we aciually carry aut a reaction we really need See to know how much to use in grams or cit. feta For example, look at the equation: ee) Mg + 2HCI> MgCl, + H, Uda! §— The symbol equation tells us that we need twice as many hydrogen and, ree chlorine atoms as magnesium atoms. However, this doesn't mean that the Fee ete) mass of HGI will be twice the mass cf Mg. Th's is because atoms cf different Citi rueny elements have different masses. O0u= a0? To make symbol equations useful in the lab or factory we need to know more about the mass of atoms. ‘a Why don't symbol oquations toll us to use in a chemical reaction? \ctly what mass of each reactant Relative atomic masses “The mass of a single atom is So tiny that it would not be practical to use itin experiments or calculations. So insteed of working with the real masses of ators we just focus on the relative masses of different elements. We call these relative atomic masses (A). Relative atomic mass B We use an atom of carbon-12 (20) as a standard atom. We give this a ‘mess’ of exactly 12 units, because it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. We then compare the masses of atoms ofall the other elements with this standard carbon aiom. For example, hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of 1 as most ofits atoms have a mass that is one-twelfth of a %{G atom. ‘The relative atomic mass of an element is usualy the same as, or similar to, the mass number of its most common isotope. The A, takes into account the proportions of any isotopes of the element found naturally. So itis an average mass compared with the standard carbon atom. (This is why chlorine has a relative atomic mass of 35.6, although we could never have halt a proton or neutron in an atom) b Which atom do we use asa standard to compare relative masses of elements? ont Figure 1 The relative mass of'2C atom is 12. Compared with this, the A, of helium is 4 and the A, cf magnesium is 24Relative formula masses ‘We can use the A, of the various elements to work out the relative formula mass (M,) of compounds. This is true whether the compounds are made up of molecules or collections of ions. A simplo oxamplo is a substance like sodium chloride. We know that the 4, of socium is 2 and the A, of chlorine is 35.5. So the relative formula mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) 2% + 355= 58.5 AgNa A:Cl M,:NaCl ‘Another examole is water. Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. The A, of hydrogen is 1, and the A, of oxygen is 16. Water has the formula H,O. It contains two hydrogen atoms for avery one oxygen, so the Mf, is: (1x2) + 16 = 18 AsHXx2 A:0 M:H.0 © Whatis the relative formula mass of hydrogen sulfide, H,S? (A, values: H=1,8=92) We can use the same approach with relalively complicated molecules lke sulfuric acid, H,S0,. Hycrogan has aA, of 1, the A, of sulfur is 32 and tha A, of oxygen 16. This means that the M, of sulfuric acid is: (1 <2) 4924 (16 x 4)= 2492 464-98 Moles ‘Saying oF writing ‘relative atomic mass in grams’ or ‘relative formula mass in grams’ is rather clumsy. So chemists have a shorthand word for it: a mole. ‘They say that tho relative atomic mass in grams of carbon (i.e. 12g of carbon) is a mole of carbon atoms. One moie is simply the relative atomic mass or relative formula mass of any substance expressed in grams. A mole of any substance always contains the same number of atoms, molecules cr ions. ‘This 's a huge number (6.02 x 10). 41 Copy and complete using the words below: atom elements formula relative ‘Tho mass of an individual. is 60 small that wo uso... values when comparing them, We calculate the relative mass of a compound by adding up the relative atomic masses of its in the ratio given by its formula. ‘The equation for the reacticn of calcium and fluorine ie: Ca +F, CaF, a How many moles of fuorine molecules react with one mole of calcium atoms? 'b What is the ralativa formula mass of CaF,? (A, values: Ca = 40, F=19) 3 The relative atomic mass of helium is ¢, and that of sulfur is 32. How mary times heavier is a sulfur atom than a helium atom? 4 Define the term ‘lative atomic mass’ of an element. IH] YT Massesotstoms and moles | ETL Ifyou had as many soft drink cane as there are ators in mole they would cover the surface of the Earth to a depth cf 200 milas! i QUW re ‘You don't have to remember the number 6.02 x 10 or the relative atomic masses of elements. But practise calculating the mass of one mele of differant substances from their formula and the rolativo atomic masses that you are given. Come role! of atoms by measuring Fa Cer col (© We work out the relative Se ee st ed Dedieekakicd Ce shown by its formula. tied ene Ceeu ead ree oe teu cua ue’ Cees er ead Coun cay Cees) percentage composition? [H] Figure 1 A small ditterence in the amount! meialin an ore might not Seem very much However when rrilions oftonnes ofore are extracted and processed each yea, Ill adds up! To calculate the percentage of an element in a compound: Write down the formula of the compound, © Using the A, values trom your data sheet, work out tha M, of tha compound. Write down the mass of ach olomont making up the compound as you work it ut. @ White the mass of the element you are investigating as a traction of the M, «Find tho percentage by mmuttiplying your fraction by 100. How much? Percentages and formulae We can use the formula mass of @ compound to calculate the percentage mass of each element init. k's not just in GCSE Chemistry books that calculations like this are done! Mining companies decide whether to exploit mineral fnds using calculations like these. Working out the percentage of an element ina compound (3) Worked example 1 What percentage of the mass of magnesium oxide is actually magnesium? Solution ‘We need to know the formula of magnesium oxide: MgO. ‘The A, of magnesium is 24 and the A, of oxygen Is 16. Adding these together gives us the relative formula mass (If), of MgO 24+ 16 = 40 So in 40 g of magnesium exide, 244 is actually magnasium, ‘The fraction of magnesium in the MgO Is: mass of magnesium _ 24 Total mass of compound ~ 40 's0 the percentage of magnesium in the compound is: 24 = FH « 100% = 60% Worked example 2 ‘A pure white ponder is found at the scene of a crimo. It could be strychnine, a deadly poison with the formula C,,H..N,O,! but is it? ‘When a chemist enalyses the powder, she finds that 83% ofits mass is carbon. What is the parcentage mass of carbon in strychnine? Is this the same as the white powder? Solution Givan the A, values: C = 12, strychnine is 4, N= 14,0 = 16, the formula mass (M) of (12. 21) + (1 29) + (14% 2) + (16 2) = 250 + 22 +28 + 92-934 ‘The percentage mass of carbon in strychnine is therefore: 252 - Fa X 100 = 75.4% ‘This is not the same as the percentage mass of carbon in the white powder ~ 0 the white powder is not strychnine. ‘a Whatis the percentage mass of hycrogen in ammonia, NH,? (A, values: N= 14,H=1)[Percentagesand formulae Working out the empirical formula of a compound from its percentage composition (9) We can find the percentage of each element in a compound by experiments. Then we can work out the simplest ratio of each type of atom in the compound. We call this simplest (xhrole-numiber) rt ts empirical formula, This s sometimes the same as the actual nuniberof atoms in one molecule (which we call the molecular formula) —but not aways. For exarnplo, the empirical formula of water Is H,O, whichis also is molecular formula. However, hyerogen peroxice has the empiical formula HO, but its molecular formula is H,0,. Worked example ‘Ahrydrocarbon contains 7% carbon and 25% hydrogen by mass. What is its empirical formula? (4, values: C = 12, H = 1) Solution Imagine we have 100g of the compound, Then 76g is carbon and 25g hydrogen. Work out the number of moles by dividing the mass of each element by its Plate atl ass 2» roremton 3 For tyrogen:28 = 25ale ot hydrogen ator Sottistels us fat 0.25 mols of carbon tonsa combined wth 25 ols ‘of hydrogen atoms. This means that the ratio is 6.25 (0):25 (H). So the simplest whole number ratio is 1:4 (by dividing both numbers by the ‘smallest number in the ratio) 6.25 moles of carbon atoms In other words each carbon atom is combined with 4 times as many hydrogen atoms. So the empirical formula is CH,. b Acompcund contains 40% sulfur and 60% oxygen. What is its empirical formula? (A, values: S = 82, O = 16) © 54g of aluminium react exactly with 4.89 of oxygen. What is the ‘empirical formula of the compound formed? (4, values: Al = 27, 0 = 16) Emre etn 1 Copy and complete using the werds balow: ‘compound dividing hundred formula ‘The percentage of an lament in a.........'8 caleulated by... the mass of te element in the compound by the relative... mass of the compound and then multiplying the result by one... 2. Ammonium nitrate (NH,NO,) is used as a fertiiser. What is the orcontago mass of nitrogen in it? (A, values: H 8 22.65% of the mass of « cample of phosphorus chloride is phosphorus. What is the emoirical formula of this phosphorus chloride? (A values: P = 31, Cl = 35.5) tH] To work out the formula from porcantage masses: © Change the percentages given to the masses of each element in 100g of ‘compound. © Change the masses to moles of aioms by dividing the masses by the A, values. This tells you how many moles ot ‘each different element are present. © This tells you the ratio of aioms of the different elemenis in the compound. @ Then the simplest whole- ‘number ratio gives you the ‘empirical formula cf the compound. [4] Pio neal the elements in a compound Pe es) Pots ec eee © We can calculate empirical See eee tad Pete koalas es fio)eu ead eee) Cee ans Ce Need ioe) ‘symbol equations to et reactants and products? [H] How much? OES Ure Rel eL (el Ms Chemicel equations can be very useful. When we want to know how much of each substance is involved in a chemical reaction, we can use the balanced ‘symbol equation, Think about what happens when hydrogen molecules (H,) react with shlorine molecules (Cl). The reaction makes hydrogen chloride molecules (HCI H, + Cl, > HC! (not balanced) This equation shows the reactants and the product — but itis not balanced, Here is the balanced equat H, + Cl, > 2HCI This balanced equation tells us that ‘| hydrogen molecule reacts with 1 chlorine molecule to make 2 hydrogen chloride molecules’, But the balanced equation also tells us the numiver of moles of each substance involved. So our balanced aquaticn also tells us that 't mole of hydrogen molecules reacts with 1 mole of chlorine molecules to make 2 moles of hydrogen chloride molecules. @ '2HCI hes two meanings. What are they? 4 hydrogen molecule 1 shojne moeuls ——_2hyeogon chloride molecules H, + cl, —+ 2HCI 1 moe of tyerogen 1 mole of chorne ‘mobs ot yerogen rmokcies molecles ‘chlode matcus Using balanced equations to work out reacting masses 5 “This balanced equation above is really useful, because we can use it 10 work ‘out what mass of hydrogen and chlorine react together. We can also calculate how much hydrogen chloride is made. To do this, we need to know that the A, for hydrogen is 1 and the A, for chiorine is955: A, of hydrogen A of chlorine = 35.5 vem 80 Mass Of 1 mole Of Cl, x4 1 s0 mass of 1 mole of H, 6 x385= 71g M, of HO! = (1 + 35.5) = 96.5 ...... 30 mass of 1 mole of HCI = 36.5g Our balanced equation tells us that 1 mole of hydrogen reacts with 1 mole of chlorine to give 2 moles of HCI. So turing this into masses we get: 1 mole of hydiogen=1x2g = 29 1moleof chlorine =1% 71g = 71g 2molesofHCl = 2 x 36.5g= 73gLL f Calculations (3 ‘These calculations are Important when we want to know the mass of chemicals that react together. For example, sodium hydroxide reacta with chlorine gas to make bleach. Here is the balanced symbol equation for the reactior 2NaQH = + Cl, + NaOCl + NaGi + H,0 sodium hydroxide chlorine bleach saltwater This reaction happens when chlorine gas is bubbled through a solution of sodium hydroxide, Hfwe have a solution containing 100g of sodium hydroxide, haw much chlorine gas do we need to convert itto bleach? Too much, and some chlorine will be wasted. Teo little, and not all of the sodium hydroxide will react. Mass of 1 mole of NaOH cl, A,ot hydrogen = 1 Aol oxygen = 16 A of sodium = 28 =2041841=40 =955%2=71 Aol chlorine = 35.5 The tbl howe hal clo of Sodan hyealda has anand 209 801009 of sod hyo is 1 = 2s mes, ‘The balanced symbol equation tells us that for every 2 moles of sodium hydroxide we need 1 mole of chlorine. So we need 25 = 1,25 moles of chiorine The tabla shows that 1 mole of chlorine has a mass of 71g Figuro 1 Slesch ie vaedin smo So wa will need 1.25 x 71 = 88.75g of chlorine to react with 100g of sodium — Suinming poate ie al nasil pect hyoroxide. caret eaclation! Ate e teen 1 Copy and complete using the words below: balanced equations mole mass product Symbol ....-» Gan tall us about the amounts of substances in a reaction if they are. . To work out the mass of each substance in a reaction ‘we need to know the mass of 1 ......... Of. We can then work aut the of each reactant needed, and the mass of. that will be formed, (Hl 2 Hydrogen peroxide, H,0,, decomposes to form water and oxygen read gas. Write a balanced symbol equation for this reaction, b When hydrogen peroxide decomposes, what mass of hydrogen tO csehahaeie Abita sansa pra Pei’ Pee Pee peas 8g of oxygen gas? Coin Lacan chemical reaction. Oe Galcium reacts with oxygen like this: 2Ga + 0, > 2620 Staak! What mass of oxygen will react exactly with 60g of caloium? Cie) values: 0 = 18, Ca = 40) products in a chemical ee usRu eed ulead yleld of a chemical reaction eee kad percentage yield of a Creed ft ioc Buea ad Pee Peet) GO links For information about using balanced symbol equations to predict reacting masses, ook back to 02 3.4 Equations and calculations. How much? The yield of a chemical reaction Many of the eubstances thet we use every day have to be made from other chemicals. This may involve using complex chemical reactions. Examples Include food colourings, flavourings and preservatives, the ink in your pen cr printer, and the artificial flores in your clothes. All of thase are made using chemical reactions. Imagine a roaction: A + 28 > © fonmonsandpurtactalnenses GD) < nent Acancmmmanesce ym ene ‘a How many moles of B are needed to react with each mole at A in this reaction? b How many moles of C will this make? It we carry out the reaction, itis unlikely that we will get as much of C as we worked out, This is because our calculations assumed that all of A and B would be turned into C. We call the ammount of product that a cherrical reaction produces its yield. Itis useful to think about reactions in terms of their percentage yield. This ‘compares the amount of product that the reaction really produces with tha maximum amount that it could possibly produce: ied - ___2™MOunt of product produced Percentage yield ~ 7-aemimum amount of product possible * 100% Calculating percentage yield ‘An industrial example Limestone is made mainly of calcium carbonate. Crushed lumps of limestone are heated in a rotating lime kiln. The calcium carbonate decomposes to make calcium oxide, and carbon dioxide gas is given aff. A company processas 200 tonnes of limestone a day. It collacts 98tonnas of calcium oxide, the useful product. What is the percentage yield of the kiln, assuming limestone contains oniy calcium carbonate? (A, values: Ca = 40, C = 12, 0 = 16) calcium carbonate > calcium oxide + carbon dioxide Caco, += Ca + C0, Work out the relative formula masses of CaCO, and CaO. M,0f CaCO, = 40 + 12+ (16 x 3)= 100 M,ofCe0 = 40416 = 56 So the balanced symbol equation tells us that: 100 tonnes of CaCO, could make 56 tonnas of CaO, assuming a 100% yield.[The yield ota chemicalreacton Y ‘Therefore 200 tonnes of CaCO, could make a maximum of (56 x 2) tonnes of Ca0 = 112 tonnes. jeld = ___#™MOunt of product produced So percentage yield= "ayimum amount of product possible * 190% - 98 “He We can explain this yield as some of the limesione is lost as dustin the crushing procass and in the rotating kiln. Thera will also be some other ‘mineral compounds in the imestone. Itls not 100% calcium carbonate as we ‘assumed in our calculation. 100 = 87.5% © Wh: the percentage yield of a reaction? Vory few chemical reactions have a yield of 100% because: © Tha reaction may be reversible (so as products form they react to re-form ‘the reactants again). © Some reactants may react to give unexpected products. © Some of the product may be lost in handling or left behind in the apparatus. @ The reactants may not be completely pure. © Some chemical reactions produce more than one product, and itmay be difficult to separate the product that we want from the reaction mixture. Sustainable production (3) Chemical companies use reactions to make products which thoy soll. Ideally, they want to use reactions with high yields (that also happen at a reasonable rate). Making a product more efficiently means making less waste. As much product as possible should be made from the reactants. ‘Chemicel factories (or plants) are designed by chemical engineers. They Key points dasign a plant to work as safely and economically as passibie. It should waste = 7 = as Ile energy and raw materials as possible. This helps the company to OD ee ey make money. Itis bottor for the environmont too as it conserves our limited es resources. It also reduces the pollution we gst when we use fossil fuels as sources of energy. Cer ye try how much product is made Sr eto compared with the maximum 1 Copy and complete using the wards below: reels thet could be made high maximum percentage product waste yield Aha ‘The amount of made in a chemical reaction is called its , iia bila siete The... /leld tells Us the amount of product that is mace compared & chemical reaction Include ... amount that could be made. Reactions with yields Product being lett behind in are important because they result in less 7 WOCee sae er) i i i separating the products from Explain why itis good for the environment if industry finds ways to make She es products using high yield reactions and processes that waste as litle ‘energy as possible. Tat ea) i i Pe aed IF the percentage yield for a reaction is 100%, 60g of reactant A would Ue ata make 809 of product C. How much of reactant A is needed to make 80g Eartire raked peeources err of product G ifthe percentage yield ofthe reaction is only 75%? [1] ReaHow much? Reversible reactions In all the reactions we have looked at so far the reactants react and form eeu Kea Get Seat Cee eid Figure 1 Indicators undergo reversibie reactions, changing celourto show us ‘whether Soluliors are acidic or alkaline Products. We show this by using an arraw pointing from the reactants fo the products: A+B 3 C+D reactants products But in some reactions the products can react together to make the original reactants aoain. We call this a reversible reaction. A revarsiole reaction can go in both directions so we use two arrows in the equation. One arrow points in the forwards direction and one backwards: A+B=C4D ‘@_ What does a single arrow in a chemical equation mean? b What does a double arrow in a chemical equation mean? Examples of reversible reactions Haye you ever tried to neutralise an alkaline solution with an acid? Itis very diffoult to get a solution which is exactly neutral. You can use an indicato: to tall when just the right amount of acid has been added. Indicators react in acids to form a coloured compound. They also reactiin alkalis to form @ differently coloured compound. Litmus is @ complex molecule, We will epresentitas HLit (where H is hyérogen). HLitis red. If you add alkali, HLitturns into the Lit” ion by losing an HT ion. Lit is blue. tf youthen add more acid, blue Lit changes back to red HLit and so on. Hut =H + Lit Redlitmus Blue litmus © Why does a neutral solution look purple with litmus solution? Practical Changing colours Use litmus solution, dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution to show the reversible reaction described above. ‘© Explain the changes you see when adding acid and alkali to litmus. When we heat ammonium chloride another reversible reaction takes place. Practical Heating ammonium chloride Gently heat a small amount of ammonium chloride in a test tube with a mineral ool plug. Use test tube holders or clamp the test tube at an angle. Make sure you warm the bottom of the tube. ‘© What do you see happen inside the test tube? Safety: Wear eye protection for both practicals.P Reversbireaciors ‘Ammonium chloride breaks down on heating. It forms ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. This is an example of thermal dacampasition: haat ammonium chioride——> ammonia + hydrogen chloride NH,CI —> MH, + Hel The two gases risa up the test tube. When they ecol down near the mouth of the tube they react with each other. The gases re-torm ammonium chioride again. The white solid forms on the inside of the glass: ammonia + hydrogen chloride — ammonium chloride NK, + HCI > NH,CI We can show the reversible reactions as: ammonium chloride = ammonia + hydrogen chloride NH,Cl = NH + Hel Figure 2 An ecarnple ofa reversible reaction: Eine aoe 1 What do we mean by ‘a reversible chemical reaction’? 2 Phenolphthalein is an indicator. It is colourless in acid and pure water but is pink-purple in alkali, In a demonstration a teacher started with a beaker containing a mixture of water and phenolphthalein. In two other beakers she had different volumes of acid and alkall, The acid and alkali had the same concentration. She then poured the mixture into the beaker containing 2om* of sodium hydroxide solution. Finally sha poured the mixtura into a third baakar LOS) with Sci of hydrochloric acid in it Oma ED Describe what you would observe happen in the demonstration. Petey Ieee ner Reena ein nee ee eset eee De It behaves Ike litmus, write a symbol equation to show its reversible (EES reaction in aci¢ end alkali, Show the colour of HPho and Pho undor oe Sa their formulae in your equation, roaction ueing tho = sign,eeu Kea erie! Get uN id rte eeu id ere Bee a | nag if a i z { i eT ii Figure 1 Modem foods contain a variety of additves to improve ther taste or Sepearance, end to make them keep longer CO links For more information on how chemists identity unknown substances, see 03 4.5 Chemical analysis. Figure 9 A fon years ago a batch of ed food cobouring was found to be contarrinated wih a chemical suspected ‘of causing cancer This eye had found is ‘nay inte hundrode of processed foode. All of hase had to be removed from the sheWves of our supermarkets and royecs How much? Analysing substances For hundrods of yoars wo have addod salt to food to preserve it. Nowadays, food technologists develop ways to improve the quality of foods. They also analyse foods to ensure they meet legal safety standards. We call a substance that is added to food to extend its sheft life or to improve its taste or appearance a focd additive. Additives that have been approved for use in Europe are given E numbers. The E numbers are Ike a cade to identify the additives. For example, E102 Is a yellow food colouring called tartrazine, a Whatis a food additive? Detecting additives ‘Scientists have many instruments that they can use to identify unknown compounds, including food adcitives. Many of these are more sensitive, automated versions of techniques we use in school labs. (One technique that is used to identify food additives ia paper chromatography. It works because some compounds in a mixture dissolve better than others in particular solvents, Their solubility determines how far thoy travol across the paper. Practical Detecting dyes in food colourings Make a chromatogram to analyse various food colourings ‘© What can you deduce from your chromatogram? Figure 2 The technique of paper Cohrerratogrephy that we use in schools. Techriques used to ideniy food additives are affen bared on the ‘seme principles asthe simple tests we {0 In te school science lb. 1b What happens to the food colourings when you make a paper ‘chromatogram? (Once the compounds in a feod have been separated using chromatography, they can be identified. We can compare the chromatogram with others ‘dtained from known substances. For this we must use the same solvent at the same temperatureOEE Instrumental methods ‘Many industries need rapid and accurate methods for analysing their products. They use modem instrumental analysis for this task. Instrumental techniques are aiso important in fighting pollution. Caraful monitoring of the environment using sensitive instruments is now common. This type of analysis is also used all the tme in health care, Modern instrumental methods have a number of benefits over older methods: @ they are highly accurate and sensitive @ they are quicker @ they enable very small samples to be analysed. ‘Against this, the main disadvantages of using instrumental methods are that the equipment: @ is usually very expensive @ takos epooial training to use @ gives rosults that can often be intorproted only by comparison with data from known substances, © What do you think has aided the development of instrumental methods of chomical analysis? Why are thase methods important? Figure 4 Compered with the matnads ef 60 years ago, modern insturnental methods of analysis are quick, accurate and sensitive ~ three big advantages. They also need far fewer people fo cary out the analysis than traditonal laboratory analysis Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words balo\ additives paper analyse identity Food scientists can......... different foods to sea what... been used. For example, food cclourings can be detected by.... chromatography. They can use results from known compounds to positively. them. 2 a Carry out a survey of some processed foods. Identity some examples of food additives and explain vihy they have been used. b Dascribe how wa can saparate the dyas in a fond colouring and Identity them. 3 What are the main advantages and disadvantages of using instrumental analysis compared with traditional practical methods? GO links For more information on the insirumenis used by chemists to analyse substances, see C2 3.8 Intrumenial analysis. (QA Examiner's tip ‘Although simplor to uso than bench chemistry methocs, inatrumental metheds stil need trained technicians to operate them. ore oir Be eke Ce Reiter ey © Food scientists can analyse Ce acces e.g. by using paper eu ieaas acre) techniques provide fast, Pete a rey ways of anelysing chemical substances.eu ead eek Cd Seay Gece irre spectrometer to identity the Cee ean Substance A came out of ‘he column frst, rolowed by 8 and fnally C Recorder reeponoe Fidonton time Figure 2 Thisiea gas chromatograph of airixure of tree diferent substance, “There was more of substarce A than 8 or in the sarnpie miture How much? asta TE) Analysing mixtures ‘Samples to be analysed are often mixtures of different compounds. So the first step is to separate the compounds. Then they can be identified using one of the many instrumental techniques available, Chamists have daveloped a technique called gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to do this task. rat, they use gas chromatography to separate compounds that are easily vaporised., @ Then the separated compounds pass into another instrument — the mass spectrometer, which can identify each of them. The mass spectrometer is useful for identifying both elemants and compounds. The pattern of peaks it procuces identifies the sample, Gas chromatography ‘This separation technique is similar to paper chromatography. However, instead of a solvent moving over paper, it has a gas moving through a columa packed with a solid. Sangli vi Sample oven Oven Narrow colurnn packed with solid parictes i Thee peal nla reo fret Coa, salsa ene compte Pump — || " i atc ete — Figure 1 Thisisthe apperatis used in gas chromatography. The solid in the column can be ‘coated ina iqulc ands sometimes ther known as gas-Iqule chromatography. © First of all, the sample mixture is vaporised. © A cartier’ gas moves the vapour through the coiled column. © The compounds in the sample have different attractions te the material In ‘the column. The compounds with stronger attractions will take longer to get ‘through the column, We say that they have a longer retention time, @ The compounds with weak attractions to the materal in the coluran leave it frst. They have shorter retention times. ‘Tne separated compounds can be recorded on a chartas they leave the column. Look at Figure 2 to see a gas chromatograph. ‘We can identity the unknown substances in the sample by comparing the chromatograph with the results for known substances. The analysis must have taken placa in exactly the same conditions to compare retention times.ee nc hes Mass spectrometry To ensure that we identify the unknown substances the gas chramatography apparatus can be altached directly to a mass spectrometer. This identifies substances very quickly and accurately and can detect vary small quantities in the sample. Measuring relative molecular masses ‘Amass spactromatar aleo provides an accurate way of measuring the relative molecular (formula) mass of a compound. The peak with the largest mass corresponds to an ion with ust one electron removed. As you know, the mass of an electron is so small that i ean ba ignorad when we look at the mass of aioms. This peak is called the molecular ion peak. Itis elvays found as the lest peak on the right aa you lock at a mass spectrum. The molecular ion peak of the substance analysed in Figure 3 is at 45. So the substance has a relative molecular mass of 45. Elect and magnetic folds ensure alias Nave te sare J site sary ‘Sample injected end ionised Per centaburdance Mblecula ion peak ~whgnatc fla defects ions Go Figure 3 The pattem of peaks (called the mass spactrur) acs like a fingerorint for Lunknewn compound The pattom is quickly maiched againat a databace of known ‘compounds stored on computer NB You dont need te remember the details ofhow amass spectrometer works, Come Blnnre aoe oe rh) eer Ce ote Separating a......... f compounds can be cartiod out bY G28 oan.» Palanan sabrina Identifying compounds once they have been separated then uses pachegenner ene techniques like... spectrometry. The patter of peaks is like a. for each unknown compound. tis matched against known compounds | [MIN Tuecuscuauaog OMA COMBUEEL oon» CEOS Fi eet and Desoribe how a mass spectrometer can be used to find the relative Saami Sa molecular mass of a compound. IH] es ro} 1 Copy and complete using the words below: chromatography database mass mixture fingerprintHow much?: C2 3.1-C2 3.8 Summary questions @ @ Match up the paris of the sentences: a | Neurons havea A |. negligible mass relative mage of .. ‘compared te protene and neutrons. b | Electrons have B | ... 1 compared to rotons. | Protons have arelative | C | ...foundin its nucleus mass of... | Neaityallofan tom's | D | ... 1 compared to mass ki neutrons, 2 Calculate the mass of 1 mole of each of the following compounds: aH. b CH, © Mno, ALO, e K,CO, # Kttno, g Mn(OH), (Ayalues: C K = 39, Mn 2, = 16, Al= 27,H = 1,Ca= 40, 55) (@ How many moles Ag atoms are there in 108g of silver, bb P atoms aro thoro in 93g of phosphorus, © Ag atoms ere there in 274 of silver, dP atoms are there in 6.2g of phosphorus, € Fe atoms are there In 0.569 of ron, 1 P, molecules are there in 6.2g of phosphorus? A,values: Ag = 108, P = 31, Fe ~ 56) @ a The chemical formula of methane is CH, Use the relative atomic masses in question 2 to work out the percentage by mass of carbon in methane. b in82q of methane, work out the mass of hydrogen prasent in the campound, 1 When aluminium reacis with bromine, 4.059 of aluminium reacts with 36.09 of bromine. What is the empirical formula of aluminium bromide? (A values: Al = 27, Br = £0) [HI @ Inalime kiln, calcium carbonate is decomposed to calcium oxide: CaCO, + Ca0 + CO, 50.0tonnee of calcium carbonate gave 26.6tonnes of calcium oxide. Calculate the percentage yield for the process. (Avalues: Ca = 40,0 = 16, =12) [HI (@ a Whatis a reversible reaction? b How does a reversible reaction differ from an ‘ordinary’ reaction? ¢ Ethane (C,H,) reacting with steam (H,0) to form ethanol (C,H,OH) is a reversible reaction. Write the balancad symaol equation for this reaction, (® Sulfuris mined in Poland and is brought to Britain in ships. The sulfur is used to make sulfuric acic. Sulfur is burned in airto produce eulfur Sulfur dioxide and air are passed over a heated catalyst to procuce suifur trioxide, Water is added to sulfur tioxide to produce sulfuric acid, The raactions aro: $ +0, 980, 280, + 0, = 280, 80, + HO H,S0, Relative atomic masses: H = 1; O = 16; S = 32 a How many moles of sulfuric acid are produced from one mole of sullur? b Calculate the maximum mass of sulfuric acia that can be produced from $2kg of sulfur € In an industlal process the mass of sulfurle acid that ‘was produced from a2kg of sulfur vas 94,08kg. Use ‘your answer to part b to calculate the percentage yield ofthis process. 4 Suggest two reasons why the yield ofthe indusivial process was loss than the maximum yiald. € Give two reasone why the industrial process should produce a yield that is as closa to the maximum yield as possible. (HI4 a An atom of phosphorus can be rapresentad as: at 15 1 What is the number of protons in this atom of phosphorus? What is the number of neutrons in this atom of phosphorus? a 1 What are the number of electrons in this atom of phosphorus? w b A different atom of phosphorus can be represented 32 16 | What are these two atoms of phosphorus known as? a it Give one way in which these two atoms of phosphorus are different. a 2 Toothpastes often contain fluoride fons to help protect teeth from attack by bacteria ‘Some toothpastes contain tin[i) Fuoride. This compound has the formula Sn Calculate the relative formula mass (Mj) of SnF2 (Relative atomic masses: F = 19; Sn = 119) @ b Calculate the percentage by mass of fluorine in SnF2, @ © Atube of toothpaste contains 1.2g of SnF2. Calculate the mass of fluorine in this tube of toothpaste. () ‘AQA, 2008 3 The diagram shows what happens when ammonium, chloride is heated. __— We soit wn “est ube ‘woo! plug ‘Anirorium EXT chord The reaction that takes place NH ifs) = NH,(g) + HCIg) ‘a What does — in the equation mean? b Explain why the white solid appears near the top of the test tubs. @ AQ#/Examination-style questions @ End of chapter questions 4 The diagram shows the main parts of an instrumental method called gas chromatography linked to mass ‘spactroscopy (GC-MS). wase spectrometer Comput Oven Helium ges Courmnpacked wth oranues ct solid materia This method saparates a mixture of compounds and then helps to identity each of the compounds in the mixture. a In which part of the apparatus: 1 isthe mixture separated? « is the ralative molocular macs of each of tho compounds in the mixture measured? a are the results of the experiment recorded? (1) bi Athletes sometimes take drugs because the drugs improve their performance. One of these drugs is ephedtine, Ephedrine has the formula: C,.HgNO ‘What relative molecular mass (M) would be recorded by GC-MS if ephedrine was presentin & blood sample taken from an athlate? ‘Shovr clearly how you work out your answer. (Relative atomic masses: H = 1; C = 12; N O= 16) Hi Another drug is amphetamine, which has the formula: C,H,sN ‘The relative molecular mass (M) of amphetamine is, 135. Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in amphetamine, (Relative atomic mass: N=14,) (2) © Athletes are reguiarly tested for drugs at international athletios events. An instrumental method such as ‘GC-MS is bottor than mothods such as titration Suggest wry. @ AQA, 2010 ‘5 Achemist thoughta liquie hydrocarbon was hexane, CH... Relative atomic masses: H = 1; 0 = 12 a Caloulate the percentage of carbon Inhexane, (2) 'b The chemist analysed the liquid hydrocarbon and found that it contained 85.7% carbon. Calculate the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon based cn this rasult. You must show your working to gain full marks. ® © Was the liquid hydrocarbon hexane? Explain your answer. [HIeu ead eT ok Cou kee cad rr of a chemical reaction? Figure 1 All ising tinge depend on very precise contr of the many cretrical Feactions neppening rside ther cals Wwe ‘The steeper the line on the ‘raph, the faster the reaction rate. Rates and energy a CAL The rate of a chemical reaction tolls us how fast reactants tum into products. In your body, there are lots of reactions taking place all the time. They happen al rales which supply your cells with what they need, whenever required. Reaction rate is also very important in te chemical industry. Any industrial process has to make money by producing useful producis. This means we must make the amount of product nesded as cheaply as possible, Ifit takes too long to produce, it will be hard to make a profit when itis sold. The rate of the reaction must be fast enough to make it quickly and safely. ‘a What do we mean by the rate of a chemical reaction? 'b Why is understanding the rate of reactions so imoortant in industry? How can we find out the rate of reactions? Reactions happen at all sorts of different rates. Some are really fast, such esa firework exploding. Othere are very slow, euch aa a piece cf iron rusting, ‘There are wo ways we can work out the rate of a chemical reaction. We can find out how quickly the reactants are used up as they make products. Or we ccan find out how quickly the products of the reaction are made. Hore aro three ways we can make these kinds of measurement. Practical Measuring the decreasing mass of a reaction mixture We can measure the rate at which the mass of a reaction mixture changes if the reaction gives off a gas. As the reaction takes place, the ‘mass of the reaction mixture decreases. We can measure and record the ‘mass at ime intervals which we decide. ‘Some balances can be attached to a computer to monitor the loss in ‘mass continuously. Catton wack ‘Marbig chips and bung hydochlare eid i ‘© Why is the cotton wool placed in the neck of the conical flask? ‘© How would tho line on the graph differ if you plot ‘Loss in mass’ on tho vertical axis? Safety: Wear eye protection.rel Measuring the increasing volume of gas given off Ifa reaction produces a gas, we can u tho gas to find out the rata of reaction. We do this by collecting the gas and ‘measuring its volume at time intervels. ‘© What are the sources of error when measuring the volume of gas? uber ting Volume of 998 produced el Measuring the decreasing light passing through a solution ‘Some reactions in solution make an insoluble solid (precipitate). This makes the solution go cloudy. We can use this to measure the rate at which the solid s appoars. ‘The reaction is set up In a flask. Under the flask, we put on a piace of papar marked with a cross. Then we can record tho time taken for the cross to disappear. The shorter the time, the faster the reaction rate, Lugntirensmited (Or we can use a light sensor and data logger. Then we measure the amount of light that passes through the solution, as the graph shows. ‘© What ere the advantages of using a light sensor rather than the ‘disappearing cross’ method? Tre ‘We can summarise these methods of working out the rate of a reaction using this equation: Rate of reaction = Mount of reactant used or amount of product formed WOT time rr Annee een ee rey Seed ee Measuring the amount of... which are used up overtime or the ORL amount of... made over time are two ways ot finding out the ea ey of a reaction. The... ofthe lines on graphs drawn from these Bee experiments tells us about the rate at any given 1 Copy and complete using the words below: products rate time reactants slope Oe ead eats Ceauk ee as) Pere esd ‘Skotch graphs to show tho results of: a 1 measuring the mass of products formed in a reaction over tme. measuring the mass of reactants used up in a reaction over time. b What does the slope of the graphs at any particular time in part a tall at that tne. The steeper the us about the reaction? slope, the faster the reaction.Rates and energy Cero oT toa aU RL cere ie Leer) In everyday life we control the rates of chemical reactions. People often do it Learning objectives without knowing! For example, cooking cakes in an oven or revving up a car eT ry engine. In chemistry we need to know what affects the rate of reactions. We pearance) also neod to explain why each factor affocts the rate of a reaction, er er) ‘There are four main factors which affect the rate of chemical reactions: @ temperature See keubcets © surface area Cer koeakabe ue ees @ concentration of solutions or prossure of gases @ prosonce of a catalyst Reactions can only take place when the particles (atoms, ions or molecules) of reactants come together. But the reacting particles don't just have to bump into each other. They also need enough energy to react when they collide. This is known as collision theory. ‘The smallest amount of energy that particles must have before they can react i called the activation energy. So reactions are more likely to happen between reactant particles if we: © Increase tie chance of reacting particles colliding with each other © Increase the energy thal they have when they collide. Ifwe increase the chance of particles reacting, we will also increase the rate of reaction. a What must happen before two particles have a chance of reacting? b Particles must have a minimum amount of energy to be abla to react. Whats this eneray called? feet MomceeehO —uyiaco area and ection eto ( reacted. But how can we expian what Fappena ha chariealrescbom? Imagine lighting a campfire. You don't pile large lags together and try to set ‘thom alight. You use small piooes of wood to bagin with. Doing this inoroasos the surface area of the wood. This means there is more wood exposed to react with oxygen in the air, When a solid reacts in a solution, the size of the pieces of solid affects the rate of the reaction. The particles inside a large lump of sclid are notin contact \with the solution, so they can't react. The particlas inside the solid have to wait for the particles on the surface to react fist. In smaller lumps, or in a powder, each tiny piece of solid is surrounded by solution, More particles are exposed (0 allack. This means thal reactions can tako place much moro quickly. © Which has the larger surface area—a log or the same mass of small pieces of wood? d_ How does the surface area of a solid affect its rate of reaction? Figure 2 Cooking ~ an excellent ample of contaling reaction rates!Ce) Bro Which burns faster? Make sure you have 2 heatproof mat under the Bunsen bumer and you must wear eye protection. Try igniting 2 20m length of magnesium ribbon and time how long ittakes to burn. ‘Take a small spatula tip cf magnesium powder and sprinkle it into the Bunsen flame. ‘© What safety precautions should you take in this experiment? ‘© Explain your observations, § ¢ Practical Investigating the effect of surface area () 2 Cation wool Marble chigs and ==] bung ie ee hytoeins a / | Corical task Nass of reacting mkture Tre Inthis investigation you will be measuring the mass against time for differant sizes of marble (calcium carbonate) chips. You need at least two aifferent sizes of marble chips in order to vary the surface area. ‘© What variables should you conval to make this a fair test? ‘© Why does this method of finding out the rate of reaction work? © Use the data collected to draw a graph. Explain what the graph shows. (A data lager would help to plot a graph of the results:) Safety: Wear eye protection. Etre mtn 1. Copy and complete using the words below: ‘energy activation collide frequently minimum Particles oan react with each other only when they with cuffici Reaction rates increase when collisions are more energeii andjor happen more... The... amount of energy needed for particles to reactis known as the......... energy. 2 Draw a diagram to explain why it is easier to lighta fire using small piecas of wood rather than large logs. 8 Why do you digest your food mare quickly if you chew it wall before you swallow it? * (QA. Examiner's tip Particles collide cll the time, but only some collisions lead to reactions, Increasing the number of colisions ina certain time and the anergy af collisions Produces faster rates. Larger surface area does not result in colisions with more energy but does increase the frequency of collisions. Com Se Fe kad before they can react. Suu nutal Caan ede’ have in order to react is Ce een © The rate of a chemical Fee) rer ge] reactants is increased, This increases the frequency of Cea) peeu ead eee kad Fete Lal rtd Pokies Cee tae i Figure | Lowering the temperature will slow down the reactions that make foods mot Figure 2. Moving faster mears i’s more licaly that you'll Buma info samecne eleo and the allison wil be harder too! Rates and energy MMe Rom Clee) When we increase the temperature, it always increaaes the rate of reaction. ‘We can use fridges and freezers to reduce the temperature and slow down the rate of reactions. When food goes off itis because of chemical reactions. Reducing the temperature slows down thase reactions, Colision theory tells us why raising the temperature increases the rate of a reaction. Thera ara two reasons: © particles callide mora often @ particles collide with more energy. Particles collide more often ‘When we heat up a substance, energy is transferred to its particles. In solutions and in gases, this means that the partiolas mova around faster. And when particles move faster they collide more often. Imagine a lot of people walking around in the schoo! playground blindfolded. They may bump into each other acoasionally. However, if they start running around, they will bump into each other much more often. ‘When particles collide more frequently, there are more chances for them to react. This increases the rate of reaction Particles collide with more energy Particles that are moving arcund more quickly have more energy. This means that any collisions they have are much more energetic. It's like two people colliding when they're running rather than when thay ara walking, When we increase the temperature of a reacting mixture, a higher proportion of the collisions will result in a reaction taking placa. This is because a highar Proportion of particles have energy greater than the activation energy. This ‘second factor has a grecter effect on rate than the increased frequency of colisions. ‘Around room temperature, if we increase the temperature of a reaction by 10°C the rate of the reaction will roughly double. ‘@ Why does increasing the temperature increase the rate of a reaction? b How much does a 10°C tise in temperature increase reaction rate at room temperature? sxnomni| O @ ‘ote o Eel ©9060 Mo & = meen] © more ny @ F % eo @ eo” @ Figure 3 More frequent collisions, wit mare eneray ~ both o these factors increase the raie ‘fa chemical reaction caused by increasing the temperatureSe eee As one goes up, the other comes down In the experiment opposite we can measure tha time for an X Fine ee Ble to disappear as a precipitate the cress depear souton and dite forms, This moans that the wen vawad fm above hydrechlore acd longer the time, the slower the rale of reaction. There isan inverse relationship betwoan tima and rata. Soas time increases, rate decreases. We ssay the rate is proportional to ‘time (also written as time”. Thoroforo, wo can plot a graph of temperature against 1/ime ‘When we react sodium thiosulfate solution and hydrochloric acid it to investigate the eifect makes sulfur. The sutfur is insoluble in water. This makes the solution go of temperatura on rato of cloudy. Wo oan record the length of time it takos for the sclution to go reaction, [HI cloudy at different temperatures. © Which variables do you have to control to make this a fair test? © Why's it difficult to get accurate timings by eye in this investigation? © How can you Improve the precision of the data you collect? Safety: Wear eye protection. Take care if you are an asthmatic. ‘The results of an investigation like this can be plotted on a graph (see opposite). ‘The graph shows how the time for the solution to go cloudy changes with to 9 cloudy ‘temperature. Time taken for soluton What happens to the time it takes the solution to go cloudy as the ‘temperature increases? Temoenntue Gee tea Peau 1 Copy and complete using the words below: chemical collide decreases doubles energy off quickly rate RT reducing rise rete era When we increase the temperature of a reacting mixture, we increase (ret its... cf reaction. The higher temperature makes the pariicles hee move more ........ 50 they... more often and the collisions have ee eke more.......... Atroom temperature, a temperature.......... f about 10°C eet ke roughly... the reaction rata. This explains why we use fridges and Ri cad ‘reezers, .......the temperature .......the rate of the........reactions Se eae which make f00d 0 oan.» ee el i eee daca cal Water in a pressure cooker boils at a much higher temperature than Cae watar in a saucepan because itis under prassura. Why does focd take eee longer 10 cook in a pan than It does in a pressure cooker? erarathued eee kad Ce uabe cu al feed © How does increasing the etd affect the rate of reaction? Figure 1 Limestone statues are damaged by acid ran. This damage haopens more Quickly as the concentration ofthe acds in rainwater increases. Rates and energy The effect of concentration lg ees ‘Some of our most beautiful buildings are made of limestone or marble. These buildings have stood for centuries. However, they are now crumbling avay ala greater rate than before. This is because both limestone and marble are mainly calcium carbonate. This reacts with acids, leaving the stone soft and crumbly. The rate of this reaction has speeded up bacause the concentration of acids in rainwater has been steadily increasing. Increasing the concentration of reactants in a solution increases the rate of reaction. That's because there are more particles of the reactants moving around in the same volume of solution. The mora ‘crowded! together the reactant particles are, the more likely itis that they vill collide. So the more frequent collisions result in a faster reaction, Increasing the pressure of reacting gases has the same effect. Il squashes the gae particles moro closely together. We have more particles of gas in a given space. This inoreasas the chance that they will collide and react. So increasing the pressure speeds up the rate of the reaction. ‘@ Why does increasing concentration or pressure increase reaction rate? Low concertranery low pressure igh concentration) igh oressure oF 0 Figure 2 Increasing concentration and pressure both mean that paticles are closer together. ‘This increases the requancy of collisions between partclas, s0the react rate increases.Gai Investigating the effect of concentration on rate of reaction We can investigate the effect of changing concentration by reacting marble chips with different concentrations of hydrochloric acid We can find the rate of reaction by platting the mass of tha reaction mixture ever time. The mass will decrease as carbon dioxide gas Is given Practical 2 coton oot Maple cips ard [a ryder ed / \ cooncal task CaCO, + 2HCI—> CaCl, + CO, + H,O off in the reaction. © How do you meke thie a fair test? ‘© What conclusion can you draw from your results? Safety: Wear eye protection. |f we plot the results of an investigation like the one above on a graph they look like the graph opposite: The graph shows how the mass of the reaction mixture decreases over time at three different concentrations. b Which line on the graph shows the fastest reaction? How can you tell? Etim e tr 1 Copy and complete using the words below: collisions concentration faster frequency number pressure rate volume The of solutions ana. ustho.. ‘a reactionis affacted by the ‘of particles that there ara in a certain mixture. Increasing these will increase the of reacting particles, making.......... reactions. Acidic cleaners are designed to remove limescale when they are used neat. They do not work as well when they are diluted. Using your knowledge of You could also follow the reaction in the Practical box above by measuring the volume cf gas given off over time. Sketch a araph of ‘volume of gas against time for three different concentrations. Label the three lines as collision theary, explain why this is. high, medium and low concantration. of reactants in bythe. Ifthe reactants are gases. Both of these tell _.of the reaction FXC)A Examiner's tip Increasing concentration or pressure does not increase the energy with whieh the artiolos collide, Howover, it does increase the frequency of colisions. Lower acid ‘concentration L bos Time | Come increasing the concentration of reactants in solutions eee ete ka eee Se ees Increasing the pressure of reacting gasos also cer eas ka Cee deed PeeiC) ‘Sometimes a reaction might only work if we use very high temperatures or Pressures. This can cost industry a lat of money. However, we can speed up some reactions by using ‘a Apart from using a catalyst, how can we speed up a reaction? Acalalystis a substance which increases the rate of a reaction, However, itis not changed chemically itself at the end of the reaction ‘Accatalyst is not used up in the reaction. So it can be used over ard over again, We need cifierent catalysts for different reactions. Many of the catalysts we use in industry involve transition metals. For example, iron is used to make ammonia. Platinum Is used to make nitic acid b How isa catalyst affected by a chemical reaction? Figure 1. Catalysts ere al arcund ws, in tho naturel werd end in industy. ‘The catalysts in ving things are called enzymes. Our planet would be very differen without catalysts Figure 2 Tho transition meta’ platinum and pallacium are ucod in the catalytic eonvarirs in We normally use catalysis in the form of powders, pellets or fine gauzes. This gives ther the biggest possible surface ars. © Why is a catalyst in the form of pellets more affective than a whole lump of the catalyst? Not only does a catalyst speed up a reaction, but it does not get used up In ‘the reaction. We can use a tiny amount of catalyat to speed up a reaction over cS) and over again.ia Err Investigating catalysis () uber tubing syringe Figure 3 This catalyst is used in the form of pellets to give the largest possible surface area. We can investigate the effect of different catalysts on the rate of a reaction. We will look at hydrogen paroxide solution decomposing: 2H,0, > 2H,0 + 0, ‘The reaction produces oxygen gas. We can collect this in a gas syringe using the apparatus shown above. We can investigate the effect of many different substances on tha rate of this reaction. Examples include manganese(v) oxide and potassium iodide. © State the independent variable in this investigation, A table of the time taken to produce a certain volume of oxygen ean then tell us which catalyst makes the reaction go fastest. ‘© What type of graph would you use to show the results of your investigation? Why? Safety: Wear eye protection. Summary questions 1. Copy and completa using the werds below: remains increases reaction used A catalyst the rata of a chemical reaction. However, itis not upand....... the same chemically after the... 2 Solid catalysts used in chemical orocesses are often shaped as tiny beade or cylinders with holes through them. Why are they made in these shapes? 3 Why is the numbar of molas of catalyst neaded to speed up a chemical reaction very small compared with the number of moles of reactants? ‘The catalysis used in chemical planis eventually become ‘polsoned so tha! they don't work any moro. This happens because impurtiesin the reaction mixture combine wth ‘the catalyst and stop it working Propet. We Catayysts change only the rate of reactions. They do not change the products. Com ee ed Cen eect eet ly during a chemical reaction, eee Cees eeeree Catalyate are often very expensive precicus metals. Gold, platinum and palladium are all costly but are the most effective catalysts for particular reactions. But itis often cheaper to use a catalyst than fo pay for the exira energy neaded without ono. To get the same rato of reaction without a catalyst ‘would require higher temperatures andlor pressures. So catalysts save money and help the ervironmant. That's bocause using ‘temperatures and pressures often involves burning fossil fuels. So operating at lower temperatures and pressures conserves these non-renewable resources. Italso stops more carbon dioxide entoring the atmosphere, ‘a Why do catalysts save a chemical company money? However, many of the catalysts used in industry are transition matals or their compounds. These are oftan toxic. If thay escape into the environment, they build up inside living things. Eventually they poison them. For example, the platinum and palladium used in catalytic converters slowly escape from car exhausts. So chemists are working to develop new catalysts that are harmless to tha environment, The search for the ideal catalyst 's often a bit ike tral and error. Each reaction ie unique. Once a catalyst is found it might be improved by adding small amounts of other chemicals to it. All this takes a lot of time to Investigate, However, the research Is gulded by knowledge of similar catalysed roaotions. This knowlodgo ie growing all tho time. Figure 1 Chinese scientists have recenly developed a new catalys for making biodiesel ‘rom vegetable ails 'srmade from shrimp shels, end is cheaner and more efficient than B ‘conventional catalysis, The process thal uses the new catalyst also causes lass palitionFuture development (3 Chemists have developed new techniques to look at reactions. Thay can now {follow the reactions that happen on the surface of the metals in a catalytic convorter. These are very fast reaotions lasting only a fraction of a socond. Knowing how the reactions take place will help them to design new catalysis. Naneparticles ara also at the cutting edge of work on new catalysts. Scientists can arrange atoms into the best snapes for catalysing 2 particular reaction they have studied. A small mass of these catalysts has a huge surface area. This has raised hopes that fuel cells will one day take over from petrol and. diesel to run cars. Catalysts in medicine ‘The catalysts used in making new drugs also contain precious metal compounds. The metal is bonded to an organic molecule. But now chemists can make these catalysts without the metal. The metal was needed to make asiable compound, However, resaarch has rasulted in a breakthrough which will mean much cheaper catalysts. There is also no risk of contaminating the drug made with a toxic transition metal. b Why couldit be unsafe to use compounds of transition metals to catalyse reactions to make drugs? Enzymes Enzymes are the very efficient catalysts found in living things. For years we've been using enzymes to help clean our clothes, Biological washing powders contain enzymes that help to ‘break apart’ stain molecules such as proteins at low temperatures. The low temperature washes save energy. Low-temperatura enzyme reactions are the basis of the biotechnology Industry. Enzymes are soluble so would have to be separated from the products they make. However, ecientits can bind them to a solid. The solution of reactants flows over the solid. No time or money has to be wasted separaling oul the enzymes to use again. The process can run continuously. Alm cee 1 Give two ways in which catalysts are beneficial to the chemical industry. 2 What are the disacvantages of using transition metals or their compounds as catalysts? 3 Do some research to find out four industrial processes that make products using catalysts. Write a word equation for each reaction and name the catalyst used. CO links For information about nanoparticles, look back to G2 2.6 Nanoscience. i 3a Figure 2 Scientiats at long nancavtes of platinum to use 2s catalysis Fuel cals This photo fs ren an electon microscope. The wires are 1150 000th of the wicth of a hurman hai ‘The breakthrough has been made in ‘making them over a centrrete in length, Como Xr eo ued Pee ua ee ae ar ad ear ies eee a) Cea ed thelr compounds, which Ce aut environment if they escape. ree ceo) Caudal aL safer for the environment.Rates and energy Exothermic and endothermic rd Peet tate) Whenever chemical reactions take place, energy ia invelved. That's because energy is always transferred as chemical bonds are brokan and new ones ara made. eeu Kea How is energy involved in lee ikl ‘Some reactions transfer energy from the reacting chemicals to their = . surroundings, We cl fice exothermic reacts. The anergy vanstered SEES SM rom tnoreacing chemicals oten ots up he surounding, THe mane tat eo wean ressure a ise ntenperaue as te reacton happens. ‘Some reactions transfer energy from the surroundings to the reacting chemicals. We call these endothermic reactions. As they take in eneray from their surroundings, these reactions cause a drop in temperature as they happen. ‘What do we calla reaction that releasas energy to its surroundings? 1b What do we call a reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings? Exothermic reactions Fuels burning are an obvious example of excthermie reactions. For example, when methane (in naturel gas) burns it gets oxidised and releases energy. Rospiration is a vory special kind of oxidation. It involves reacting sugar with ‘oxygen inside the calls of evary living thing. The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide as waste products. Respiration is another exothermic reaction. ‘Figure 1 When a tuel bums in oxygen, Neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis are also exothermic. We energy Sirensferedt the sunounings. can easily measure the rise in temperature using simple apparatus (see the Mtousualy don raed a themometor Know iat thee sa lomporauie charget practical on the next page} © Give two examples of exothermic reactions. CO links For more information on anergy transfers in chemical reactions, see ; Figure 2 Allwarm-bloodec animals rely on exothermic reactions io keep theirbody ®&. ‘3.2 Energy transfers in solution. _ternperatures steadyEndothermic reactions Endothermic reactions are much less common than exothermic ones. ‘Thormal decomoosition reactions are endothermic. An example is the decomposition of calcium carbonate. When heated it forms calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. This reaction only takes place if we keep heating the calcium carbonate strongly. Ittakas in a great deal of energy from the surroundings. Give an example of an endothermic reaction. Practical Investigating energy changes (9) Tha hamomete is std Treasure the tmperre change which ais pare aur te ean. wich energy can ener or leave ‘he contents o the cup. Styrofoam cup We can use very simple apparatus to investigate the enargy changes in reactions. Often we don’t need to use anything more complicated than a styrofoam cup and a thermometer. ‘© Stato two ways in which you could make the cata you collect moro accurate, Aimee toes Copy and completa using the words below: endothermic exothermic changes neutralisation oxidation decomposition Chemical reactions involve energy... When a reaction releases energy wo cay that it is an... reaction. Two important examples of this type of reaction are and. - When a reaction takes in energy we say that itis an... type of reaction is thermal 2 Potassium chloride dissolving in water is an endethermic process. What \wouid you expect to observe when potassium chioride dissolves in a test tube of water? reaction. An Important example of this, Cer ry Figure 2 When wo eat sherbatwo can feel an endothermic reaction. Sherbet calcium hydroxide ‘You press a button in the base of the can. This breaks a seal and lets the water and calcium oxide mix. Coffee is aveilable in these self-heating cans. Development took years and cost millions of pounds. Even then, over a third cof the can was taken up with the reactants to release enargy. Also, in some early versions, the temperature of the coffee did not rise high enough in cold conditions. b Which solid is usually user the base of seltheating coflee cans? red Hot food Mountaineers and explorers can take ‘self-heating’ foods with them on their journeys. One uses the enorgy released when calcium oxide reacte with water to heat the food. Design a soi hosting, disposable food container for stow. @ Draw a labelled diagram of your containar and explain haw it works. © What are the safety issues invalved in using your product?Rr eeu} Cooling down Endothermic processes can be used to cool things down. For example, Chemical cold packs usually contain ammonium ritvate and water. When ammonium nitrate dissolves it takes in energy from its surroundings, making TO HEAT CONTAINER ‘them colder. These cold packs are used as emercency treatment for sports| segets a m juries. The coldness reduces swelling and numbs pain. STEP 4 Horse tome ihtesmeoss STEP 5 x he tag 1 inh a ‘The ammonium nitrate and water (sometimes as 2 gel) are kept separate in | the pack. When squeezed or struck the bag inside the water pack breaks releasing ammonium nitrate. Tha instant cold packs work for about 20 minutes. ‘They can only be used once but are ideal where there is no ice available to treat a knock or strain. ‘The same endothermic change can also be used to chil cans of drinks. fdas ee edals postadat rd | daly Figure 2 Development ofthis settheating ccan in the USA tovk about 1Oyears, The pik ace on the can tums whe when tha coffee is hot enough. Tris takes 6 8mnutes, iin - Ot ule Figure 3 Instantcold packs can be applied as socnasanhiuryoccursto minimise erage Ua fethecporaperson Pere ery Bim ete pee ere oes ee Rag od Oe eo un DE Peet 1a Describe how a disposable hand warmer works. b Describe how a re-usable hand warmer works. © Givo an advantago and a disadvantage of each type of hand warmer. d Name one use of an exothermic reaction in the food industry. 2 a Give two uses of endothermic changes. b Which endothermic change Is often used in cold packs?Rates and energy: C2 4.1-C2 4.9 Summary questions oO @) Select from A. B and C to show how the rate of each reaction, a to d, could be measured. a | Ges evoNedtrom A | Measure mass reaction mixure 'b | Mass of reaction B | Measurelignt mixture changes tonernitied © | Precipitate produced | C_| Measure volume @| Colour of solution changes @ A student carried outa reaction in which she dropped {piece of magnesium ribbon in sulfuric acid with a concentration of 0.5 molidm*. a Suggest one way in which tha student could measure the rate of ths reaction. b i Suggest three ways in which the student could increase the rate ofthis reaction. Il Explain how each of these methods changes the rato of the reaction. @ The following results show what happened when two students investigated the reaction of some marble chips with acid. Time (minutes) | investigation | Investigation 2 Mase of geo Mage of gas produced (g) | _procuced (a) ° ‘0.00 (0.00 1 ast 027 2 o7i 0.38 a 7a 038 4 0.80 0.40 5 0.80 0.40 The students were investigating the attect of concentration on rate of reaction. How did the students get the data for thair table above? b Plota graph of these resulta with time on the x-axi ¢ After one minute, how does the rate of the reaction in Investigation 2 compara with the rate at reaction in Investigation 17 How does the ‘inal mass of gas produced in Investigation 2 compare with that produced in Investigation 17 @ From the results, what can you say about the concentration of the acids in Investigations 1 and 2? @ ‘When sherbet sweets dissolve in your mouth this is an endothermic process.’ Devise an experiment to test your statement. Use words and ciagrams to describe clearly a ‘you would do. {B Two chemicals are mixed and react endothermically. When the reaction has finished, the reaction mixture is allowod to stand until it has rotumed to its starting temperature, a Sketch a graph of temperature (y-axis) against time (exis) lo show how the temperature of the reaction mdture changes. b Label the graph clearly and explain what is happening wherever you have shown the temperature is, changing, ‘gt This studert’s account ofan investigation irte the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction was found on the intemat: Liosvertigated the ePisct ef temperature on the rate of a reaction. The recetion was befrieen sediians thiosaliate ancl higdrochloric aciet I xot up hay apparots ox in this disgrenn The cross was putunder the Mask. Lheeted the sodizhe Phrosuiltate te the temperoture Fmanted ond then added Pha tuydrochlonia acid to tha Fash Fihasadiately started Phe watch and thued how long it ook for the cross te Misogpenr, Mig resatts ove below ‘Tamporarure of The sediuns| Time Ynken for The cross ro Phiesullate clzeppenr 16 10 20. 40 45 2 Mig conclusion is that the reaction goes faster the highar Phe tennperarire. @ Suggest a suitable prediction for this investigation. b Describe one safety feature that is not mentioned in the method. © Sugcest some ways in which this method could bbe improved. For each suggestion, say why it ie an improvement. d Suggest how the table of rasults could be improved, Despite all of the problems with this investigation, is the conclusion appropriate? Explain your answer.AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 9 A student reacted small 4 A glue is made by mixing together two liquids. ‘a When the liquids are mixed an excthermic reaction takes place. Gomplete the sentence below using a ‘word or phrase from the lis. decrease increase stay the same During the reaction the temperature of the mixture will a b The time taken forthe glus to set at different temperatures Is given in the table below. Temperature (°C) | Time taken for the glue to set 20 8 deye a0 G hours 90 1 hour Complete the sentences below using words or phrases from the lit. decreases increases stays the same 1 When the temperature is increased the time takon forthe olue to set : a When the temperature is increased the rate of the soiting reaction w © Which two o/ the following are reasons why an increase in temperature affects the rate of reaction? It gives the particles more enargy. Itinoreases the concentration of the particles. Itincreases the surface area of the particles. Itmakes the particles move faster. @ AQA, 2009 2 Instant cold packs are used to treat sports injurios. ‘One type of cold pack has a plastic bag conteining water. Inside this bag is a smaller bag containing ammonium nitrate. ‘The outer bag is squsezed so that the inner bag bursts. ‘The pack is shaken and quickly gets very cold as the ammonium nitrate dissolves in the water. ‘@ Explain why the pack gets celd. Q b Suggest and explain why the pack is shaken after the inner bag has burst. a AQA, 2008 End of chapter questions .028 of zinc with dilute acid to make hydrogen gas. The graph shows how the volume of hydrogen gas produced changed with tims, Volume of gas Tine a Describe, as fully as you can, how the rate of this reaction changes with time, @ b The student wanted to make the reaction go faster. ‘Which suggestion would make the reaction go faster? Usa bigger pieces of the same total mass of zinc. Uso more of the diluto aci Use zine powder. ” © The student decided to increase the concentration of the acid. Exolain, in torms of particles, why increasing the concentration of the acid increases the rate of reaction. @ d The student increased the temperature of the reaction ky 10°C. The student found that the reaction went ‘twice as fast. Explain, as fully as you can, why an Increase in temperature increases the rate of the roaction. ) |AQA, 2008 Platinum is used 2s a catalystin many industrial processes. Platinum is a very expensive metal. The catalysts often contain only about 1% platinum dispersed on an inert support such as aluminium ovide to givea suriace area of about 200m* per gram. Cobalt catalysts with nanosized particles have been developed as an alternative to platinum catalysts for use in some industrial processes. a Suggest tio reasons why platinum is used as a catalyst, even though itis very expensive. ° bb Explain, in tors of particles, why oatalysts ko platinum should have a very large surface area. @) © Suggest an economic reason and an environmental reason why cobalt catalysts have been developed as ltornatives to platinum cctalysts. @ Suggest three reasons why the use of catalysts is important it @) ceu ead Ded Eid er ts Figure 1 Acide and beaes ara all round us, in any of the things we buy atthe Sseps, in our schools and facteres~ and in curbadies too Salts and electrolysis Acids and alkalis ‘Acids and baces are an important part of our understanding of chemistry. They play an important part inside us and all other living things. What are acids and bases? ‘When we dissolve 2 substance in water we make an aqueous solution. The solution may be acidic, alkaline or neuval. That depends on which substance wo have dissalvod. @ Soluble hycroxidas are called alkalis. Their solutions are alkaline. An example is sodium hydroxide solution. © Bases, which include alkalis, are substances that can neutralise acids, Metal oxides and metal hydroxides are bases. Examples include iron oxide and copper hydroxide, © Acids include citric acid, sulfuric acid and ethanoic acid. All acids taste very sour, although many acids are far too Gangerous fo putin your mouth. Ethanoie acid (in vinagar) and citrie acid (in citrus fruit and fizzy drinks) are acids which we requiarly eat. © Pure water is neutral a Name an alkali. b Whatis a base? (One acid that we use in science labs Is hydrochloric acid, This is formed when the gas hydrogen chloride (HCI) cissolves in wator: HoKg) "5 Hr(aq) + Crea) All acids form H" ions when we add them to water, It is these H* fons that make a solution acidic. Hydrogen chloride also forms chloride ions (Cr-). The ‘(aq)’ in the equation above is called a state symbol. it shows that the ions are In an ‘aqueous solution’. In other words, they are dissolved in water. © Whations do all acids form when we add them to water? Because alkalis are bases which dissolve in water, they are the bases we often, use in experiments. Sodium hydroxide solution is often found in school labs. We get sodium hydroxide solution when we dissolve solid sodium hydroxide in water NaOH() —"" 4 Na*(eq) + OH (@a) All alkalis form hydroxide ions (OH-) when we add them to water. ttis these: hydroxide fons that make a solution alkaline, What ions do all alkalis form when we add them to water? @ What does the state symbol ‘(s) stand for?Measuring acidity or alkalinity Indicators are substances which change colour when we add them to acids and alkalis. Litrnus paper is a well-known indicator, but there are many more, We use the pH scale to show how acicic or alkaline a solution The scale runs from 0 (most acicic) to 14 {most alkaline). We can usa universal indicator (UI) to find the pH ofa solution. Itis, avery special indicator mad from a number of dyes. Itturns & range of colours as the pH changes. Anything in the middle of the PH scale (pH 7) is neutral, neither acid nor alkali. roe Which is the most alkaline product? Compare the alkalinity of various cleaning products. ‘You can tast washing-up liquids, shampoos, soaps, hand- washing liquids, washing powders|liquids and dishwasher powders/tablets. ‘You could use a pH sensor and data logger to collect your data. ‘© What aro the advantages of using a pH sonsor instead of universal indicator solution or paper? Safety: Woar aye protection. ‘We can use the mathematical symbols‘ > ' (read as ‘ie greater than’) and‘ <" (‘is less than) when interprating pH values, We can say: pH < 7 indicates an acidic solution. i.e. pH values less than 7 are acidic. pH > 7 indicates an alkaline solution. i.e. pH values greater then 7 are alkaline. 1 Match the halves of the sentences together: erry Universal ‘maieator oH solution 0 vy 1 Hydiochions aid acidic 2 Lemon juice a Orange juice Vinegar 4 Slight 8 Black coffee Sight 6 lnwator T Pure water Neutral a Seawater Balang soda thet o Mik of magnesia Seaally Scap 10 " wz Washing sade 8 4 ven cezner very Sodium tyérexide alkaline Figure 2 Tho pH scalotelle v2 how acidic or alkaline a solution is ‘Abbase that fs soluble inwater a pHof exactly 7 ear ene dissolve in water, Pure wat fs neutral with ‘orm OH" lone when they ee un) ‘Acid are eubetancee that we Ie called an alka add them to water. er ‘Alkals are substances that ~ adda Rouen that ane disaolve in water, Indicators are substances = form FY fons when they PT Direc dares) ‘A solution with @ pHless then’ __... change odlour when we Tne add them to acids and elkalis. earache) Pid 2 How could you use universal indicator paper as a way of distinguishing between pure water, sodium hydroxide solution and citric acid solution? eee ree ret Saeu ead eT foetus ‘© What is made when acids eka cd een’ Salts and electrolysis Making salts from metals or bases Acids + metals We can make salts by reacting acids with metals. This is only possible if the ‘metal is more reactive than hydrogen. itis, then the meta will eact with an acid to form a salt plus hydrogen gas: acid + motal, ~~ asalt’ © hydrogen 2HCliag) + = Mg) > = MgOhfaq) + HG) hiydrochloris acid + magnesium -» magnesium chioride + hycrogon However, if te metal is very reactive, the reaction with acid is too violent to carry aut safely. So metals such as sodium or potassium are never acad to acid. ‘What does the reaction between an acid and a metal produce? b What doos tho state eymbol '(q)’ stand for? Acid + insoluble base ‘When we react an acid with a bass, we get a salt and water formed. ‘Tho ganoral equation which describes this noutrali ion roaction is: ‘acid + base -; a salt + water © Whatis formed when an acid plus a base react? The salt that we make depands on the metal or the base that we use, as well as the acid, So bases that contain sodium fons will always make sodium salts. Those that contain potassium ions will always make potassium salts, In torms of the acid used: € the salts formad when we nautralise hydrochloric acid are always: chlorides: © sulfuric acid always makes salts which are sulfates @ nitric acid always makes nitrates, ‘The oxide of a transition metal, such as iron(a) oxide, is an example of a base that we can use to make a salt in this we acid + base > asalt + water 6HCl(aq) + —Fe0(s) > —-2FeClaq) «+ SH,0() hydrochloric acid + sold iron(a) oxide —> iron(a) chloride solution + water Name the salt formed when dilute sulfuric acid reacts with zinc oxide, © What does the state symbol \(I) stand for?Making a copper salt We can make coppar sulfate crystals from copper oxide (an insoluble base) and sulfuric acid. The equation for the reaction is: acid + base > salt + water H,S0(2q + Cu0@) + CuSO,faq)_ + H,0() ‘sulfuric acid + copper(i) oxide — copper sulfate + water ; ee _— om wears >| = lex se inoue coppor once w sue Te sotto us ae ase 00 SGhandaVoromtyoratos soars shosey topes hg aaa ee o> ‘ {7 3 T on SS emicreses eerste of copper sulfate Sattar. Siop heating When theexcton Is comple, ter tte when you see th fst crystals apnea atthe soliton to remove excess ceppar occa adge athe souton. Than leava forth rst ofthe water to evaprae off slow. Tis wil ie you larger crystals ‘© What doas the copper sulfate look like? Draw a diagram if necassary. Safety: Wear eye protection. Chemicals in this practical are harmful. Airey 1 Copy and complete using the words below: hydrogen metals neutralisation salt water ‘The reaction between an acid and a base is called a reaction. When this happens, a........is formed, tagether with... Salts can also be made by reacting acids with SOME .......p WHEN noon. GS 1S formed along with the salt. 2 @ Why wouldn't you add copper metal to dilute sulfuric acid in order to make copper sulfate? b Why woulcnt you add potassium metal to dilute nitric acid in order to make potassium nitrate? © Describe how you could prepare a sample of copper sulfate crystals {rom its solution, Cr ee) Poetry eae ee uke ca es oc et re ert and water, © Saits can also be made by eres Re real Ce eg Peet tl Ce us) Ce uae Cee uedSalts and electrolysis Making salts from solutions (©) Thore aro two othar important ways of making salts from solutions. Leaming objectives {© Wo can react an acid and an alkali together to form a solublo salt. Pri © © We can make an insoluble sait by reacting solutions of two soluble salts Eee eeu cd ‘together. reed Eid Acid + alkali Oe ‘When an acid reacts with an alkali, a neutralisation reaction takes place. Ce ai ig acid react i aa Hydrochloric acid reacting with sodium hydroxide solution is an example: aca + alkall > asat + water Helaq) + NaOH(aq) 3 NaClaq) + H,0() hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide solution = sodium chloride + water We can think about neutralisation in terms of H*(aq) OFF (aq) ions. They react io form water: H¥(aq) + OH-(aq) + H,00) When we react an acid with an alkali we need to know when the acid and alkali have completely reacted, We can use an indicator for this. ns reacting with We can make ammonium salts, as well as metal salts, by reacting an acid with an alkali. Ammonia reacts with water to form a weakly alkaline solution: NH,eaq) + H,0() = NH,*(@q) + OH (ag) ‘Ammonia solution reacts with an acid (or example, nitric acid) acid + ammonia solution —> an ammoritm salt + water HNO,(aq) + NH,*(eq) + OH-(aq) > NH,NO,(aq) + H,0(/) nitric acid + ammonia solution 9—> ammonium nitrate + water ‘Ammonium nitrate containe a high proportion of rtrogen, and it ie very soluble in water. This makes ticoal as 2 source of nitrogen for plants to take up through their roots. It replaces the nitrogen taken up from the soll by plants as thoy grow. ‘Ammonium salts are made by adding ammonia solution o an actd until there it @ small oxcoes of ammonia, We can detect the oxcees ammonia by using Universal indicator. We then crystallise the ammonium salt from its solution, ‘Tne excess ammonia evaporates off, ‘@ Write down a general equation for the reaction between an acid and an alkali. Name a salt which is used as a fertilisar to provide craps with nitrogen. Making insoluble salts ‘We can somatimes make salts by combining two solutions that contain different soluble salts. When the soluble salts react to make an insoluble salt, we call the reaction a precipitation reaction. That’s because the inacluble eolid stir formed is called a precipitate, -B).[Mating satts trom solutions PR(NO,),(aq) + -2KIaq) lead nitrate + potassium iodide — lead iodide + potassium nitrate solution solution precipitate solution = Pbifs) + 2KNO,(aq) Each of the reactant solutions contains one of the ians of the insoluble salt. In this case, they are lead ions in lead nitrate and iodide ions in potassium iodide. Lead iodide forms a yellow precipitate that we can fiter off from the solution, Practical i. Lead nate soliton ~ 1 a We ed potassium iodide scuon The preciptate of kad inde The precipitate fs (olead nivale souton ad sir thal ows ered off om the washed with sistibec solution ‘water and dred We can make the salt lead iodide irom lead ritrate solution and potassium ladide solution. The equation for the reaction Is shown at the top of this pago. ‘© Why/s the precipitate of lead iodide washed with distilled water? Summary questions 1. Copy and complete using the words below: acid alkali insoluble metal polluted precipitation solid neutralisation soluble water indicator We can make ealts by reacting an with an ....... This makes the salt and and is callad a reaction. We need an to tell us when the reaction Is complete. We can also make... salts by reacting two salts togathor. Wo call this a roaotion because the salts formed asa . This type of reaction is also Important when we Want 10 FeMOVE eon IONS FFOM soo nne. WALEF, 2 Write word equations and a brief method to show how to make the following salts: a potassium nitrate (e soluble salt) b silver chloride (an insoluble salt). Hint all nitrates are soluble in water. Using precipitation ‘We use pracipitation reactions to remove pollutants from the wastewater from factories. The effluent must be treated before t is discharged nto rivers and the sea, Precipitation is used in the removal of metal ions from industrial wastewater. By raising the pH of ‘the water, we can make insoluble metal hydroxides precipitate cut. This producas a sludge which we can easily remove from the solution, ‘The cleaned-up water can then be discharged safely into a river or the sea. Precipitation can be also used to remove unwanted ions trom dhinking water. Figure 2 Water reatmert plants use chemical ‘reatments to precipitate cut ‘metal compounds which can then be rerroved by fering the eoluton etek cal a soluble saltis prepared bby reacting an alkali with an eo teu by reacting two solutions to ease eons ea) Pe uy De eu RereadSalts and electrolysis Electrolysis (« , ae ‘The word electrolycis means ‘splitting up using electricity’. In electrolysis Leaming objectives ‘we use an electric currant to break down an fonic substance, We call the Tears er) subsance that is broken down by electrolysis the electrolyte. Se ieteetogs © 2 Whatis electrolysis? Reed 'b What do we call the substance broken down by electrolysis? Se ticconaled “To set up an eectical circuit for leciroisic, wo have two elacrodie which Oe pee eats Gip into the electrolyte. The electrodes are conducting rods. One of these is Connected tothe positive tenminal ofa power supply. The other elecrode is Connected to the nog terminal The electrodes are often made of an unreactive (or inert) substance. This is often graphite or sometimes platinum. This is so the electrodes do not react with the electrolyte or the products made in electrolysis. During electrolysis, positively charged ions move to the negative electrode. At the same time, the negative ions move to the positive electrode. When the ions reach the electrodes they lose their charge and become elements, Gases may be given off or meta's deposited at the electrodes. This depancis on the compound usad and whether itis molten or dissolved in water. Demonstration The electrolysis of molten lead bromide au, Tension oe # This demonstation neads Seitednttosnd am corpora |” afume cupboard booause in science neatly 200 years ago. bromine is toxic and corrosive. ‘© When does the bulb light up? Figure 2 Passing electicity through ‘molt lead bromice.Itferme maten lead {and brown bromine gas asthe electalyte |s broken Gown ty the electric. Figure 2 above shows how electricity breaks down laad bromide into lead and bromine: Elecirolysis is also a way of {getting rid of urwanted body hair. A small electrie current is passed through the baso of each individual hair to be removed. The hair is destroyed through chemical changes caused by the eleciric current, which destroy the calls that make the hair grow. lead bromide -s lead + bromine PbBr,() —>Pb() + Br,(g) Lead bramida is an ionic substance. lonie substances do not conduct electricity when they are solid. But once we melt them, the ions are free to move and carry their charge towards the electrodes. ‘The postive lead tons (Po) move towards the negative electrode. At the ‘same time, the negatively charged bromide ions (Br-] move towards the positive electrode.ET Notice the state symbols in the equation. They tell us that the lead bromide CO links and the lead are mottan at the temperature in the dish. The '()' stands for For more information about the ‘liquid’. The bromine is given aff as a gas, shown as ‘(g) effect of water in electrolysis, see C25.5 Changes et the electrodes © Which electrode do positive ions move towards during electrolysis? ‘and 02 6.7 Electrolysis of brino. Which electrode do negative ions move towards during electrolysis? Electrolysis of solutions ‘Many ionic substances have vary high malting points. This ean make electrolysis very difficult. But some ionic substances dissolve in water. When this happens, the ions also become free to move around. However, when elactiolysing solutions it is more difficult to predict what vil be formed, Thie is because water also forme ions. So the products at each electrode ara not always exactly what we expect. Whon wo olectrolyse a solution of copper bromide, copper ions (Cur) mave to the negative electrode. The bromide ions (Br-) move to the positive electrode. Copper bromide is spilt into its elements at the electrodes (see Figure 3): copper bromide -> copper + bromine CuBr,(aq) > Cul) + Br,(aq) In this case the state symbo's in the equation tell us that the copper bromide is dissolved in water. This is shown as (aq). The copper is formed as.asolid, browne Copper ‘shown as '). The bromine formed remains dissolved in the water — aq)’ Spa ore souton Figure 3 if we dissolve coppar bromide in wator, wo can decampaco it by Slectralysss, Copper metals formed at the negative eectrace. Brown bromine appeers in soliton arcund the postive Slectrace, Covalent compounds cannet usually be electrolysed unless they react in water to form ions, ¢.9. acids in water. Etre een SSS Seno krouk) substance using electricity. 1 Copy and complete using the words below: ions molten move solution For tho current to flow in olectrolysie, the... must be ablo to .. between the electrodes. This can only happen if the substance is in oi eaadndeabacs orifitis.. be electrolysed when they are motten or in solution. Predict the products formad at each electrode when the following bel aeinnimelsi rae pelly ‘compounds are melted and then electolysed: SE a zinc iodide electrodes. bb ithium bromide © iron(u) fluoride. © In electrolysis, positive Sold onic adtances do not conduct elect, Ung word and eluent daciecrt diagrams explain why they conduct electricity when molten or in pet tienen ty solution. createon eer ecld PRK occ Sacha’ Dee aha id ty products of electrolysis? i Positve Negative eoctrade bctrede a ¢ ~@ eG -@ ere -@ ) @- Figure 1 An jon always moves towards 12 oppositely chargad electrode the (Oxidation and reduction reactions don't have to involve ‘oxygen. More generally thay Involve the vansfer of electrons. Remember OILRIG— Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons), Reduction Is Gain (of electrons) mA Salts and electrolysis Changes at the electrodes During electrolysis, ions move towards the electrodes, The direction they move in depends on their charge. As we saw in C2 5.4, positive ions move towards the negative electiode. Negative ions move towards the postive electrode. ‘When ions reach an electrode, they either lose or gain electrons. What happens dopends on their charge. Negatively charged ions fose electrons to become neutral atoms. Positively charged ions gain electrons to become neutral ators. a How do negatively chargad ions became neutral atoms in electrolysis? b How do positively charged ions become neutral atoms in electrolysis? ‘The easiest way to think about this fs to look at an. example: ‘Think back to the electrolysis of moiten lead bromide. | FU" Tho load ions (Pb**) movo towards th nogative SY electrode. Whan they get there, each ion gains two electrons to become a neutral lead atom. Gaining electrons is called reduction. We say that the lead ions are reduced. ‘Reduction’ is simply another way of saying ‘gaining alectrone’. The negatively charged bromide ions (Br-) move towards the positive electrode, Once there, each ion loses ‘one electron to become a neutral bromine atom. Two bramine atoms then form a covalent bond to make a bromine molecule, Br, = 3 @2 &,moecue Losing electrons is called n. We say that the bromide ions are oxidised. ‘Oxidation is anothar way of saying ‘losing elestrons. Half equations p We represent whats happening at each electrode using half equations. At the negative electrode: Pb* + 2e- Pb (notice hovr an electron is written as ’e~) At the positive electrode: 2B > Br, + 20° ‘Sometimes half equations can show the electrons being removed from negative ions, like this: 2Br-— 26° > Br, You can write the half equation for negative ions either way. They bath show the same chanceThe effect of water In aqueous solutions, electrolysis is mare complex because of the ions from water. There Is a rule for working out what wil happen. Remember that if wo elements can be produced at an electrode, the less reactive element will usually be formed. in solution we will always have the positively charged matal Ins and H* ions (from water) attracted to the negative electrode. Look at Figure 2. It shows what happens in the electrolysis of a solution of a potassium compound. Hydrogen is leas reactive than potassium. So hydrogen is produced at the nagative electrode rather than potassium ®@e- ® + ston oa (—~ settee ene @® dectods 2s Hygee 9 ® Figure 2 Here is the negative elactnde inthe elacrolysis of a sation of a potassium ‘compound. Hydragen is less reactive than potassium, so hydrogen gas is given of at the hegatve electiode = K* ions stayin solution ‘So wnat happans at the postive electrode in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions? Hydroxide fons trom water are often discharged. That Is unless the solution containe a reasonably high concentration of a halide ion (group vt ions). In this: case the halida ion is discharged. So the ‘order of discharge’ at the positive electrode is: halide ion > hydroxide > all other negatively charged ions. ‘When hydroxide ions are cischarged, we see oxygen gas given off at the positive electrode, Aire 1 Copy and complete using the words below: gain less lose oxidiaed reduced During electrolysis, positively charged ions... elactrons and aro At the same time, negatively charged ions... electrons and are... . When electrolysis is cartied out in water, the........ reactive element is usually produced. 2 Predict what is formed at each electrode in the electrolysis of: @ molten potassium oxide bb copper chloride solution © magnesium sulfate eolution. 8 Copy and balance the following half equations where necessary: aChsGl+e Ca +e3Ca — e@ Nat+e-Na bO'30,+e dal +e sal tH +esH, [H] Com In electrolysis, the ions De ae Ce kaakaad ey Redes hand Peete! © When electrolysis happens Coke) Ce ue cul and the metal, is usually Peete ry Serato Cec ‘oxygen gas given off from Ce pecsRou ocd Terr eee at ated orc Ed roto re De Figure 1 Aluminum alloys have @ low cdansity but are very strong Extacting matls from ores separated trom the ora) ALUMINIUM OXDE etl ese —- — Figure 2 Estracting aluminium from io Gre. This process requires a lato! energy. “The purfieation stage makes aluminium hycroxide. This is senarated rem the: impuritios but then must be hosted to turn itback to pure aluminium oxide. Ther ‘even more eneray isneeded mating and Salts and electrolysis The extraction of aluminium & You alroady know that aluminium is a vary important motal. Tho uses of the metal orits alloys include: pans overhead power cables aeropianes cooking foi drink cans indow and patio door frames syole frames and car bodies. a Why is aluminiam used to make overhoad power cablos? Auminium ie quite a reactive metal. Itis lees reactive than magnesium but ‘more reactive than zinc or iron. Carbon is not reactive enough to use in Its extraction so we must use electrolysis. The compound electrolysed is aluminium oxide, Al,0,. ‘We get aluminium oxide from bauxite ore, The ore is mined by open cast mining, Bauxite contains mainly aluminium exide. Howevar, itis mixed with other rocky impurities. So the first step is to separate aluminium oxide from the ore. The impurities contain a lot of iron) oxide. This colours the waste solution from the separation process rusty brown. The solution has to be stored in large lagoons. Electrolysis of aluminium oxide To electrolyse the aluminium oxide we must frst mett it. This enabies the ions to move to the electrodes. Unfortunately aluminium oxide has a very high melting point. It melts at 2060°C. However, chemists have found a way of saving at least seme energy. This is done by mixing the aluminium oxide with molten cryoiite, Cryoiite is another fonie compound, The molten misture can be elactrolysed al about 850°C. Tho oloctrical onorgy transferred to the clactrolysis colls keaps tho mixture molten. b Why must aluminium oxide be moiten for electrolysis to take place? ‘The overall reaction in the electrolysis cell is: losttis aluminium oxide" aluminium + oxygen 2,0.) ———> 4Al() + 30,6) a the oxide,‘The extraction of aluminium An aumisium pla Py Carton poste electrode uses tte same amountafelecricty () ‘a smaltown The ting of te cel is ‘Movtenaumisum carton negative elacrode conde (dissolvedin ‘matin eryclits) ‘Moitonalumirium is tapped or sphorec off ‘tom te cel Noten aluminium Figure 9 The extracton of alumirium by electrolysis At the negative (-) electrode: Each aluminium ion (Ai) gains 8 electrons. The ions turn into aluminium ators. We say that the AP Ions are reduced to form Al aioms. ‘The aluminium metal formed is molten at the temperature of the cell and collects at the bottom. Itis siphoned or tapped off. At the positive (+) electrod Each oxide ion (G+) loses 2 electrons. The ions turn into oxygen atoms. We say that the O* ons are oxidised to form oxygen atoms. These bond in pairs to form moleculos of oxygon gas (0). ‘The oxygen reacts with the hot, positive carbon electrodes, making carbon dioxide gas. So the positive elactrodes gradually burn away. They need to be replaced in the cells regularly. © Ave the oxide ions reduced or oxicised in the electrolysis of molten aluminiam oxide? L¢ iit SIE Prey 1 Copy and complete using the words below: pepe lle positive oxygen extraction carbon cryolte negative energy Dor Inthe. of aluminium, aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten Lisiaaed in ordorto uso less... t0 molt. The aluminium metal is ODO ae collected at the... electrode in the cells, while oxygen is formed io etic rte atthe... electiode. The electrodes used are made of... . The pase positive electrodes burn away as they react with... and form carbon aioe tsa) Deh eeier ed Explain which ions are oxidised and which ions are reduced in the Pasa rsnaiset ai electioysis of molten aluminium oxide. Kleen bb Why are the positive electrodes roplaced regulary inthe induetrial electroysis of aluminium oxide? Inctude a word equation. ‘© The positive carbon \Wite halt equatiors for the changes at each electrode in the electrolysis Slectrocies are replaced ‘of molten aluminium oxide. THI fee Teeu ead etek electrolyse brine? Cy Practical Electrolysing brine in the lab ‘Tum off the electricity once the tubes are nearly ‘ull of gas to avoid inhaling chlorine gas (toxio). ¢ Hovr can you postively test ‘or the gases collected? ‘Test the solution near the regative electrode with Universal indicator solution. ¢ What does the indicator tell us? Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas + Carben'od Carbon rod asposiave a5 negatve flestoce|++) electrode (~) Safety: Wear eye protection. Do not smell the gas. CO links For information about what happens when two [ons are attracted to an electrode, see 2 5.5 Changes at Salts and electrolysis Electrolysis of brine The electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride solution) is a very important industrial process, When we pass an electric current through brine we get three products: chlorine gas is produced at the positive electrode © hydrogen gas Is produced at the negative electrode @ sodium hydroxide solution is also formed, We can summarise the electrolysis of brine as: doctohaie sodium chloride solution > hydrogen + chlorine + sodium hydroxide solution ‘@ Whatare the three products made when we electrolyse brine? At the positive electrode (+): ‘The negative chloride ions (CI) are attracted to the positve electrode. When they get there, they each lose one electron. The chloride ions are oxicised, as they lose electrons. The chlorine atoms bond together in pairs and are given off as chiorine gas (Cl, At the negative electrode (-): ‘There are H” ions in brine, formed when water breaks down: H,0 =H" + OH ‘These positive hydrogen ions are atiracied to the negative electtade. The socium ions (Na*) are also attracted to the same electrode. But remember in C255, we saw what heppens when two jons are attracted to an electrode. Itis the less reactive element that geis discharged. in this case, hydrogen ions are discharged and socium fons stay in solution. ‘When the H” ions get to the negative electiode, they each gain one election. ‘Tho hydrogen ions aro reduced, as they each gain an eleciron. The hycrogen atoms formed bond together in pairs anc are given off as hydrogen gas (H)). The remaining solution: You can test the solution arcund the negative electrode witn indicator. It shows that the solution is alkaline. This ie because we can think ot brine as containing aqueous ions of Na" and Cl” (rom salt) and H” and OH" (from water). The Grand H+ ions are removed during electrolysis. So this leaves a solution ‘containing Na* and OH” ions, ie. a solution of sodium hydroxide Look at the way we can electrolyse brine in industry in Figure 1. Chrre out “6, Hydrogen out exsin Ss chien soln Forous membrane Sodium hydrodce => solution Postiveelactroce Negative exctrede a ) Figure 1 in industry, brine can be electroiysed in 2 cellin which the two electrodes are separated by 2 poraus mambrane. This is called a diaphragm call so elactracles. =|Half equations for the electrolysis of brine “Tho half oquations ior what happens in the lectrlysis of brine are: At the positive electrode (+) 201 (aq) > C4ig) + 26 [remember that this can also be written as: 2C (aq) — 2e-—> Cl {o)] At the negative electrode (-): 2H (eq) + 26° Hg) Using chlorine ‘We can react chlorine with the sodium hydroxide produced in the electrolysis of brine. This makes a solution of bleach. Bloach is very good at killing bacteria. Chioring ie also important in making mary othor disinfectants, as well as plastics such as PVC. b Whats chlorine used for? Using hydrogen ‘The hydrogen that we make by electrolysing brine is partcularly pure. This makes it very usoful in tho food industry. We make margarine by reacting hycrogen with vegetable oils. © Whatis hydrogen used for? Using sodium hydroxide ‘The sodium hycroxide from the electrolysis of brine is used to make soap and paper. Itis also used to maka bleach (sae above). d_ Whats sodium hydraxide used for? Bnet 1 Copy and complete using the words below: hydrogen bleach hydroxide chlorine When we pass an electric current through brine we can collect gas at the postive etectrode, and... gas atthe negative electrode. Scdium......... lution is formed in the cell. Two of thesa products are also used t0 MAKE... 2 We can electrolyse molten sodium chloride. Compare the products formed with those from the elecoysis of sodium chloride solution. What aro the differoncos? 2 For the electrolysis of brine, write half equations, including state ‘symbols, for the reactions a at the positive electrode and b atthe negative electrode, tH] ‘Smelly crains, dustbins and other ‘pangs’ in hot summer weather resull in people using far more bleach in summer ‘than in winter. Figure 2 The chlorine made when we jlectrolyse brine is used to kil bacteria in chinking wate, and sloa in awimming pools Come ‘© When we electrolyse brine Oued aie ce Celi ld Peo Solution (an alkall). ‘© Chlorine is used to make De ce Cores ‘© Hydrogen is used to make rs Ne Lt} to make bleach, peper and aeRu eed rooted Ce ie Dod Figure 1 Chromiur-plated abjects look very shiny and attiactve, The chromium layer does not corrode anay so. protects the sieel beneath from rusting Figure 2 Go-caled tin’ cans actually contain very litle tn. The layer on the sieel can be only afew thousandths of amrillatre thick! Thatn keeps airand ‘water aay from tho iran in etoal and Siogs itrusting ~ at laest unt the tn gets scratched! Tin is quite a soft metal, unlike Salts and electrolysis Electroplating ‘« Most of us will use an electroplated objected at some time each day. You might use a chrorrium-plated kettle to boil water or ride a bicycle with chromium-plated handlebars. You could open a tin-plated ste! can for a meal (or put on some gold: or silver-plated jewellery. An electroplated object is coated with a thin layer of metal by electrolysis. a Name four metals that we can use to electroplate another metal. Why do we electroplate objects? ‘There can be different reasons why we alactraplate objects, These include: @ to protect the matal beneath from corroding «tor make the abject look more attractive @ to increase the hardness of a surface and its resistance to scratching @ to save money by using a thin layer of a precious metal instead of the pure expensive metal This elso helps people who are allergic to nickel—a metal often used to make cheap jawallery. Electroplating saves money in making cheaper jewellery. However, using electroplating to protect large metal surfaces against rusting and damage makes things more expensive. In the long term, though, this can stil make economic sense because we don't have to replace objects so often. Electroplating a metal object ‘You can try to nickel plate come copper fol in the experiment below. Practical Nickel plating copper metal Your teacher will melt some wax in a metal tray. Using tongs you can dip in a piece of copper fol. Let the wax set. Then scratch a simple cesign in the wax, You wart tha design to be plated with nickel so get this area as free from wax as possible. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Using a small current for along time will give best results. When you have finished, rinse the copper foil in water, dry, then sorape offthe rest of the wax. ‘© Whet happens at the negative electrode? i jl we FI — Nitendo Corner to be pated Nickel sate solnEe Explaining electroplating ‘The metal object to be plated (the copper foil in this case) is used as the negative electrode. The positive electrode is made from the plating matal (Cickel). The electrlysis takes place in a solution containing nickel ions. Inthe previous exp Itis not only metal objects that can be electroplated. We can now electroplate plastic objects ent wa use nickel sulfate solution. ‘a3 wall The object to be plated is first coated in a ‘paint’ At the positive electrode made of the plating met: Nickel atoms in the electrode are oxidised. They lose 2 elections each and ‘graphite. Once dry, the object form nickel ions (Ni) which go into the solution. has a layer of graphite that will conduct electicity. Itean then At the negative electrode to be plated: be electroplated Nickel ions (N*) from tho solution aro reduced. They gain 2 oloctions and formnickel atoms which are daposited on the copper electrode. b Where are the nickel atoms oxidised? © Whatis formed when nickel atoms are oxidised? Electroplating half equations Hore are the half equations at each electrode in electroplating by nickel: At the positive nickel electrod Nig) = Ni*(aq) + 20° At the negative electrode to be plated: Nit*(eq) + 2e- > Ni(s) Aimee oes 1 Copy and complete using the words below: atoms negative nickel plating deposited electrans oxidised Peay reduced In electroplating, a solution of the ._... metal is electrolysed. In the eke aa case of nicke! plating, the positive electrode is mace of... «The Cece” nickel atoms are ‘and go into the solution. At the electrode, protect their surface and the nickel ions gain. and are. They form nickel and. Ds cbleeehatieelicelhied dd 2F0 1 0M tho Object to be pleted Pad \Whet are the economic advantages and disadvantages of electroplating | [ERLE ary sy a metal object? Cee Deed In making ‘chrome’ objects, chromium metal is used to olectroplate Hoicraseinipsates tater a steel object. The steals fist electroplatec with nickel because pees Say Sa Ta ELST SE GSS MISTS Tee negative electrode forthe nickel, thon the chromium, plating procossae. Pasteprrepnal SER CERISS RSS SEIT) SlSalts and electrolysis: C2 5.1-C2 5.8 Summary questions oO Zinc sulfate crystals can be made from an insoluble base and sulfuric acid, a | Name the insoluble base that can be used to make inc eulfato. Write a word equation to show the reaction, b Describe how you could make crystals of zine sulfate ‘rom the reaction in ail 2 Write balanced symbol equations, including state ‘symbols, to describe the reactions below. (Each reaction forms a salt) a Potassium hydroxide {an alkali} and sulfuric acid. bb Zinc oxide (an insoluble base) and rittic acid. Calcium metal and hydrochloric acid. a Barium nitrate and sodium sulfate (this reaction produces an insoluble ealt ~ Hint: all sodium selts aro soluble) [al @ Select A or B to describe correctly what happens at the positive electrode (+) and negative electrade (-) in cloctrolysis for a tof A Positive electrode B Negative electiode a Positive ions move towards this. b Negative ions move towards this. ¢ Reduction happens here. 4 Oxidation happens here. ‘© Connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. f Connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. @ Make a table to show which of the following fons would move towards the positive electrode and which towards the negative electrode during electrolysis. (You may need to use a copy cf the periodic table to help you.) sodium iodide calcium fuoride oxide zinc aluminium bromide ® The diagram shows an indusirial process used for the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution. satin , mews hess > | ae S>¢ rte tie Pe NS, Identity the products A, B and C on the diagram using substances from the list. chlorine gas oxygen gas_ hydrogen gas sodium hydroxide solution sodium metal @ Water can be spit into hydrogen and oxygen using electrolysis. The word equation for this reaction is water + hydrogen + oxygen ‘a Write a balanced symbol equation for this roaction using the corract chemical symbals. b Write half equations to show what happens at tha positive and negative electrodes. [HI ¢ When some water is electrolysed it producas 2 moles of hydrogen, How much oxygen is produced? d Where does the energy neaded to split water into hydrogen and oxygon ocme from during electrolysis? 2 Copy and complete the following half equations: akoK b Ba Ba erst 40-50, TH ® Electrolysis can be used to produce a thin layer of metal on the surface of a matal object. Using words and diagrams, desoribe how you would cover a small pioce of steel with copper. Make sure that you write down the half equation that describes what happens at the surface ofthe steal TH]End of chapter questions AQ*4/€Examination-style questions @ 4 Hydrogen chioride gas reacts with water to make hydrochloric acid, The equation for the reaction is: Helg) > Hrtaq) + Cra) a Which of the following shows that an acid has baen made? ‘A An aqueous solution has been made. B Hydrogen ions have bean made. © Chloride ions have been made. « b Choose a number from the list for the pH of 0 ¢ Hydrochloric acid reacis with sodium hydroxide solution to produce a salt and water. 1 Choose a word trom the list that describes sodium hydroxide, ) alcohol alkali insoluble Choose a word from the list to complete tho sentence, The reaction between hydrochloric acié and sodium hydroxide is an example of « combustion neutralisation oxidation Name the salt made when hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium nycroxide, o 2 Lead chloride is a white insoluble salt, can be mace by mixing lead nitrate solution with codium chloride solution. Both of these solutions are colourless. ‘@ What would you see when lead nitrate solution is mixed with sodium chloride solution? 0 b Write a word equation for the reaction. @ © Amining company produces wastewatar that contains dissolved lead fons. Suggest how the company could treat the wastewater to reduce the concentration of lead ions. ° 8 In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using ‘spacialist terms where eppropriate. Copper't) oxide is an insoluble base. Describe how you could make crystals of copper(t) sulfato from copper) oxide. © 4 The diagram shows a nickel spoon being coated with silver. + - iver Nick decode spocn Salton canting sive ions (aa") ‘a Explain why silvar ions in the solution mova towards the spoon. @ b Use words from the list to complete the sentence. gaining losing sharing election neutron proton When silver ions reach the sposn they change into sliver atoms by an Q ‘© Suggest ono reason why spoons made from nickel aro coated with siver, a AQA, 2002 Magnesium Is manufactured by the elecuolysis of molten magnesium chloride. The container is made of steal, which is the negative electrode. Carbon (graphite) is used for the positive electrode. Steal and carbon (graphite) both conduct electricity. 1 Suggost ono other reason why the negative electrode is made of steel. 0) ‘Suggest one ather reason why the positive electrode is made of carbon (graphite. « b Magnesium chloride molts at 960°C. Itis mixed with sodium and calcium chloride so that it can be electiolysed at 750°C. i Suggest one way this benefits the manufacturer. (1) ii Suggest one way this benefits the environment. (1) ‘¢ Complata and balance the equations for the reactions at the elecirodes. Atthe nogative oloctrode: Mg +e" ->Mg —(t) Atthe positive electrode: Cr’ Cte" [H] ()Brinton rea) 1 Calcium chloride is an ionic compound. Use a table showing the charges on ions to help you answer this question. a Which of these is the formule of calcium chloride? CaCl CaCl CaCl, Ca,Cl, oO bb A sodium ion can he represented in the following way: 4 Draw diagrams like this to show the ions in caleium chloride. ® © Calcium chloride isa crystalline solid with a high melting point. Explaia why caleiur chloride has these properties. ® 2 Acompaay extracts copper from an ore that contains the mineral chaleopytite, CuPeS,. 1 Calculate the zelative formula mast (14) of CuFeS,. (Relative atomic masses (A,): Cu = O35; Fe = 56:5 = 32) @ b_ What isthe percentage by mass of copper in chalcopyrite? 2 © Suggest one reason why the company might prefer to use an ore containing the mineral chaleocite, Cu,S, @ 4 The company uses the copper it produces to restore items made of copper. It clectroplates the copper items with a new coating of copper. Pure copper is used as, the positive electrode and the copper item is the negative electrosle. The electrolyte {sa solution containing copper(m) sulfate. 1 Draw a diagram showing how you could electroplate a copper spoon in the laboratory. ) fi Explain how copper is deposited onto the spoon by electrolysis. @ 3 A blackcurrant-flavoured drink was analysed for artificial colours and flavours, scientist used paper chromatography to identify the artificial colours in the drink. ‘The result of the chromatography is shown in the diagram. D= drink 1,02,6 permitted artificial coos e Startling Dae a In this question you will be assessed on using good Pnglish, organising information cleariy and using spectalist terms where appropriate. Describe how the chromatography was done to produce this result, © b What conclusions can you make about the colours ia the drink? ® ¢ To identify the flayous compounds in the drink the scientist put a sample of the drink into a ges chromatography column linked to & mass spectrometer. The output of the column showed five main peaks. ‘What was the purpose of the gas chromatography column? o fi What was the purpose of the mass spectrometer? @ Woe ‘The AQA data sheet that you will have in the exam has 2 table showing the charges on some common ACA Examiner's tip Do not be put off by unusual formulae that you may not have seen before (@2 and Q4). Some questions are testing your abilty to apply what you know in new situations. (ek Q3 ai requires a description ina logical order 0 that someone else could do the experiment, Think about your answer before writing. Make a brief ‘of the key steps and umber them in the corract sequence. Read them through in your head to check the order. Then write your anawer. Grose out any notes that you do not want to be marked.4 A student carried out an experiment to make aspirin. The method is given below. 1, Weigh 2.008 of salicylic acid. 2. Addl 40m of ethanoic ankydride (an excess). . Add 5 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid, ‘Warm the mixture for 15 minutes. Adil ice cold water to remove the excess ethanoie anhydride. Cool the mixture until a precipitete of aspirin is formed, . Collect the precipitate and wash it with cold water. clricd and weighed. ‘The equation for this reaction is: CHO, + CJH,O, > C,H,O, + CH,COOH salicyli acid aspirin The relative formula mass (M) of salicylic acid, C,H. ‘The relative formula mass (M) of aspirin, C,H,O,.is 180. Calculate the maximum mass of aspirin that could be made from 2.00 g of salieylic avi @ b The student made 110g of aspirin from 2.00g of salicylic acid. Calculate the percentage yield of aspirin for this experiment. @ © Suggest one possible reason why this method does not give the maximum amount of aspirin, @ 4. The student made another compound with properties similar to aspirin. The student sent this compound to a laboratory for analysis. The analysis showed that the compound contained 75.7% C, 8.80% Hand 15.5% O. Calculate the empirical formule of this compound. You must show all of your ‘working to gain full marks. @) CH] AQA, 2009 The clement carbon has several forms. mond is one form af carbon, Explain, in terms of structure and bonding, why diamond is very hard. 8 b In his question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate Another form of carbon is graphite. Graphite is used for the contacts in electric ‘motors because it conduets electricity and is Soft and slippery. Explain, in terms of structure and hondiag, why graphite hes these properties. © © Carbon can also form fullerenes. The first fullerene to he discovered has a structure ‘that contains 60 carbon atoms. Other fullerenes contain a few hundred atoms. i What is the basic unit of the structure of fullerenes? a i Give two reasons why there has been much research interest in the fullerenes since their diseovery in 1985, @ CH] End of unit questions a ‘Always show your working when you do a calculation, ttyou make a mistake calculating the ‘nal answer you may still gein some marks ifyou show that you know how to do the calculation, Ee @ 5 b requires you 10 describe the structure and bonding in graphite and use this to expiain the propertias given in the question. You need to ink the propartias clearly to particular points in your description. Before writing your answer, briely list the koy points that you know about the structure end bonding in graphite and than link these to the properties. Then write your answer in a logical order, diving as much detail as you can A Examiner's tipImagine trying to understand chemistry: ithout knowing much about atoms © with each chemical compound having lots of different names ithout knowing a complete list of the elaments. Not an easy job! But that's the task that faced scientists at the start of the 1800s. During the 19th century, chemists were finding new elements almost every yer. They ware also trying vary hard tofind patterns in the behaviour of the elements. This would allow them to organise the elements and understand more about chomistry. (One of the first suggestions came from John Dalton. He arranged the elements in order of their masses, which had been measured in various chemical reactions. In 1808 he published a table of elements in his book A New System of Chemical Philosophy. Look at his list in Figure 2. “ELEMENTS: = © Braoren, 3 Sirontian e-e pl owyser 7]@) Zine ® Phosphorus, 9 © Copper 56 @ Sulphur aj ®© Lead 9 @ Moron © Siver w © Line a Q Gord ye @ do 21@ Patina go @ Potash fe Q Mercury 7 ‘a How did Dalton putthe elements in order? Figure 1 Looking for pattems inthe ‘chemical slomonte in tho early pert of the 19th century was a bt ike soving a crossword puzzle. Some answers were clear (as they did have some correctly ‘ontiied aloment); thoy only hak vague idea about some (as some ‘compounds were wrongly thought ba alemants), However, fey did't aven knew the clues for ther arewora (c2 there were stl unciscovered element). Figure 2 Delton and his table of elements In 1884, John Newlands built on Daltor’s ideas with his ‘law of octavos’ (an octave in musicis eight notes). Newlands arranged the known elements ‘order of mass. He noticed that the properties of every eighth element seemed similar. He produced a table of his octaves (cee Figure 3). However, he assumed that all the elaments had been found. He did this even though chemists were stl discovering new ones. So he filled in his octaves even though some of his ‘elements were net similar at all, His table only really worked for the known elements up to calcium before the pattern broke down.Other scientists ridiculed his ideas, and refused to accept them. Figure 2. Newande and hie table of octaves, Looking at Newland’ octaves, afollaw chemit ‘commented that puting te elemeris in alphabetical o1der woud probably produ just as ‘many groups of elements vith similar properties! b What were Newlands’ cotaves? ‘Then, in 1860, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev cracked the problem, At this time around 50 elements had been identified. Mendeleev arranged all of these in a table. He placed them in the order of their atomic woights. Then hha arranged them so that a periodic pattern in their properties cauld be saen, Periodic’ means ‘regularly reoccurring’) His brilliant idea was to leave gaps for elements that had not yet been. discovered. Then he used his table to predict what thelr properties should be. ‘A fow yoars later, new elements wore discovered with proporties that closoly maiched Mendeleev’s predictions, Then there were not many doubts leit that his table was a breakthrough in scientific understanding. Dmiti Mendeleev is remembered as the father of the modern periodic table. Figure 4 Dmiti Mendeleev together with With this tool, cherrists could now make sense of the chemical elements. ‘a Russian stamp issued in his honour in ‘1968 1 Copy and complete using the werds below: discovered gaps Mendeleev mass periodic properties Newlands ‘The chemical elements can be arranged in a tabla. Within the table, elements with similar are placed togethar in groups. Like other chemists, such as listed oloments in ordor Of... but he realised that he needed to leave for elements that had not yet been 2 a Why did Newlands’ fellow scientists refuse to accept his ‘law of otaves"? b How did Mendeleev persuade any doubters that his periodic table really was a useful tool in understanding the chemical elements?eu ead [robe linked to the perfodic table? ea Cet ae ese See ed fi} vrater, temperatures above ~118°C. lectins ‘re postive charge onthe ‘ueleus. The cuter clacton i soelemerts lower down Group {ate MORE veactve ‘The alkali metal caesium reacts explosively with cold stot ss soy to ‘he postive nuceus. Tis Bhocause tis rer ‘away from the nucleus, nd te mer shal of| EL and will react with ice at Group 4 shied i from sor tol, atrecbd bss stonay:0 ‘he posite nicous. This is bocauso itis ‘urthor ‘away irom the nucleus, and the inner shels of flarans staid itfrom the postive charga onthe fucleus. An era alecton islesseesiy albacted ni ‘the outer sel, so ‘lements ower down Grup 7 ara LESS reactive. The periodic table The modern periodic table Mendeloov's periodic table produced regular patterns and was accepted, but ithad its limitations, Putting clemonts in order of their atomio masses produced vertical groups of similar elements. But not all elements fitted in with the pattern. For example, argon atoms have a greator mass than potassium atoms. This ‘would resultin argon (@ noble gas) being in the same group as extremely reactive metals such as sodium and lithium, and potassium (an extremely reactive metal) would be g-cuped with the unreactive noble gases. So argon must be put bafore potass.um in the periodic table, even though its atoms ara heavier. ‘a Find anothor pair of olomients that got placed in tho wrong order if atomic masses are used. (Refer to the periocic table on the next page) At the start of the 20th century scientists began to find out more about the structure of the atom, Only then could they solve this problem, We now arrange the elements in order of their atomic (proton) number. This puts them all in exactly the right place in the periodic table. It arranges the elements £0 that they line up in groups with similar properties. Italso gives us an important summary of the electronic structures cf all tne elements. b How are elements arranged in the modem periodic table? Going up and down the groups Elements in the same group ofthe periodic table react in similar ways, That's because their atoms hava the same number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level (outer shell. Also: the group number in the periodic table tells us the number of electrons in the outermost shell (highest occupied energy level) of an atom. Soall the atoms af Group 2 elements have 2 electrons in their outermost shell (highest energy level). Reactivity within groups B ‘As we go down a group the number of shells occupied by electrons increases, and the atoms get biggor. This has two effects: @ larger atoms lose electrons more easily @ larger atoms gain electrons less easily. ‘This happens because the outer electrons are further away from the attractive force cf the nucleus. Not only that, the inner shells ‘screen’ or ‘shield’ the outer electrons from the posttive charge in the nucleus. We can sea this effect with the alkali metals and the halogens. Remember that the atoms of alkali metals tend to lose electrons when they form chemical bonds. On the ther hand, tho atoms of the halogens tend to gain electrons. (See the boxes on the left)Se ° Greup runes alate atomic mess ea , soe he g at tomic (proton) number ar ra ' wo lr le oF =a ata |r ls |oa [ow we fa fs" as | a Ey = ms ej "| v (0 to fy [om | "oa [ee Jae se [er |e 2 loo" |so" at foo” Jos. [ror [tos fa6 [tos — 12 — sna — Pe iT m/w |e [ome] om ope | a) ce | me | se | sh] me | or | te lai |g [ase ae [ase as la lua [ap foo [ate [se sa Her iae—|4a8 fray —|o2— 195 —1a7 [a0 — [aaa —foor— zoe — ane Joo mow ore fo | te on | mw | my | oo |e | oo | | | oo n\n rot |e" |r" re Joa! Jon" Joe!* Jos” Jon Ios Elements 68-71 ard 90-108 (llmtals} have bean omittod key Reactive metals These rretals 7] Noe-metals These ebments have low et react qorousl wih thar slements meting and toting ponts, and many ae ike yen 0° chlrine, anc with water. liquids or gases at oom temperature and f Metals reaci by losing “Thay areal soft ~ some of them can prosaure cloctrons. Non-motals react ren be cul with hat, ke cheese with metals by gaining ‘Tanstion elements This group Noble gases. Thess (non-meta) electrons, contains he slams that most poogte ‘emails ae very unreactive, and itis probably tink of when the word metal vary cffcutto get hem to combine with i montionad cir, coppo, ivr and ‘thor lemons, gold. Thase metals are natusualy very Teactve ~ some, ke sWvarand go, a@ very unreactive Figure 1 Tha modor periodic table. The upper number onthe lot ofa symbol isthe cd lements relative elomic rass. The lower number is its alomie nurrber (or proton nuber)~ Ce ‘the numberof protons in the nuceus. The elements are erranged in order ot atomic numer. position in the periodic table. OS keel Ce hs energy level) of an atom Cee Pekka raked Bie en acess Deeb seen Cees eae al eee hr ry erie La: 4 Copy and complete using the words balow: ‘outer atomic elections shell group number ‘Tho poriodio table shows elements arranged in order oftheir... number. Elements in @......all eactin similar ways because they have the same number of.......intheir outer........ The group... tells, us the number of electrons in the... shell = God reeeD Coe et) In the periodic table, how does the number of metallic elements the nucleus compare with the number of non-metal elements? aC CEES) Explain why sodium is more reactive than lithium inner shells (energy levels) b Explain why fluorine is more reactve than chiorine. us toThe periodic table Cero) Vo Ma Mem Ue Cl Mui) ees , ae We call the frst group (Group 1) of the periodic table the alkali metals. This Learning objectives ‘group consists of the metals lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium iaaaeaael (Rb), caesium (Cs) and francium 9). You wil probably only see the fis three bdicthedsdukisabapeailel — Properties of the alkali metals cuore Perera Al tho alkali motais are vary reactive. They havo to be stored in oil (600 Figure 2). This stops them reaoting with oxygen in the air. Their reactvi increases as we go down the group. So lithium is the least reactive alkali metal and francium is the most reactive. All the alkali metals have a very low density compared with other metals. In fact Ithium, sodium and potassium all fat on water. The alkali metals are also all very sott. They can be cut with a knife, They have a silvery, shiny surface when we first out thom. However, this quickly goes dull as the motals react \with oxygen in the air, This forms a layer of oxide on the shiny surface, ‘The properties of thie unusual g-oup of metals reault from their electronic structure, The atoms of alkali metals all have one electron in their outermost shell (highest energy level). This gives them similar properties. It also makes ‘thom vary reactive. That's becauso they naod to lose just ono electron to gata stable (noble gas) electronic structure. Thoy react with non-motals, losing their single outar electron, They form ‘metal ion carrying @ 1+ charge, eg. Na*, K*. They always form ionic compounds, ‘a Whatie the formula of a lithium ion? Figure 1 The alkali metals (Group 1) Melting points and boiling points ‘The Group 1 metals melt and boil at relatively low temperatures for metals. Going down the croup, the metting points and boiling points gat lower and lower. Infect, caesium turns into a liquid at just 29°C. Reaction with water ‘When we add lithium, sodium or potassium ‘to water the metal floats on the water, maving around and fizzing, The fizzing happens because ‘tho motal reacts with the water to form hydrogen ges. Potassium reacts so vigorously with the water that the hydrogen produced catches ‘ire. It burns with a lilac lame. ‘The reaction between an alkali metal and water also produces a matal hydroxide, hence the name ‘alkall metals’. gure 2 The alta metals have to be sored in oil (>?‘The hydroxides of the alkali metals are all soluble in water. The solution is colourless with a high pH. (Universal indicator turns purple) sodium + water + sodium hydroxide + hydrogen 2Na(e) + 2H,0()+ — 2NaOH(ac) + +H) potassium + waler — potassium hydroxide + hydrogen 2Kis) + 2,0) — 2KOH[aq) + Hig) 1b Write the word equation for the reaction of lithium with water. PEnmncden Reactions of alkali metals with water The reaction of the alkali metals with water can be demonstrated by dropping a small pieca of the Very smat piece fakal metal ‘metal into a rough of water. This, must be done with greet care. The reactions are vigorous, releasing a lot of energy. Hydrogen gas is also given off. © Describe your cbservatiors. Other reactions ‘The alkali metals also react vigorously with non-metals such as chlorine. They produce metal chlorides, which are white solic. Their chlorides all dissolve readily in water to form colourless solutions. ‘The reactions gat more and more vigorous as we go down the group. That's bacause it becomes easier to lose the single electron in the outer shell to form ions with a 1+ charge. sodium + chlorine sodium chloride 2Nais) + Gl,ig) > — 2NaCls) ‘They react in a simiar way with fluorine, bromine and iodine. All of these ionic compounds of the alkali metals are also white and dissolve easily in water. The solutions are all colourless, Aimee toe 4 Copy and complete using the words below: alkali alkaline bottom hydrogen ions less reactive top “The Group 1 elements are also known as the _.... metals, They are VOry nun with water, procucing........eolutions and... G88. Lithium, at e........ ofthe group, i... active than potassium, nearer the. ofthe group. These elements alwaye react to make compounds in which they form singly charged postive. 2 Caocium is almost at tho bottom of Group 4. \Whet do you think would happen i it was dropped into water? 3 Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction of caesium with: a iodine b waler IH] Coe Figure Litium, sedium and potassum fencing with water (he hum eon tholet ofthe tough th potasrn hi buminghyerogen above anc the Sodium isthe motan svery bal onthe sight) GO Kinks For further information on reactivity uithin groups, look back at C3 1.2 The modem periodic table. © The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are called Pes Gm ee) boiling points decrease Pe eeu ett Gee ed ‘water to produce hydrogen Peal Ce ce hydroxide, uel eee id Cu generally white and dissolve Perey os Pana nucle Denk ay yaaThe periodic table MMR Te} In the centre of the periodic table there ie a large block of metallic elements. ‘We call these the transition elements or transition metals. eu ead Bertier Pc ecules real Ce RL Pred Figure 1 The transition elements. The more common metals are shown in bold type. (Strictly speaking, the metalsin the fst and last columns above should not be called tansticn elements, This is because of the electionic structure of thai ons). Physical properties ‘Tho transition oloments have the properties of ‘typical’ motals. Their metallic bonding and giant structures explain most of their propartias. Transition elements: @ are good conductors of electricity and energy © are hard and strong @ have high densitias @ have high melting points (with the exception of mercury, which isa liquid at room temperature). a Which metallic element has the lowest melting point? ‘The transition elements have very high melting points compared with those of the alkali metals in Group 1. They are also harder, stronger and much denser. 20004 +1800] 1600} +400 | 1200) 1000. 00- 600. 440- 200- 0: 0) Meting pot ( Utha” K RD" Gs sc” Gr “Mn fe Go Wi Gu Figure 2 Tha melting pointe of the transition elements are much higher than those o! the Group 1 elements[—_Thotranstionclomonts Chemical properties ‘The transition elements are much less reactive than the metals in Group 1. “This means they do not weact as easily with oxygen or water as the alka metals do. Sof they corrode, they do 0 very slowly. Together with thair physical properties, this makes the transition elements very useful as structurel materials Compounds of transition elements ‘Many of the transition elements form coloured compounds. These include ‘some very common compounds that we use in the laboratory. For example, copper(i) sulfate is blue [from the capper ions, Cu), Notice that the name of a compound containing a transition element usually includes a Roman numbar. For example, you will have seen capperii) sulfate oF iron(u) oxida. This is because transition elements can form more than one ion. For example, iron may exist as Fe® or Fe*. Copper can form Gur and Gu**, and chromium Gr? and Cr. Compounds of those ions are different colours. For example, iran() ions (Fe) give compounds a green colour, but ian(u) (Fee) ions give a reddish-brown colour. 1b Write down the full name of this transition element compound: NiCl,. ‘Transition elements and thelr compounds are also very Important in the chemical industry as catalysts. Fer oxample, you have mat the uso of nickel as a catalyst n the manufacture of margarine. Emre tenes 1 Copy and complete using the words bel: catalysts coloured conductors densities less melting ‘Tho transition elements nearly all have Figh......... high. points and are good - They are. reactive than the alkali metals, and often form......... compounds. The transition elements and their ‘compounds are useful. in the chemical industry. Iron (Fe) can form ions that carry a 2+ or a 3+ charge. Write down the ‘name and formula of each compound iron ean form with chlorine, Vanadium (eymbol V) reacts with exygen gas to form the compound vanacium(y) oxide. Write a belanced symbol equation for the reaction. IH] Ponneecuen ‘The colours of vanadium ions ‘Your teacher can show you the rangp of colours that differant ons of vanadium ean have. igure 2 Compounds of trancition demente ara coloured (20 ‘opposed to tne mainly white compounds colours of many mineras, rocks and gemstones are cue to trensition flementions, The recdish-brown colour in a rack is often due to iron ion, Fo". The blue colour of sapphires and the green of emeralde are bth due fo transton element ions in tie Sructues of thet crysal, the alkali matals). The JA Examiner's tip “The charge on the jon is given in the name of tho transition element compound, 2.9. copper() sulfate contains Qu ions. oho Due a have much higher melting points and densities, They et ea cd Piura ‘© The transition elements do Da em eed el fons with different charges, ee ea Cad Succ head Cae rau eesThe periodic table Group 7 - the halogens (« Properties of the halogens ‘The Group 7 elements are called the halogens. They are a group of poisonous Ru eed eee a non-metals that have coloured vapours. They have fairly typical properties of. non-metals PR «© They have low melting points and boiling points. Cu) @ They are also poor conductors of energy and electricity. CECE COCR? ‘As oloments, tho halogens all oxist as molecules mado up of paits of atoms. ‘The atoms are joined to each ather by covalent bonds, Figure 2 The halogers allform molecules made up of « pak of atoms, joined by a covalent ‘bond, We cal this fype of molecule a daiomic molecule a Vihat patterns can you spotin te properties ofthe halogens going Figure 1 The Group 7 elements conn Group 72 Reactions of the halogens ‘The electronic structure of the halogens determines the way thay react with other elements, They all have seven elections in their outermost shell (highest energy level). So they need to gain just one more electron to achieve the stable electronic structure of a noble gas. This means that the halogens take partin both ionic and covalent bonding. How the halogens react with hydrogen F@) +HJ@— 2F@) Explosive even at ~200°C and in the dark (a) + H,(g) > 2HCK@) Explosive in sunight/ stow in the dark Bylo) + Ho) > 2HBrIQ) ‘300°C + platinum catalyst L@ +H) = 2Ht@) {800°C + platinum catalyst (very slows, reversible) b Look at the reactions of the halogens in the table above, What is the pattern in reactivity of the halogens going down Group 7? (CJA Examiner's tip ‘The halogens all react with metals. They gain a single electron to give then a stable arrangement of electrons. They form ions with a 1~ charge, e.g. F-, Cl’, Br. Examples of their ionic compounds include sodium chioride, NaCl, and iron(a) bromide, FeBr, In Group 7, reactivity decreases 8 you go down the group. However, in Group 1 reactivity increases going down the group.Look at the det and cross diagram of calcium chloride, CaCl,, below: ce © Write down the formula of an iodide ion. ‘When a halogen reacts with anather non-metal, the atoms of the halogen shere electrons with the atoms of the other element. This gives the atoms of both elements a stable electronic structure. Therefore the compounds of halogens with non-metals contain covalent bonds, Look at the det and oross diagram of hycrogan chloride, HCl, below: x) (Note that the circles need not be shown in dat and cross diagrams) Displacement reactions between halogens ‘We can use a more reacilve halogen to displace a less reactive halogen from solutions of'ts ealts. Bromine displaces iodine trom solution because Il is more reactive than iodino. Chlorine will dieplace both iodine and bromine. For example, chlorine wil displace bromine: chlorine + potassium bromide -> potassium chloride + bromine Clq) + 2KBr(aq) = >= BKCliag) «+ Br, fag) Obviousiy fluorine, the most reactive of the halogens, would displace all of the others. Howeve;, it reacts so strongly with water that we cannet cerry out any reactions in aqueous solutions. Amr ete Copy and complete using the words belo covalent halogens ionic less most iop Group 7 elements are also called the. Fuuorine, at the the group, is the. ‘They react with cther non-metals to form compounds which have bonds. With metals they react to form ‘compounds. 2 a Write a word equation for the reaction of sodium with bromine, b Write a word equation for the reaction of bromine water with potassium iodide solution. 3 Write a balanced symbol equation, including state symbols, forthe reaction of: ‘a potassium metal with iodine vapour b chlorine water with sodium iocice solution. Many early chemists were teadly hurt or even killed as they tied to make pure fluorine. ‘Thoy called it ‘the gas of Lucifer. Itwas finally produced by the French chemist Hani Mcissan, who cied aged just 55. His life was almost certainly shortened by his work with fluorine, Practical Displacement reactions Add bromine water to potassium iodide solution in 2 {ost tude. Then try some athor combinations of solutions of halogens and potassium halides. @ Record your results ina table. © Explain your observations. Com eo ea Re tee eee OR metals. Oa euubear Ce ua) Ce ec fe OT neal Cee halogen from a solution of Cs DR Cee ny coTyke C3 1.1-C3 1.5 Summary questions oO (@ Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. a The Russian chemist who introduced the periodic table in 1869 was Dalton Mendeleev Newlands b Ho put the olaments in order of their atomic weight boiling point density electrical conductivity © He put oloments with similar chemical reactions in columns, known as groups periods rows sets He left gaps for elements that were insoluble unreactive undiscovered @ He did not put water, H20, into the periodic table because water Is a compound liquid mixture AGA, 2009 | @ Whatis the general name for the elements in: i Group 4 Group 7 iii Group 0 iv the block betwoen Group 2 and Group 8? bb Which group dos the clemont described bolong to? i [tis a hard, dense metal which reacts very slowly water but will react well with steam. ii tis a soft metal that roacts violently with water and forms ions with a 1+ charge. itis the most reactive of the non-metallic elements Ie forms ions with a 1— charge and wil also form covalent compounds. ¢ Jodine is a halogen whose atomic number is 63. How many electrons occupy its outermost shel (highest anergy level)? How did you figure out the answor? (@ Explain how Mendeleev used atomic masses to construct the periodic table. What made other chemists boliovo in his ideas? @ Wiito down word equations for the following reactions: 8 lithium and water bb rubidum (Rb) and chlorine € fluorine and aluminium bromine and potassium fodide solution, 'B Write down balanced symbol equations for the reactions in Question 8. TH] @ Draw dotand cross diagrams to show the bonding in the following substances. (Draw only the outer shell electrons) a hydrogen chloride b chlorine © sodium chloride, 1 a How do the properties ofthe transition slomente citi from the properties of the alk: retals? bb Why aro the transition elements more useful than the alkali metals as stuctural materials (materials used 10 make things)? (Explain why: a potassium is more reactive than sodium b chlorine is more reactive than bromine, [HIAQ#/Examination-style questions @ Use a periocic table to help you to answer these questions. 4 Sodium is in Group 1 of the periodic table. ‘The equation fer tha reaction of sodium with water is: 2Na(s) + 2H,O() -+ 2NaOH{faq) + H,(¢) ‘@ Name the gas that is produced when sodium reacts with water. a) b Some water and a few drops of universal indicator ‘were put into a glass trough. A small piece of sodium ‘was added, Describe what you would observe, (4) © Give two reasons why the elements in Group 1 are called the alkali motals. Q 2 Tho transition elements aro between Group 2 and Group 3 in the periodic table. ‘a Which of the following statements are correct comparisons cf the transition elements with the metals, in Group 1? Compared with the metals in Group 1, transition elements, have lower molting points (except for mercury) are stronger and harder react more vigorousiy with oxygen react lass vigorously with water © have higher censities, @ b Iron reacts with dilute sulfuric acid to produce a solution of iron(i) sulfate. The solution is pale green, When sodium hydroxide solution is added, a dark green precipitate of iron(\) hydroxide is formed, When lef in the air, the precipitate oxidises to iron(t) hydroxide which is rad-brown in colour. Whats the evidence from this information that iron is a transition element? 2 The table gives information about some of the Group 7 elements. Name of Melting Bolling | Electronic element point in°c | pointin’c | structure Fuorine =220 188, 27 Chlorine tot 35, 207 Bromine a 58 28187 ledine 14 163, 2,8,1818,7 a What name is nto the Group 7 elements? Halogens Noble gases Transition elements (1) b Which Group 7 element is fquid at 20°C? ( End of chapter questions © Which two statements correctly cescribe Group 7 elements? Thay are metals. ‘Thay consist of molecules. ‘They have coloured vapours. Thay have high melting points. 2 d In torms of their electronic structure, oxplain why those elements are in Group 7, a @ The reactivity of the elements in Group 7 decreases down the group. ‘This can be snown by reacting chlorine with an aqueous solution of potassium bromide. i Complete and balance the equation for this reaction: Cl, + KBr @ ii Explain the trend in reactivity of the elements in Group 7 in terms of their electronic structure, [H] @) AQA, 2009 In 1864 John Newlands suggested the law of octaves. He put the elements known in 1864 in order of increasing atomic mass. He said thet every eighth element showed, similar chemical properties. He put the elements into a table to show the groups of elements. The first three rows of his table are shown below. H [ue |e |c In F [Na om ja |s |e |s a jk ca jo {nfm | re Use a modem periodic table to help you to answer tese questions. i Which group of elements in the modern periodic table is missing from Newlands' table? Oy l_ Why is this group of elements missing trom his table? o b In Newlands’ table the first two elements in several (groups are the same as the first two elements in ‘oroups in the modern periodic table. How many ot these groups are there in Newlands’ table? “ ¢ Newlands put fluorine and chlorine in the same group as hycrogen. i Give one way in which the chemical properties, of hydrogen ave similar to those of fuorine and chlorine “ Give one way in which the chemical properties of hydrogen are different from those of fluorine and chlorine, 0Water bares Most people in the developed world have fresh, olaan water piped to their Learning objectives homes. The water from our taps looks simiar no metter where you live in this CCC ©2017 However ciferences become obvious wien we use soap to wash ‘The water in some areas of the country easily ‘orms a rich, thick lather with Olea soap. This water is called soft water. But in some other places it is more Oe eel) difficult to form a lather with soap and water. This is because these areas have Ce TRC hard water. Hard water makas it difficult to wash aurseives. As wall as this, it also makes it difficult to clean the bath or sink when we have finished. This is because hard ‘water contains dissolved compounds thet react with the soap to form scum. The scum floats on the water and sticks to the bath ‘Tho scum formed by hard wator is not a problem when washing olothes. That's because modern detergents do not produce scum in hard water. They are called soapless detergents. ‘Why ist difficult to wash with hard water? Practical Figure 1 Clean water maylookthesame | !nvestigating the hardness of water samples wherever you ara but appearances can You can use sosp solution to test how hard a sample of water is. You be decepive add soap solution 1 cm at atime. Stopper and shake the tube after each adaition. Continue until you get a permanent lather formed. ‘The mare soap needed, the harder tha water. ‘© What type of graph would you use to display the results from the different water samples? © Evaluate your investigation. How hard water forms Most hard water contains dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. Thaco dissolve when streams and rivers flow over rocks containing calcium and/or magnesium compounds. Gypsum, which is calcium sulfate, is an example of such a rock. Limestone is another rock which causes hardness in water: It contains mainly calcium carbonate. This is practically insoluble in water. However, as rain falls through the air, carbon dioxide dissolves in it. This cissolved carbon dioxide makes rainwater slightly acidic. So the water in streams and rivers becomes slightly acidic too. Calcium carbonate reacts with the weakly acicic solution. The calcium hydrogencarbonete formed is soluble in water. Therefore calcium ions, Ca** (aq), get into the water, making it hard, This equation describes what happens: CaGO,(s) + H,0(l) + CO,(aq) > Ca*(aq) + 2HCO,-faq) Figure 2 itisn'talvays easy to gat e_ lice this (hardnass’)EST ‘The dissolved ions are carried into the reservoirs and on into our domestic water supply. Its the dissolved calcium and magnesium ions that react with soap to form scum, bb What does hard water form when we put soao in it? How hard water wastes soap Using hard water is expensive bacause we naed to use much mora soap. Betore soap can do its jab of removing dirt, some ot itis wasted reacting with the calcium and magnesium ions in the water. It forms insoluble salts that appear as scum. It's only once al the calcium and magnesium ions have reacted that the soap can form a lather. Here Is how the calcium ions react with ecap: sodium stearate + Caf ions > calcium stearate + (soap) calcium ions _pracipitate (scur) How scale (limescale) is formed ‘As wall as scum, hard water often leads to seale (limescale) forming. This insoluble solid can form when we haat one type of hard water. For example, it forms in washing machines, pipes, immersion heaters and other parts of our hot wator systams, Pipes can eventually block up. ‘The same seale forms in our kettles. This ‘(urring up’ of the heating element makes them much less efficient, Tha scale is 2 very poor conductor of energy. ‘Sot takes longer to boil the water and uses more energy. This costs more Figure 9 Ae ecsle builde up in heating money, every time you use a kettle. systems and hele it not only makes ‘ham less efficient ~ t can stp tham ‘What does hard water form when we heat it? ‘working completehy We have seen the cisadvantages of hard water but there are also some © Calcium ions in drinking water help in the devalopment of strong bones and teeth. ‘© Hard water contains is ic Cet rl © Thare is also evidence which suggests that hard water helps to reduce See pes heart disease. OS Bu Te Tg magnesium ions in hard et - See cy Summary questions Sipe Copy and complete using the words below: Core ie calcium heart conductor efficient bones scale scum ice een Ty Ce a Hard water contains. _ and/or magnesium ions. These react with soap to form..... lard water can also produce when itis Chapel heated. This is a poor......... of energy, and makes kettles and water SN heaters less... . Hard water is better for teeth and... than soft tc water. It may alzo help reduce... dieeaee. eee er How can the calcium ions in limestone become dissolved in water? ad Itmay aiso help to prevent Explain the difference between scale and scum. PeesPeed Cee eu ead © How can we expiain what ep hacukeloed Deru daa ta] Practical ‘Making and testing temporary hard water You can try to make a semple of tomporary hard water. ‘You pass excess carbon dioxide into limewater until the cloudiness disappears again. @ Devise a test to see whether this is temporary hard water ornot. Predict what will happan in your experiment. Ee Brewers of beer favour areas with permanent hard water (naving a high sulfate content) for making bitter and palo ale. Lager and stout are best brewed in areas with soft or temporary hard water (which can be boiled to soften if. The hardness of the water affacts, the taste of the beer. Water Removing hardness ‘« Soft water does not contain the dissolved salts that produce scum and scale. ‘We can soften hard water by removing the calclum and magnesium ions which give it its ‘hardness’. Softering water has big benefits. We don't waste soap or get scum formad when washing, and heating our water won't make scale, Bul people are advised to continue drinking hard water i they can. jontists think that itis bettor for your health. Soft water Is also important in many industrial processes. Here hardness can produce scale in boilers, making therm more expensive to run. Hardness may aiso interfere with chemical processes such as dysing. ‘How is soft water diferent from hard water? ‘Temporary and permanent hardness ‘We have seen how scale can form inside a kettle. This has the effect of softening the hard water as tha calcium and/or magnesium ions are removed. Water that ccan have its hardness removed by boling is called temporary hard water. Calcium and magnesium ions from some salts, such as sulfates, are not removed by heating. Their solutions cause permanent hard water. The water remains hard even after boiling. But despits its namo, wo can also soften this, type of hard water Explaining the effect of heating temporary hard water 5 1 is asummary of what happons when wo heat tomporary hard water: test Ga*aq) + 2H00,-(eq) —"* 5 cac0,(9) + H,00) + CO,(@) (hardness!) (ecale) We can think ofthe reaction that makas scala intwo steps. 11 When we boil hard water containing hydrcgencarbonate iors, they decompose: test 2H00, (aq) — > 60," faq) + H,0() + 60,9) 2. The carbonate ions, CO,* (aq), react with calcium andor magnesium ions in the hard water: Ga*(@q) + CO; (aq) + CaCO) sole ‘This process removes Ga**(aq) or Mg**(aq) ions from hard water and softens it. However, removing hardness by heating would waste energy and be very expensive b_ Why is heating temporary hard water not used as a method to soften water on a large scale? There are two important ways to sotten either type of nard water.Method 1 - Using washing soda (One way to soften water is to add sodium carbonate tot. Sodium carbonate, Is also called ‘washing soda’ It has been used for many years when washing clothes. When we add washing soda to hard water, a reaction takes place. Its soluble carbonate ions precipitate out calcium anc magnes 's. The dissolved metal ions form insoluble carbonates Carag) + 60,* (aa) (hardness’) (from sodium carbonate) = 6aC0,(s) “This reaction is similar to the formation of scale when temporary hard water is heated. However, here it happens quickly, where and when we want it to happen, without having to waste energy. Method 2 - Using an ion-exchange column Water can also be sottened by removing the Ga‘"jaq) or Mg** (aq) ions using an ion-exchange column. A column usually contains a resin packed with sodium ions (Nat). The hard water passes through the column. The sodium fons ‘rom the resin are exchanged for the Ga** (aq) or Mg**(aq) fons in hard ‘water. Some columns work by swapping hycrogen ions for the aqueous calcium or magnesium ions. This is how domestic water-softening units work. The resin can be recharged with eodium ione after they have been exchanged for calcium and magnesium ions. The resin is washed with salt (sodium chloride) solution. This puts the socium ions back in. This is why water softeners must be kept toppad up with salt. © Why do water softeners need to have salt added to them? Aire cee 1 Copy and complete using the words below: calcium ion-exchange permanent scum softener sodium temporary Soft water does not contain it does not produce or magnesium ions. This means that orscale, hard water can be softened by heating it whoreas ....._. hard water cannot. Either type of hard water can be softened by adding carbonete or by using a water.. column. Explain how sodium carbonate (washing soda) softens hard water. You should include an equation in your answer. Expiain using balanced symbol equations how temporary hard water is softened by heating [iH] va which contains an Figure 1 Wasting soca is a simple way ‘to soften water witout the need for any complcatoe equipment retook Ree acd os ete bby removing the ions that Peetu eeu removed trom water by cua) eeu heating. Dock need Puce tea cd decompose on heating. The ee don? Pee eis a) Jons, making precipitates. [H] Cite chen Cee ee) St ee au Lol Ton-exchange resin to remove Cees fone.Water Water treatment (« a es Water is a vital and useful resource. We use it in industry as an important raw Learning objectives material, solvent and coolant. TEs k eG © Cthor usos of wator are for washing and oleaning — and of course, for drinking. Pring Providing people with clean drinking water is @ major issue all over the world, eT ed \Wator that comes from boreholes is usually fairly clean. It has beon fitorod Ce es as it passes through the rocks around the barehole. Normally we just need to Nee cd slerilise this water with chlorine to make it safe to drink. Chiorine kills microbes in the water. When we take water from rivers and reservoirs we need to give it more trealment than this. This trectment invalves saveral physical and chemical processes. ‘The water source 's chosen so that It contains as few dissolved chemicals as posable. The water then passes through five stages. (See Figure 4.) a How do we normally neod to treat water takon irom a boroholo? b Why is chlorine added to water at the end of the treatment process? ‘Some people use filter jugs in their homes. These usually have @ top part into which you put tap water. ae = ‘As the water goes from the top part of the jug to the lower part it passes through a filter cartridge. This usually contains activated cerbon, an ion exchange resin and silver. © Tha carbon in the filter raduces the levals of chlorine, 2s wall as pasticides and other organic impurities in the water. exchange resin removes calcium, magnesium, lead, copper and + Figure 1 Good, clacn water'e a precious resource. Those ol us lucky enough to have can too easly take & fr granted, © Some filters may contain silver. Silver particles discourage the growth of bacteria within the fitter, In most jugs the fiter cartridge neads to be changed evary few weeks. Pure - or just fit to drink? Even water that has been treated and then passed through a jug filter is not pure. It will stil contain some substances dissoived init. But despite ths, itis definitaly tto drink ‘We can get pure water by distilling it. This involves boiling the impure water. The liquid water ‘ums Into gaseous steam. Then we cool the stoam to condonce and collect tho pure water. ‘We use distiled water in chemistry practical work. because itis pure. It contain nothing but water. However, distillation is not a method usually used to make drinking water. Distiling large volurnes of impure water would need vast amounts of ‘Figure. Ninoral watere contain Figure 2 Many people clam that water energy, This would make the process very dissolved minetals, which is fiters lke these morove the taste of wale civ, what gves them ther taste and ‘ensure iti safe to drink PE ‘character’erry Jp) As the water nts the wet teetment works, assas trough 2 screen. Ths 's made from bars of mata placed close togcther Thase cata large objects such as eaves and tgs Peservor and sll sate cut — “Tho ate is passed tough a spacial itr made of ine san. “This emaves any remaining paticles of do: git, otha water is clear, Aluminium sutaie and tire are dad to we Water Smal parle of crt clump together so that thay sino the bettam ofthe watar. “Tho sludgo that coloztslika this dump in afarafl site where it fers mud — ‘Atfcugh the water now looks olan, ‘may stil contain harmful bacteria, smal emauntaf chloira @ added the wart kil bac, ‘Te pit ofthe waters checked and corrected sothat tis reir t's ‘Sored in lrg tanks and service reservoirs ‘aly tobe pumpzdto homes, schools, fives and factores, ete Figure 4 Tha ireatment of water to make ft to drink, Fluoride is also added to drinking ‘water in eome arace. This holae to prevent tooth decay. CO links Soe C2 2.4 Wator issues for moro information on fuuoridation. Aimee oe See eee eae Serre microbes chlorine silver metal filter Pe Tod Tekng wer Rioainkinoles passing vough2...orerove | [enone Coto Ne en add enn osha water Mor Coa lovarcogsichtoronoe. one Meyacenauce | EMDR AIRT carbon, and often Which discourages growth of bacteria in tha by filtering it to remove filter. ‘solids and adding chlorine Watertaookscoloutess and dean mayne moan wnyrorr | (eit ‘Water that has passed through a filter jug should not form scale (imescale) in your kettle. Why not? ED edad coahhasalicd Ceca eed Explain why botties of water sold in the supermarket should not be large amounts of energy described as ‘pure’ water? PocusFORM How Science Works C3 2.4 eu ead ett) Cd ule od ero and disadvantages of adding Cui OC and disadvantages of adding De Nales B, 1 soft watir 8 Port eth 22 s0 sats vater 38 (itches) * 01 95-34 65-74 Age ateath Females 33% msovate 23 ‘ear atu 22 0 mbar water 33 (itchene) 27g $5-Bé 65-7 Ag atdeath Canadian towns. showed tha the ‘number of people suffering from neart disease with ahard water supply was ‘gnifeantly lower than tho numbar wth haat disease wth soft water A Examiner’s tip Make sure you know the cifference between chlorine (ha element) and chioride (@ {ype of cornpound). ee Water issues To soften or not to soften? ‘Most people in hard water regions choose to sotten their water in some way. Buying a water softener and keeping It topped up with salt (Sodium chloride) costs monay. There are also other products that you can add to your washing machine or central heating system to protect it from scale. However, the ‘money spent on these products could save you the expense of repair or replacing parts. Filter jugs and cartridges for drinking taps also soften water. However, a8 mentioned before, hard water is good for teeth and bones. It may also help prevent heart disease. Look at the bar charts in Figure 1. ‘Some of those who do not soften the watar from their drinking tap belave hard water will benefit their health. lon-exchange resins replace calcium and ‘magnesium ions in hard water with sodium ions. Sodium ions are not good for your heart, as they have been linkad with high biood prassure. ‘@ Do these bar charts alone provide sufficient evidence that hard water prevents heart disease? Explain your answer. Chlorine in water thas been estimated that around 5000 people die every day from diseases spread in water. But that number would be many tmes greater without chlorina. Chiorina is usad throughout the world to kill microbes that live in water. Think of all the sewage that must be treated betore retuming it to rivers or the sea. Chlorine plays a major role in many sewage plants worldwide. However, scientists are carefully monitoring the effect of using chlorine on human health and the environment. Poisonous chlorine compounds were first datected in water discharged irom paper mills. They use a lot of chlorine to bleach the paper. The chlorine reacts with harmless organic molecules and can form toxic products ‘Some people fea! that adding chlorine 10 water is a isk to thelr health, They do not want to baths in, lat alono drink, chlorinated water. Thoy buy filtors to absorb chiorine batore it leaves their taps or showers. However, household water uses a lot less chlorine than a paper rill. ‘The vast majority of people believe that the benefits of chlorinating water fer outweigh the risks, Using ozone is an alternative to using chlorine to kill microbes in water, b Name a gas that is used as an alternative to chlorine to disinfect swimming pools. Fluoride in water You probably know that most tosthpastas contain fluoride. Itis added to protect your teeth from decay. But some places also have fluoride added to ‘thoir water eupply. So if you drink tap water you get a small dose of fluoride, whether you want it or not.‘There is a debate about whether fluoride should be added to public water supplias. There are lots of arguments for and against it arguments are often based on research that gels criticised because it doosn’t control tho difforont variables woll enough. ‘We can't really set up a ‘air test’ to compare areas where the is fuoridatod with areas whera no fluoride is added. Thera ar many other ‘actors that may vary between the people living different test areas. Increasing the size of the samples and matching groups is the best we can do to gat higher quality data. Here are some of the arguments for and against fluoridation: it These Keele 7 1e water in these FRESHMINT Figure 2 Mest of us use toothpaste which has fluoride added to it For fluoridation of water ‘Against fluoridation of water Some areas have hed fluoxidated water for about 50 years now ‘and nobody has proved that there are any harmful effects — that is, apart from fluorosis. ‘What happens to your teeth reflects what's heppening to your benes Fluorasis isa condition caused when children take ‘oo much fluoride. White steaks or tips appear on ther teeth ‘These are deposits of calolum fuoride. They are porous anc ean become stained. Fluorosis could be a sign af other changes in bones. Some studies have lirked excess fluoride to weekening ofbonee (hereaced numer of fractures) and bone cancer ‘The effect of fluoridation n the latest studies show about 120 per cant reduction in cavilee on teeth, This not ae acod as studies in the 1960s. Then they showed you were five times more Ukely to have tooth decay if your water was not fluoridated. However, this is because the bacteria thet cause tooth decay are dying out because ofthe success of ‘luoridation. ‘The benefit of luoridation for teeth is net significant (accounting {or less then one filing 2eved per person). So why should we ‘ake any risks with our heath? Toothpastes and dentel care have improved since the 19608 The claims of huge benefts of fluoridation were not realy proved then, so we don't need it We need fuoridation to protect the teeth of these peaple who do nat have good dental hygiene habs and whe don't vei thelr dentist regularly. Itis ethically wrong to give people teatmerts that they have not concented te. People have aight to choose, ‘The bacteva aacoclated with tooth dacay also ease some ‘ypes ot heart disease, so tuorcation wil protect us rom thet ‘Sore stucies show that excess fioride affects the bran, procucing learning aticutas. kas also been asscclated with Alzheimer’s diaease in old people. ‘The fluoride Is only added In tiny amounts (1 pan per milicn) arywey. ‘You cant set safe Its of fuorle beseuse you ear't control people's intake. on Discuss: if you were setting up a study of the effects of fluoridation, how would you go about it? Hovr would you make your investigation as repeatable, reproducible and valid as possible? What groups of people would you compare? How could you gain the information you nead to set up matching groups in different areas? Atunre aoe 1 Wiite one good point and one bad point about using ch disinfect water in a swimming pool 2 Write two letters to your water suppl your water: one in support of the plans and the other ao: ‘who is planning to add fluoride to ou end sterilise it by killing microbes, eked Cec rtd era eg think that people should have the right to choose if they Rea tod not lorine to jainst them.DE eens Summary questions oO a) a What do we mean by ‘hard water’? Give two disadvantages of hard water. Givo two advantages of hard water. aoe ‘What is a ‘soaplees detergent"? @€} 4 Commercial water softeners contain an ion-exchange resin. Describe how you could use the following euipment to plan an investigation to see which of threo different rsins is most affective at softening hard water. Ensure you describe how to make it. fair test. Wooden Graduated Durette Aropping holder ie Burati a Puter bung b I Name the independent variable in your investigation, Name the dependent variable. ‘© Why is it difficult to judge which resin is most effective? @ How can you plan to get results that are as reproducible and repeatable as possible? @ How can you judge the precision of the data you collect? f Aclass of students, working in 10 groups, did this investigation. Fiva groups found the order of efiectivenass was A, B then C, Tha other five groups got B, Athen C, Weite 2 conclusion using the class resus. 8) Weshing soda is used to coiten water, making it easier to get clothes clean. It consists of crysials of sodium carbonate. a Whatis the formula of sodium carbonate? b i Name one ion that makes water hard. Wiite a balanced symbol equation for the reaction of washing soda with this ion, showing how the washing soda makes the water soft. [HI @ a Whatis the difference between permanent and temporary hard water? b Explain how an ion-exchange column can be usad to soften hard water. a Which ions are present in the temporary hard water formed whan water passes over limastona rock? b Explain how temporary hard water is seftonod in a kettle. Include balancad symbol equations. [HI In.some hot countries gatting sufficient tresh water is difficult, Some have large coastlines and so have plenty of seawater. Here they construct desalination plants. ‘These use a process called ‘flash distillation’ to turn the ‘salty water into drinking water. Inside the desalination plant water is boled under reduced prassure, then cooled and condensed. There are even plans to bulld ‘ono in London to help cope in times of water shortage. ‘a Why is the pressure reduced before bolling the water? How does this keep costs down? b Fusting of the steel vessels and pipawork in the desalination plantis a big problem. Why? An allemative process uses ‘reverse osmosis’ to remove tho salts from soawater. This passes soawator through ‘a membrane. The latest membranes can remove 98 per cent of the salts from seawater. © Why is reverse osmosis a better option than flash distillation for obtaining drinking water? @ a Whataro your viows on the fluoridation of public water suppiies? Write a balanced argument and state your concusions. b State an advantage and a disadvantage of chiornating ‘our water suppliesEnd of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4) Most water from natural sources contains dissolved substances (choose a word from each Iistto complete each conteroe. 2 Water for ckinking i fitered to remove « chlorkles fons solide b Water for drinking shauld contain dissolved salts at levels tha ae high tow variable © Water for drinking should contain no a microbes molecules oxygen Pure water can be produced by : « compression distillation electrolysis 2 Hard water has some benefits but also causas problems, ‘a Which of the following is a benafit of hard water? A Bathing B Drinking hard water may help to reduce heart disease, © Washing clothes in hard wator uses loss washing powder. a b Two problems of hard water are scaie and scum, as shown in the pictures of a heating element and a wash basin hard water helps develop strong bones. Describe as simply as possible the difference betwean scale and scum. @ ¢ Describe how hard water is made saft by passing it through an ion-exchange column. Q AQA, 2008 3 In this question you will bo assossod on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Descrive how drinking water supplies should be selected and treated and explain how theso processes make the water safe to drink. © @ An advertising leaflet from a company that sells water ‘softeners included the following information. Everyone neads a water softener because hard water causes: = damaged boilers bumt-out ketties and immersion heaters ~ blocked showers ~ greater costs for heating water extra soap for washing and bathing Suggest three ways in which this information is biased. @) '§ The table shows the concentrations of some ions in two ‘samples of hard water. | Name and formula ot ion | Concentration ot ion Ing per litre ‘Sample A_| Sample B Sedum Nat 2 7 Potassium K 2 a Celclum Ca 195 85 magnesium Mg 6 63 Chloride CF 7 18 HydrogencartonateHco, | 278 a Nirate_NO, 2 1 Sulfate SO 6 165 Sample A is temporary hard water and sample B is, permanent hard water. ‘@ Which ions make these two samples of water hard? (2) b Describe how you could test the samples to show that ‘temporary hard water and B is permanent hard water. ® © Give two methods that would remove the hardness ‘from both samples of water. @ Use the data to explain why sample A is temporary hard water and sample B fs permanent hard water. [4] 6) GDEnergy calculations Comparing the energy released ae TREN We have already seen that exothermic reactions release energy. When we bum a fuel, we use this energy to keep ourselves warm or we use it for eck ansport. energy released by diferent us fares Why do we use fuels? Perr torn Not all fuels release the sane amount of energy when they bum, Some combustion reactions are more exothermic than others. It is often very Important to know how much energy a fuel releases when it burns. eeu Kea CD Kinks ‘ . For more information on exothermic —‘'"'@ School chemistry lab it is very difficut to measure accurately the energy rocotiena, leok beak st 02 47 released by fuels when they bum. Exothermic and endothermic ‘The actual amount of energy releasad by a burning fual in an experiment is, reactions. related to the rise in temperature of the water in a calorimeter. The larger the riae in tomperatura, the more energy has been released (eee Figure 2). Calculating the energy released ‘There is an equation we can use to work out the energy released, measured in joules (I): energy released = mass of water x specificheat < —risein heated capacity of water temperature This ie sometimes written as: Q=mcaT Where: Qi the energy released by the fuel mis the mass of water heated in the calorimeter (1 cm* of water has a mass of tg) cis the specific heat capacity of water (this is the amount of aneray needed to raise 1g of water by °C) ATis the rise in temperature (.e. the final temperature of the watar minus. the inital temperature). Here is an example of how to do the calculation: Figure 1 Keeping warm or moving about ‘we nead excthermic reactions Worked example In an experiment a burning fuel raised the temperature of 60cm? of wator from 16° to 41°C, How much energy was released by the fuel? (4.2J ot ‘energy raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C).. Write down the data given: Mass of water heated in tha calorimeter = 500 Specific heat capacity of water 42d/g°C Risa in temperature of the water 41°C — 18°C = 25°C Now use the data in the Q = meAT equation (which will always be provided for you in the exam): Q=meaT Q=50x 4.2 25) Q= 52504 (or 5.25kd)eee, Itis useful to be able to compare the enecgy content of different fuels. Their combustion data is givan as the number of joules (cr kilojoulas) of energy released per gram or per mole of fuel bumed. In the previous experiment, the fuel was weighed before and after burning. It was found that the mass had decteased by 0.2g. So the energy given out in ‘tho oxperimont will bo mukipliod by the number of 0.2g there aro in 1 g. = ay energy released per gram= 5.25 x ai5kiig = 26.25kN9 ‘Suppose we know that the relative formula mass of the fuel is 46. We can now also work out the energy released per mole. One mole of the fuel has a mass of 46g, So the energy given outin the experiment will be multiplied by the number of 0.2g thare ara in 46¢: 46 energy released per mole = 5.25 x AS kyjmol = 1207.5kd/mol era Comparing the energy released when fuels burn We can compare the eneray released by different fuels when they bum. The fuels are burned to heat water in a copper can ora glass beaker. We measure the temperature changes praduced by diffarant fuels, so then we can compare the energy they release when they burn. Use the worked example to help with your caloulations. 1b What variables must we control in order to compare the energy released by different fuels? Summary questions 1. Copy and complete using the words below: calorimeter energy exothermic oxygen ‘When fue's bum they react with This reaction releases ‘The reaction is.......... The energy content of foods and fuels can be measured using a... 2 Asimplo calorimator was used to compare the ene-gy released by threo different fuels, The results were as follows: Massoftuel | Volume of water | Temperature burned (9) fem’) ‘change (°C) Fuela 024 160 100 | FuelB 018 100 ao Fuel 027 150 9.0 ‘a Using the equation Q = mo AT, calculate the energy released by each fuel in the three tests. (4.2J of energy raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C,) 'b Caloulate the energy released par gram for each fuel. ¢ Arrange the fuels in order of the ammount of energy they release per gram. d The relative formula mass of Fuel A is 43. What in the energy released by A inkilcjoules per mole (kJimol)? Figure 2 The energy raleated by fuels ‘and feods when they bun cen be ‘compared using a simple calormeter. “The energy contort of food is sometimes given in units called calories. However, the joule isthe usual scientific unit of energy. (QA Examiner’s tip Measurements using simple calorimeters are not accurate because of energy losses, but they can he used to compara the arnounts of energy released. Com OR heel’ with oxygen, energy is ud eas yee teed used to compare the energy ue Cee aes omEnergy calculations ransfers in solutions {« We have used a simple calorimeter to measure temperature changes. We used a polystyrene cup and a thermometer to monitor reactions in solu PRK occ rake Coe oe esc) Peete eared ‘enemy Ot ees Olinhs os ee rte Photon set ees tang snp canter teeta os «7 Bram ond TS syne ap oratorio oncors Ghameals are mixed in the cup, Tre insulation recicas the ra at \whiah ororgy can onte nave the conten of the cup. Figure 1. simple calorimeter used to measure energy changes in solution. The palysiyrere ja good thermal insulator so helps te minimise anergy transier through the sides af ‘the container curing reactions, A id an the calorimoter reduces energy tansfer to the surrounalngs even further. However, we have now seen how we can calculate actual energy changes using: Q= meat In words: energy released = mass of water x specificheat x — risein heated capacity of water temperature QW ‘Why is polystyrena a good material to use for a calorimeter for reactions in solution? You do not have to leam the equation Q = mcAT In these calculations we will assume that the solutons behave like water. In tho oxam this equation wi So 1 om of solution has a mass of 1g. Also solutions have a specific heat be provided for you but you capacity of 4.2.lig°C. Tharafore 4.2. of energy raise the temperature of 1 of should know how to use it. solution by °C, Look at the worked example opposite. Practical Measuring energy changes in reactions We can use a simple polystyrene calorimater to work out the energy changes in the following: ® Iron flings + copper sulfate solution (a displacernent reaction) ‘© magnesium risbon + hydrochloric acid © sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid (@ neutralisation reaction) © dissolving potassium nitrate, anhydrous copper sulfate, and other salts.QW Worked example ‘The energy released by an ‘Asimple calorimeter is used to measure the energy change in the reaction: | | exothermic reaction heats up the water (and tts contain). A+B3C Tho temperatura rise is 60cm of a solution containing 0.1 moles of A is mixed with 400m? of a Proportional to the amount of solution containing 0.1 moles of B. The temparature of the two solutions energy released. before mixing is 19.6°C. After mixing them, the maximum temperature reached 261°C. Step 1 - calculate the temperature change: temperature change = 26.1°C - 19.6°C , sc DO links For more information on eneray Step 2 - calculate the energy change: fevel diagrams, see C3 8.8 Energy Q= moat level diagrams. ‘Tho mass of solution heated up in the reaction is 60g + 40g = 100g 100g x 4.2d/g°G x 6.5°C. 27303 = 273kd energy change: This is the energy change when 0 moles of reactants A and B are mixed, ‘Sownen 1 mole of reactants are mixed there wil be ten times as much energy released (1 mole is 10 x 0.1 moles) = 273kd x 10 AYE 273 climal rasa = 27akd So this experiment gives the energy change for the reaction: A+B36 as 27.3kJjmol. (The temperature rises so the reaction is exothermic). Figure 2 Here is the energy level dagram for the reaciion A+ BC b Which has the highor energy content in A + B -> C, tho reactants ortho product? Airey iA sal ‘© We can calculate the energy Copy and complete using the words below: yee ne energy polystyrene temperature calorimeter Pe eee hid A ossne Cup Can bo UBed a8 a simple... We measure the Otaku change, then use the equation Q = me to caleuiate the Pee eas change. Cats A student added 50 cm? of dilute hydrocnioric acid to 50cm? of sodium A cal ac ane hydroxide solution in a polystyrene calorimeter. She recorded a the wean) tomperature sa of 11°C. ere ee) a Using Q = mcaT, work out the energy change in her experiment. Peet (Specific heat capacity of the solution is 4.2u/e°C) een ey bb There were 0.2moles of both the acid and the alkali used. What would eee be the energy change in kd per mole? Peeteu ead RT io) cua ‘© What offect do catalysts havo ur kay reaction? eee Peneun rcce OT Pet Energy calculations Energy level diagrams ‘We can find out more about what is happening in a particular reaction by looking at its energy level diagram. These diagrams snow us the relative amounts of ene:gy contained in the reaciants and the procucts. This energy is measured in kilojoules par mole (kJ/mel) Exothermic reactions Figuro 1 shows the energy level diagram for an exothermic reaction. The products are at a lower energy level than the reactants. Therefore when the reactants form the products, energy is released. Reactants Ener Energy is released Products Figure 1 The energy level diagram for en exothermic reaction ‘The difference between the eneray levels of the reactants and the products is the energy change during the reaction, measured in kJjmol. ‘The difference in energy between the products and the reactants is released. to the surroundings. Therefore in exothermic reactions the temperature of the surroundings increases. The surroundings get hotter. Endothermic reactions Figure 2 shows the energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction, Products Energy Enargy is absorbad Figure 2 The energy level diagram for an endothermic reacton, Here the products are ata higher energy level than the reactants. As the reactants react to form preduets, enercy is abserbad from the surroundings. ‘The temperature of the surroundings decreases because energy is taken in during the reaction. The surroundings get colder. The products are ata higher energy level than the reactants.Activation energy and catalysis (9) Think back to your work on rates of reaction; you learned about the collision theory of reactions. This stated that there is a minimum amount of energy needed before colliding particles can react. This enargy needed to start 2 reaction is called the activation eneray. We can show this on our eneray level diagrams. Lock at Figure 9. Catalysts can increase the rate of a reaction. The way they do this Is to provide an alternative pathway to the products, which has a lower activation energy. This means that a higher proportion of reactant particles now have enough energy 10 react. This is shown on the energy level diagram in Figure 4, Bond breaking and bond making “Think about what happens as a chemical reaction takes place. We can think of the chemical bonds between the atoms or ions in the reactants being broken. Then new chemical bonds can be formed to make the products. @ Energy has to be supplied to break chemical bonds. This means that breaking bonds is an endothermic process. Eneigy is taken in from the surroundings. ‘@ But when new bonds are formed, energy is releasad. So making bonds is an exothermic process. ‘What kind of process is breaking bonds? b What kind of procase is making bonds? nea Hy WN 00 0 ° nea Ho Figure § Hycrogen and oxygen react to make watar The bonds between hydrogen atoms ‘and batwcon cxygen atame have to bo broken bafora bonce betwroan oxygen atome and hydrogen atoms in watar can be formed Btn n ts 1 Copy and complete using the words below: activation exothermic lower increases difference endothermic Bond breaking is an......... process whereas bond making is exothermic. An energy... diagram shows the... n energy between reactants and products. In an... reaction the procucts have lass energy than the reactants and the temperature of the SUFTOUNAINGS ven» The minimum amount of eneray needed to start a reaction is its energy. A catalyst offers an alternative reaction pathway wit activation energy and speeds up the reaction Draw anergy lovel diagrams for the following roactions: a H,(g) + Cl,(@) + 2HCI(g); The reaction releases 184kJ/mol b H,(@) + 1,) > 2H1(Q); The reaction absorbs 26.6kd/inol a Drawan energy leval diagram for an endotermic reaction, X + YZ, including its activation energy. b Now show the effect of a catalyst on your energy level diagram drawn inparta. level Coed Petwvaion anergy (he eneray needed to start a reaction) Feactants Enorgy Products Figure 3 The minimum amour of energy needed to start a reaction is called ts fetivation energy etivaion anergy (fe onorgy needed to start a reaction) eactants Lower acivation onorgy using a catalyst Enegy Products Figure 4 A catalyst providesa diferent reaction pathuray wit a lower ectvation fenergy 20 that ahighor proparton of reactant particles have enough energy t9 react OWE TIL Remember that Breaking bonds aBeorbs energy, ‘foRming bonds Releases energy. Oe) difference in the energy of eed ae ta) Orde etre ca energy s0 a greater Proportion of reactant particles have enough eneray ious Ld Ce ea) De ueEnergy calculations C3 3.4 eeu Kea rete Cee cu Pea os See ual hd ere al energies to calculate energy Perit ee etd Bond breaking Hig) H@) 236 kyl ot energy absorbed 1-4 Enoray ‘Bond making Ho) + Ho) 436 ki/ml of energy leased Ho Enoray Figure 1 Making and breaking a particuiar band always involves the sarre amcunt of energy errs Bond energies in different molecules are remarkably similar. This is vy itis possible to use themto calculate anergy changes for reactions in this way. Howevar, values do vary slightly depending on the molecule so bond energies aro average values. That's why the ‘energy change fer a reaction worked out ike this only gives us an approximate value, Calculations using bond energies Making and breaking bonds A ‘There is always a balance between the eneray needed to break bonds and the energy released when new bonds are made in a reaction. Thisis what decides whather a reaction is endatharmic or exothermic. @ In some reactions the energy released whan new bonds are formad (as the products are made) is more than the energy needed to break the bonds in the reactants, Those reactions transfor energy to the surroundings. They aro exothermic, e In other reactions the eneray needed to break the bonds in the reactants more than the energy released when new bonds are formed in the products. Thesa reactions transfer energy from the surroundings ta the reacting chemicals. They are endothermic. a Ifthe energy required to break bonds is greater than the energy released when bonds are mad, will the reaction bo axothormic or endotharmic? Bond energy The energy needed to break the bond between two atoms is called the bond energy for that bond. Bond energies are measured in kJ/mol. We can use bond energies to work out the energy change (AH) for many chemical reactions. Before we can do thi we need to have a list of the most common bond energies: Bond | Bondenergy (kJimol) | Bond | Bond energy (kuimol) ce sar Hoo 482 co 358 Hoo 464 cH a8 HON sat oN 286 1H +406 co 346 498 coal 243 Nal 945 To calculate the energy change for a chemical reaction we naed to work out: @ how much eneray is needed to break the chemical bonds in the reactants fe then how much eneray is released when the new bonds are formed in the products. 1b What do we mean by the bond energy ofa chemical bond? Itis very important to remember thet the data in the table ie the energy required for breaking bands. When we want to know the energy released as these bonds are formed, the amount of energy Is the same (see Figure 1) For example, the bond energy fora C—C bond is 347kiVimol, This means that the energy released forming a C—C bond is also 347 ku/mol. ¢ Is bond making endothermic or exothermic? What about bond breaking?Co Worked example Ammonia is made from nitrogen and hydrogen in the Haber process. The balanced symbol equation for this reaction is: N,(@) + 3H,(@) = 2NH,(@) Calculate the overall energy change for the forward reaction, Solution ‘This equation tells us that we need 10 break the bonds in 1 mole of nitrogen molecules and 3moles of hydragen molecules in this reaction (Figure 2). Figure 2 These bonds are broken inthe forverd reaction Nitrogen molecules are held together by a tripie bond (ivttten like this: ). This bond is very stiong. Using data from the table, its bond energy is 045 kJ/mol Hydrogen molecules are held together by a single bond (written like this: HH). From the table, the bond energy for this bond is 436 kJ/mol. Enorgy neaded to break 1 mole of N=N and 8 moles of HH bonds = 945 + (8 X 436) ki = 2253kd ‘When these atoms form ammonia (NH,), 6 naw N—H bonds are made as 2moles of NH, are formed (Figure 3). The bond energy of the N—H bond is 391kJimol NY ZN H Figure 3 Thaco bends are made in the forward reaction, N. JIN HUSH WISH Energy releasad when 6moles of N—H bonds are made = 6 x 391k = 2346kJ Figure 4 shows the overall energy change for the forward reaction, as waritten. So the energy change = the difference between 2346 and 2263kd/mol 93k,j/mol (this is the energy released in tha reaction) Summary questions 4 Write balanced symbol equations and caloulate the enargy changes for the following chemical reactions: (Use the bond energies supplied in the tablo on the provious pago,) hydrogen + chlorine — hydrogen chloride b hydrogen + oxygen > water ofeneray absorbed Ener Figure 4 The formation of ammonia, ‘The energy released, s3kulmol is for the formation of two moles of ammonia as shown in the balanced equation. So # you wanted to know the energy chenge {for the reacton per mole of ammonia. formed, it would release exactly halt this, fie 46 5ka/mal In chemical reactions, energy Dee eh as Oe ce i) Poe eo eae) between atoms in a chemical reaction, energy is released. © In an exothermic reaction, the Ce deeb eeubaad bonds are formed is greater than the energy absorbed Ru eed ect ee ec Ce ie ea new bonds are formed Is less than the energy absorbed Rue keds Pei ‘overall eneray change in a Cee aca) Csee ei) Industrial sociaties around the world rely on fossil fue's for their energy. However, as we have seen already, our supplies of fossil fuels are running out. ‘There has been a huge increase in thair use since the industrial revolution about 200 years ago. This has resutted in increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the air, Most scientists agree that this human activity has contributed to global warming. So the search for naw alternative fuels is becoming more urgent, ‘Much of the world’s pollution is caused by the increasing numbers of vehicles on our roads. Some people think that the best solution would be to move away from fossil fuels, especially crude oil, to a hydrogen based society. ‘a Which gas do most scientists think is a major cause of global warming? o Scientiats are developing hydrogen as a fuel. It burns well and produces no pollutants: hydrogen + oxygen > water 2H, + 0, 2H,0 Itcould help fight global warming bocause the reaction does not produce carbon dioxide. However, there are problams of safety and storage that need to be solved, Supplying the hydrogen to burn in car engines is also an issue. If we use electralysis, then generating the electricity from non-renewable fessil fuels does not help the environment. The power station will still be producing carbon dioxide and using up our limited energy resources. Faure 1 An exlsion st nine Figs Ac sledonstensiri hie. Whstcthe wast product fred when we burn hydrogen? thousands of gallons of crude cil gushing the sea aach day Traleakng well Amore effciont use of the energy from oxidising hydrogen isin a fuel cal. potuony ie see cereal one These cells ara fed with hydrogen and oxygen which produce water. Most of the energy released in the reaction is transferred to electical energy. This car D links bo used to run a vohicle. Howaver, wo stil need a constant supply of hydrogen For more information on tho to un the fuel call develooment of hydrogen as a —< fuel, look back at C1 4.5 Alternative fuels. Figure 2 A small number of hydrogen refueling stations have been set up to tia the use of hydroger-powered a fengnesin vehiclesScientists are aware that replacing engines powered by fossil fuels ‘cleaner energy sources could have great benefits. Therefora they have developed many types of fuel cell and hydrogen-powered engines. The cchallongo is to match the performance, convenionos and price of petrol or diesel cars. a elects curent Hyco in Hydrogen tel ent 4 Oyen in => 3CO, + 4H,0 ‘The structural formulae for tho substances in the equation are: iid HFO-F =0 H-O-H Haw Copy and complete the table. Tho frst row has boon done for you. Bond | Bond | Number| Energy | Number| Energy energy | of |required| of | required Inkdper| bonds |in kd per| bonds |inkd per mole | broken | mole | formed | mole 419 2 | axe | 0 0 coo | sar 0-0 | 498 c=0 | 205 Ho | 404 @ b Calculate the total energy required to break the bonds In the reactants, Oy ¢ Caloulate the total energy released in forming bonds in the products. Oy Calculate the energy change for the reaction. 0) @ In terms of bond energies, explain why this reaction is exothermic. Oy 1 1 Sketch an energy level diagram for this reaction showing the reaction pathway and activation eneray. 8 On the same diagram, draw and label the reaction pathway fa catalyst was used [a]eeu Kea Ceo kin) Peed Analysis and synthesis Tests for positive ions Scientiats working in environmental monitoring, industry, medicine and forensic science need ‘o analyse and identify substances. To identify unknown substances, there are a variety of different chermical tests. Flame tests ‘Some metal ions produce flames with a characteristic colour. To carry out a flame tost you: © put a small amount of the compound to be tested in a nichrome wire loop. (The wire loop should be dipped in concentrated hydrochloric acid and heated to clean itfirst. Then it should be dipped in the acid again before dipping in the metal campound). ‘@ Than hold the loop in the roaring blue flame of a Bunsen burner. © Use the colour of the Bunsen flame to identify the metal ion in the Figura 1A flame fest can identify most Group 1 oF Group 2 metas ina ‘compound. In his case the mela is ‘compound. Motal ion, Flame colour Lithium (L") ermson Sodium (Na") yellow Potassium (K") llae Calcium (08) red Barum (Ba") green lithium. Figure 2 This distinctive precipitate that ‘forms when we add sodium hydroxide ‘@ What do wo use flame toste for? Reactions with sodium hydroxide ‘The reactions with sadium hydroxide solution can also help us identify some positive fons. Aluminium ions, calcium ions and magnesium ions all form white precipitates with eodium hydroxide aolution. So if a white precipitate forme we know an unknown compound contains either Al, Ga®* or Mg* ions. we add more and more sodium hydroxide thon the procipitate formed with aluminium ions dissolves. However, the white precipitate formed with caleium or magnesium fons will not dissolve. Galciun and magnesium ions can be distinguished by a flame test. Calcium ions give a brick-red flame but magnesium ions produce no colour at all. b_ What colour precipitate does cllute sodium hydroxide produce with ‘aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions? ‘Some metal ions form coloured precipitates with sodium hydroxide. It we ada sodium hydroxide solution to a substance containing: © copper(i) ons, a blue precipitate appears © icon(i) ions, a green precipitate is produced © lron(u) fons, @ brown precipitate is formed. S tells us that Cut fone are presentDissovas in excess sodium hycraxeo soution Insolibe in acess Coloured precintate ssodum hydroxide seision (Cistingish between Mg? (no color) Gat Jana Ga?* (od) by lem test) Redldisr-brown precpéate Ligntbive prostate ght oreen precipitate which slowly ‘ums brown ooks ‘dirty’ green) Figure 8 Sodium Hydroxide solution provides a very useful test for many posite fons Identifying positive ions Try to identify the metal ions in some unknown compounds. Summary questions 1. Copy and complete using the words below: colours precipitation flame hydroxide ‘Some metal ions produce distinctive when their compounds are - Sodium ‘solution can also be used to identify _ reaction. 2 Draw a flow chart to describe how to carry out a flame test. 8 Copy and complete the table, ‘Add sodium hydroxide Flame test Metal fon solution nothing observea ac e white precipitate | rick rea it Fem ‘white precipitate which | nothing observed a diesclves In excese sodium hydroxide solution light green precipitate | nothing observed h which slowly turns reddish-brown Pio brake) fee ea) Pe os Oe tee oy etek od Cees Ce bebe einRu ead Cem o kun) ceed (CJA Examiner’s tip In the test for a halide ion: Add dilute nitrie acid before the silver nitrate. Do not add any other acid - they produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution. Analysis and synthesis BCSICR Col mt UMM Ce). We can also do chemical taste to identify some negative ions. Carbonates If we add « dilute acid to a carbonate it fizzee and produces carbon dioxide gas. This is a good test to see ifan unknown substance is a carbonata. a~ hid Limewater—— — 8 2 carbonate Figure 1 The test for a carhonste \We can reprosent the roaction by just showing the jone that change in the reaction. Ths is called an ionic equation: 2Hfaq) + CO,*(aq) + CO,) + H, 0") acd carbonate ion In limewator, the carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide. It forme a white Precipitate of calcium carbonate which turns the limewater cloudy. ‘What gas is producad when we adc dilute acid to a carbonate? Halides (chloride, bromide and iodide) Avery simple test shows whether chloride, bromide or iodide ions are present in a compound. First wo add diluto nitrio acid, thon add silver ritrate solution. Ita precipitate forms, there are halide ions present. (We add the nitric acid first ‘to remove any carbonete ions, These would also form a precipitate with the sliver ions, and so interfere with the test.) The colour of the preci @ Chloride ione give a white precipitete. © Bromide ions give a cream procipitato. @ lodide ions give a pale yollow precipitate. Figure 2 One simple tot with siver ritate solution can tel us fan unknown substance contains chloride, bromde or jockea ionsHere is the ionic equation, where Xis the halide ion: Ag" aq) + X faq) > AGX(s) Silver compounds are sensitive How do we test for helide ions? to light. fa silver halide precipitate is leit ‘or a fow minutes in bright sunlight t Sulfates ‘siowly darkens as silver metal ie formed. ‘We can test for sulfate ione by adding dilute hydrochloric acid, followed by barium chloride solution. We add the dilute hydrochloric acid frst to remave carbonate fons that would form a precipitate with the barlum fons. A white procipitate tolls us sulfato ions ara prosont. Tho whito precipitate is tho insoluble sal, barium sulfate. Horo is the ionic equation: Bat (aq) + SO,? (aq) > BaSO,(s) © How do we test for sulfate ions? Practical Identifying unknown ionic compounds Now you know the tests for some positive and negative ions you can try to identify some unknown compounds. Fgura 2 Te wnt precptate of barn QQ In the fast for the sulfata ion: ‘Add hydrochloric acid belore the barium chloride. Do not add sulfuric acid - i contains sulfate ional Binney 1 Copy and complete the table: Anion Test Observations Key points a Acd dilute hyerochlorie | CO, ges produced acd eid adding dilute acid, which Add diuteniticacié | ¢ CHoride > precipitate produces carbon dioxide then silver nitrate ¢ Bromide -> precipitate PE ten et olution @ Iodide... preeiphate ear sullate > White precipitate of barium sulfate en) piper Benne Se cea an aera Cee ener (sce ren colourless solution. Wnen this solution is acicifiad with rittic acid then pear aires silver nitrate Is added, a white precipitate Is produced. A flame tast of A Cee a Oe produses a crimson flame. Deduce the name of compound Aand give ee your reasoning, 4 Wit word quaion and atlencedsymboteqieton reusing tate | Rianne ae symbols, for the following reactions: ieee peated sodium bromide solution + silver nitrate solution CATO b magnesium carbonate powder + hydrochloric acid perineal irNer epa € potassium sultate solution + barium chioride solution peeeeu Kea Tre a) Eee Rd Ded il sen Al How do we know when the reaction is complete? CO links For more information on ‘neutralisation reactions, Jook back ‘at 2 6.2 Making salts from motale or bases and 02 5.3 Making salts: from solutions. We ‘We use a pipette to measurs cut a fixed volume of solution, We use a burette to measure the volume ofthe solution added. Analysis and synthesis Mf) cs ‘An agid and an alkeli (a soluble base) react together and neutralise each other. They form a salt (plus water) in the process. ‘Suppose we mix a strong acid and a strong alkali, The solution made will bo neutral only if we add exactly the right quantities of acid and alkali, Ifwo start off with moro acid than alkali, thon tho alkali will be noutralisod. However, the solution laft after the reaction will be acidic, not neutral. That's because some acid will be left over (itis in excess) 4 Ifthere is more acid then alkali to start with in @ neutralisation reaction, what will happan? |fwe have move alkali than acid to begin with, than all the acid will ba neutralised and the solution left will be alkaline, 1b If'there is more alkali than acid to start with in a neutralisation reaction, what will happen? Wo can measuro tho exact volumes of acid and alkali needod to react with each other by a technique called titration. The point at which the acid and alkali have reacted completely is called the end point of the reaction. We show this by using an indicator. © What do we call a chemical used to shaw the end point of a neutralisation reaction? Gree Carrying out a titration In this experiment you can carry out a titration. You will find out hon much acid is needed to completaly react with an alkali: 1 Measure 2 known volume ot alkali into a corical flask using a pipette. Before doing this, you should first wash the pipette with distiled water, and then with some of the alkali Pipette filer Figure 1 A pipette and pipette filer Fllthe pipette untl the bottom of the meniscus {curved suriace ofthe sclution) cninciles with the marke Alow the liquid to min cut cf the pipotio and ouch tho fipon the ado of he fk to drain out the colation. ia ‘howal for tiny amount of solution to remain in the pipette2 Now add an indicator solution to the solution in the flask. 3 Pour the acid you ara going to usa into a burette. This is along tuba with a tap on one end. The tube has markings on itto enable you to measure volumas accurataly (often to the nearost 0.05cm), Before doing this, you should first wash the buretta with distilled water, anc then with some of the acid. 4 Figure 2 A burette- use the bottom ofthe ‘meniscus to read the scale. The reading here is assem" 4 Record the reading on the burette. Then open the tap to release a ‘small amount of acid into the flask. Swtl the flask to make sure that the two solutions ara mixed 5 Keep on repeating step 4 until the indicator in the flask changes colour. This shows when the alkall in the flask has completely reacted with the acid added from the buretie. Record the reading onthe bureite and calculate the volume of acid run into the flask. (On your first go at doing this you will probably run too much acid into the fask, so treat this as a rough estimate of how much acid is naedad.) 6 Repeat the whole process at least three times. Discard any anomalous results, Then calculate an average value to give the most accurate resutts possible. Alternatively, repeat the titration until you get two identical resutts. 7 Now you can use your results to calculate the concentration of the alkal Rm etic 1 Copy and complete using the words balow: acid end indicator neutralisation ‘Adding an acid to an alkali results ina. reaction. The point at which enough......... has been added to completely react with the alkali is called the point. This can be shawn using a chemical called an 2 Draw a tlowchart to show how to carry out a titration between an acid of unknown concentration and an alkali of known concentration. 3 Indicator A changes from deep blue In acid solution 10 colourless in alkaline solution. Indicator B changos from pale groan in acid solution to pale blue in alkaline solution. Which is the better indicator to use in an acid-base titration and why? ry Figure 3 Tivations can be used to measure the exact volumes of acid and alkaline nested to react comoletely CO links For more information on calculations, see C3 4.4 Titration caloulations. ro ad Eee debe) Patel Cea Por kicce alkali reaction is complete Pe hoki cad er ed Pe ith kos al Doran Lu eeAnalysis and synthesis os eu ocd reed Ce eu a] pee uke Cee Dee eee ea Figure 1 From resus like these we ‘can work out te concentration o the Unknown solution ~ this case the sodium hydroxide solution Titration calculations Calculating concentrations i ‘The concentration of a solute ina solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one cubic decimetre of solution. We write these units as moles per decimetre cubed or mol/dm? for short. So if we know the mass of solute dissolved ina certain volume of solution, we can work oUt its concentration. ‘As an example, imagine that we make a solution of sodium hydroxide in vwaler. We dissolve exactly 409 of sodium hydroxide to make exacily 1dm* of ‘solution. We know hw to work outthe mass of { mole of sodium hydroxide (NaQH). We add up the relative atomic maseas of sodium, oxygen and hydrogen: 23 (Na) + 16 (0) + 1 (H) = 40g = mass of 1 mole of NaDH ‘Therefore we know that the solution contains 7 mole of sodium hydroxide in ‘1dm* of solution. So the concentration of sodium hydraxida in the solution is ‘1moV/dm®. See Worked example 1 But what if we use 40g of sodium hydroxide to make 500cm' of solution instead of t dm’? (Remember that 1mm! = 1000cm") Solution To find the concentration of the solution we must work out how much sodium hydroxide there would be if we had 1000.cmr® (1 dm?) of the solution. 40g of NaOH are dissolved in 500.cm® of solution, 5) 40 i i fi {Bj 9 of NaOH would be dissolved in 1 ort of solution, and ZS, « 10000 = 809 oF NaOH would be dissoved in 10006? of solution. ‘The mass of 1mole of NaOH is 404, so €0g of NaOH is 80+40moles. = 2 moles. 2 moles of NaOH are cissolved in 1 div of solution. So the concentration of NaOH in the solution is 2mol/dm*, ‘Sometimes we know the concentration of a solution and need to work out the ‘mass of solute in a certain volume. See Worked example 2. Titration calculations In a titration we always have one solution with a concertration which we know accurately. We can put this in the bureite. Then we can place the ther solution, with an unknown concentration, in a corical flask. We do this using a pipette. This ensures we know the volume of this solution accurately. The result from the titation is used to calculate the number of moles of the substance in the solution in the conical flask. See Worked example 3.ee G Worked example 2 ‘What mass of potassium sulfate, K,SO,, ‘5 there in 250m? of a { moljdm* solution? Solution In 16m? of solution thea would bo 1 mole of K,SO, ‘The mass of 1 mole of K,SO, Is (2 x 39) +32 + (4 x 16)g = 174g, so in 1000 cm of solution there would be 174g of K,SO,, and. in tem of soliton tere weg «$0, So in 250em! of solution there are!” x 260g of K,SO, 706 “There is 43.59 of K,S0, in 2500m! of t mol/dm* potassium sulfate solution Worked example 3 ‘Actudert put 25.0 cm? of sodium hydroxide solution of unknown Concentration into a conical flask using a pipette, The sodium hydroxide reacted with exactly 20.0crr? of 0.50 mol/dir sulfuric acid added trom a bureite. What was tho concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution? Solution ‘The equation ‘or this reaction is: 2NaOH(aq) + H,S0,(aq) > Na,SO,(eq) + 2H,0() This equation tells us thet 2moles of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of H,SO, ‘Tne concentration of the H,SO, is 0.50 molldm?, 60 0.50 moles of H,SO, are dissolved in 1000cm of acid, and moles of H,80, are dissolved in 10m of acid, therefore 50 $00 20.00m of acid. So there are 0.010moles of H,SO, dissolved in 20.00m* of acid. ‘The equation for the reaction tells us that 0.010moles of H,SO, will react with exactly 2 x 0.010 moles of NaOH. This means that there must have been 0.020moles of NaOH in the 25.0cm* of solution in the conical flask. To calculate the concentration of NaOH in the solution in the flask we need to caloulaio the number of moles of NaOH in 1 dm? {1000cm!) of solution 0.020moles of NaOH are dissolved in 25.0cm* of solution, so 0102 ole ef NaOH ao dasohed in {ono olor and there wil bo 11020 900 = somos of NOH In 1000 sluton ‘The concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution is 0.80mol/dm*. 43.59 of K,SO, Aimee toe 1 Inatitration, a25.00m* sample of nitric acid (HNO,) reacted exactly with 20.00m 0f0.40 molar? sodium hydroxide solution. a Write cown a balanced ‘symbol equation for this reaction Calculate the number ‘of moles of sodium hydroxide added © Write down the number of moles of HNO, in the acid. 4 Calculate tha concentration of the nitic acid. Soe Cee ae given the mass of solute in a een aed 1 Calculate the mass (in Pek aa roe Pee ay (in grams) of solute in aes as Cet Rieu dies Gio ee solute in a certain volume Ce aaal Ceca Pe A grams) of the solute there Rue kal er Fa) Pe CO acu Pos Ea) Perey cn tot a) Cumrise C3 4.5 cy Pree gy Cot Te ETN LE) ‘Aa you saw in ©2.2.8 Instrumental analysis, chemists have inatruments to help ane them analyse unknown substances. They can also use traditional chemical Tent testing). The tirations on C3 43 Titrations and C3 4.4 Titration calculations can pet tell us how much ofthe ions ara present (called quantitative testing) Whether instrumental or ‘wet’ chemistry is used, the accuracy of the data collected depends on the expertise of the tester. ‘@ What do we call testing that relies on observations ~ qualitative or quantitative? 'b What do we call testing that relies on measurements ~ qualitative or quantitative? Analysis in forensic science Forensic chemistry uses both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Chemists in forensic labs help solve crimes by analysing: Figure 1 Careful measurements aro neededin quentiaine chemical enaiysis © rugs Gel letrophoresis © pants © remnants of explosives © fee detnis Sample Poston of bands dapands on © gunshot rosiduos adied _compostian of DNA ir sama @ fibres Figure2 Analysing a DNA sample by gol © soll samples slectophoresis| @ toxic chemicals (used in chemical weapons) © biological toxins (used in biological weapons). technique called gel electrophoresis is used to analyse DNA. Analysing DNA usino this technique produces a plate which carries a series of bands, according to the composition of the DNA. The bands are unique to each individual (except identical twins). DNA analysis, oun TT WW Ld Forensic scientists analysed DNA (the genetic fingerprint) from fms scene three suspects in a criminal investigation using this method. They aciicresawntetntonscmeneanre” set (TE Tl scene of a crime. The following results were obtained: a How is evidence like this used to decide whether someone Suspect 8 | | ll I 1d l | accused of a crime is guilty or net? 'b According to the results, which of the suspects A,B orCcould ag | | ll have been present at the scene of the crime? Explain your a ll ll | answer. Figure 3 DNA electrophoresis sample from a ¢ It might not be a good idea to rely on this kind of avidence alone crime scene and samples from three suspects 7 Thepolicohave 2 rational DNA detabaso on. when decicing f someone is guily ofa crime ornot. Why not? Tre peice hsvesvratona ONASlebase onAnalysis in pollution control Environmental scientists need to monitor cases of environmentel pollution. For example, if a river gots polluted, they will test the water and trace the origin of any pollutants. Activity River pollution Tho rosidonts ofa village on tho banks ofa river aro worriad about Pollution. A new factory making batteries has been built upstream ot the vilege. Cadmium, ¢ toxic heavy metal, is used inthe factory. Some People in the village enjoy fishing. They believe that there are fewer fish tocaich since the factory opened six months ago. The manager oi the factory prorrised to got his chemists to carry out some tosts. They collected water from tha sites A and B shown in Figure 4. Then they analysed the water in the lab. Two months later they reassured the residents that cadmium levels were safe Figure 4 Teng river water a poe) Pee ane wanted the Environment Agency to carry TECHNICAL INFORMATION rues) eee es Cadmium levels found in a weter bb When questioned, the factory manager admitted tha instumentused | sample taken at6.09 am an Sth to analyse the water samples was 20 years old. Why did this worry the | January at each site: Fonnered ior Site A ~ 0.000094 gre ¢ Give two ways in which the factory could have made sure the data She ‘G.000002g/ltre collected were more repeatable, reproducible and valid? ‘Accuracy of method used to Hour could the factory argua that lavals of cadmium wara safe? analyse water samples + or 80% II How could the vilagers argue that they wera not convinced itwas | Sele lev of cadmium ~ aafe even ifthe data were collected properly? S.oonoce gra Analysis in medicine Another use of genstc fingerprinting is in the treatment of loukaomia (a blood cisease). Bone marrow is transplanted trom a healthy donor tothe patient. ‘iter the operation, samples of blood from the pationt and donor are analysed for their DNA. Doctors are looking for a match between the bands on the two _— electrophoresis plates. If they are the same, than the patiant’s blood cals, and = the DNA in thom, havo come from the traneplantod bone marrow. This means a Se s ‘that the transplant has been successtul. Doctors can also study metal ion concentrations of a few parts per billion Figure § Dociors can look for metal ions in patients. For example, they can lock for cobalt and chromium ions in the ‘blood as a sign that an artificial hip. mee s janis in donge’ cf wont out bicod of pationts with hip replacoments. A concentration of metal ions above 7 parts per billion can indicate that the joint will fail, Cody ei environmental monitoring, De ey eu substances. Btunre noe Cre ed reid existing databases to identity See ate ect the case of forensics). 1 Describe two ways in which the analysis of blood can help the work of doctors in a hospital m for freshwater fish is 0.000002 g/ém* What isthe safe level of cadmium in moVim?? (A, value of Cd = 112)[4]eeu Kea eT a Th id uae ee ka Stade aes eens eed OD links For more information on reversible reactions, look back at C2.9.6 Reversible reactions. Analysis and synthesis Chemical equilibrium ‘Some reactions are reversible, The products formed can react together to make the original reactants again: A+BoC+4+D ‘So what happens when we star! with just reactants in a reversible reaction? 1) A+ ep (Reacars ony at start of reaction) QAP CHD (Rate of mb much greater then slows own at reastns ge used up) 4) AV8 SSE CD Evantualy th rats of mp and em aro the sams) In a closed system, no reactants, products or energy can getiin or out. So in a reversibie reaction, as the concentration of products builds up, the rate at which thay react to ra-form reactants increases. As this starts to happen, the rate of the forward reaction decreases. That's because the concentration of reactants is decreasing from its original maximum value. Eventually both forward and reverse reactions are going at the same rate, When this happens the reactants are making products at the same rate as tho products are making reactants. So overall there is no change in the amount of products and reactants, We say that the reaction has reached equilibrium. ‘At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. Because of the continuous reactions taking place, we somelimes say that there is a state of ‘dynamio’ oquillbcium. Ase of reaction Reverse action Time Figure 1 ina reversible rezcton at equllerium, the rate ofthe forwarc reaction isthe same as the rate ofthe reverse reaction ‘a How does the rate of the reverse reaction compare with the rate of the forward reaction in a reaction at equilibrium?(One example of a reversible reaction is the reaction between iodine monochloride (ICI) and chlorina gas. ladine monachloride is a brown liquid, while chlorine Is a green gas. We can react these substances togethor to make yollow crystals of iodine trichloride (IC\,) ‘win plenty of chionne cas aaa eat ey mmononoids ohne thle w+ a, — 0, fereeret pera) Yen Remove ctiorine gas Figure 3 This equilibrium micure can be changed by adding or removing chlorine from the mixture ‘When there is plenty of chlorine gas the forward reaction makes ine trichloride oryatals which are quite stable. But if we lower the concentration of chlorine gas the rate of the forward reaction decreases. ‘The reverse reaction becornes the faster of the two reactions. This starts ‘tuming more iodine trichloride back to iocine monochloride and chlorine, until equilibrium is established agai ‘We can change the relative amounts of tha reactants and products in a reacting mixture by changing the concitions. This is very important in the chemical industry. In a process with a reversible reaction, we need conditions ‘that give as much product as possible. Howaver, there ara other aconomic and safety factors to consider. b_ An oguilisrium mixture is eet up in a cloced system with fodine monochioride, chlorine gas and iodine trichloride. In order to make more iodine trichloride, would you pump more chlorine gas into the mixture or ramove chlorine gas? Etienne Copy and complete using tho words below: amount conditions oquilibrium forward products rato reactants reverse reversible In.some reactions the......... an react to re-form the reactants again. We call this a reaction. At in a closed system, the of the reaction is the same as the rata of the reaction. Fwe change the reaction this can affect th OFTHE veenene ANL products in the equilibrium mixture. What can we say about the concentrati reversible reaction at equilibrium? of reactants and products ina 2 In goneral, how can we change the amount of product in a reacting mixture at equilibrium? Ce al Figure 2 Tha situation at equilibrium ie just ike running up an escalator which sgolng down f'you tun up as fast 2s the escalator goes down, you wil ost SD links For more information about ‘economia and safety factors with reversible reactions in industry, 200 C3 4.8 Meking ammonia — the Haber process and 03.4.9 The economics of the Haber process. Rou to ead Reet Feu on ad eee ud Orne euchcud ee ok Cena Soc Peake) the amounts of products Ber ee Cee useeu Kea Pita [scot uk ubged gabe eee eT ed re ot Pe poe fete td CO links For information on the affect of concentration on a reversible reaction, look back ai C3.4.6 (Chemical equliorium. ‘OUT Changing the pressure affects the equilibrium only i there are 2H0,() = No) —— Endethomie Figure 2 Energy chargesinthe reversible reaction 2NO, (9) N06) we increase the temperature, the equilibrium shifts as ifto try to reduce tha temperature, The reaction that is endothermic (taking in energy) will cool It own. So in this case the reverse reaction ie favoured and more NO, is formed. (Favours egomarc reaction) More NO, formed (Favours axothernic reaclicn) Mera NO, formed Figure 2 The efect of changing the fersperature on 2NO,{Q) r+ N,O,@) © What will happen to the colour of a mixture of NO, and N,O, gases if we increase the temperature? Eten tea Explain what effect increasing the pressure would have on the rium mixture below: HCC) qui H,@) + 1.) Lock at the raversible reaction below: H,O(@) + G(s) = CO) + HLO) The forward reaction is endothermic. How wil the amount of hydrogen gas formed change by increasing the temperature? PE ‘Tho effect of tomperature and pressure on equilibrium Using a gas syringe, your teacher can show an equilibrium mixture of NO, and N,O, gases. ‘You can see the effact of changing temperature by using warm water and ice. Pushing and pulling the plunger of the syringe can change the pressure. © Explain your observations. Safety: take care if you are asthmatic. Lown ren) eee aed Cua Tad Daca with the least number of Dee Pee Leder favours the reaction with the Reem of gas formed, Dee aes Cee equilibrium by changing the temperature at which Puen feat Te ekadee cus Ce ened ee Neh Te aka ee Ce edadWo need plants for food, and as a way of maintaining oxygen in the ai. Plants naed nitrogen to grow. Although nitrogen gas makes up about 80 per cent of the air, most plants cannot use it directly. Instead, plants absorb soluble nitrates from the soil through thair roots. When we harvest crops the nitragen in plants is lost. That's because the pants do not die and decompose to replace the nitragan in the soll. So farmers naed to ut nitrogen back into the soll for the next year's crops. Nowadays we usually do this by adding nitrate ferilisers to the sail. Wa make these fertilisers using a procass invented by a German chemist called Fritz Haber. ‘a Where do plants get thelr ritrogen from? Figure 1 Plan's are surrounded by nivegen in the alc They cannot use his nitrogen, and rely (on soluble ntratesin the scil instead. We supply these by soreeding ferliser cn the sol ‘The Haber process provides us with a way of turning the nitrogen in the air into ammonia. We can use ammonia in many different ways. One ofthe most Important of these is to make tertlisers. ‘The raw materials for making ammonia are: nitrogen from the air © hydrogen which we mainly get irom natural gas (containing methane, CH,) ‘The nitegan and hydrogen ara purified. Then thay are passed over an iron catalyst at high temperatures (about 450°C) anc pressures (about 200 atmospheres). The product ofthis reversible reaction is ammonia, bb Whatare the two gases neaded to make ammonia?@ essen | @ featnwessonann to cyst containing hydrogen and (© moar ntrgen and nyrogen niger oral oo eaton vee Watts conpesor cong 7 chan Q Te sitogo agen mature is compressed toa pressure f 200 atm dented o4s0°G ”——@ Themicus ot gases emargng vom a wats cool ‘Ammon siqueis zn is saparate. Figure 2 The Haber process ‘The reaction used in the Haber process is reversible. This means that the ‘ammonia breaks down again into nitrogen and hydrogen. We remove the ammonia by cooling the gases so thet the ammoria liquefies. it can then be separated from the unreacted nitragan and hydrogen that remain as gases. ‘The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen ars recycled back into the reaction jure. They then have a chance to react again. 4s0°0 and 200 aim No + 3H, == 2NH; niogen hydrogen fammonie By removing the arenonia thet forms we can reduce the rate ofthe reverse reac, ‘Tis helps to stop the ammoria that stormed ‘rom breakng cown nt trogen and tyéragen We carry out the Haber process in carefully chosen conditions. These are docided to give a reasonable yiold of ammonia as quickly as possible, © How is ammonia removed from the reaction mixture? How do we make sure the reactants are not wasted? ‘Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words and numbers below air fertilisers gas 450 hydrogen iron liquefies nitrogen 200 cooling Ammoniais an important cherrical used for making materials to make it are (from the...) and (mainly from natural.........). These are reacted at about......... Gand ‘atmospheres pressure using an catalyst. Ammonia is removed from the reaction mixture by it. This......... the ammonia gas. Draw a flowchart to show how the Haber process is used to make ammonia. -The raw Corea ried CO links For more information about the choice of conditions, see C3 4.9 The economics of the Haber process. eae Fritz Haber’s work on the Haber process took place just before the First World War. When the war staried, he was involved in the frst chemical weapons used in warfare, His wife, also ‘a chemist, opposad his work ‘on chemical weapons. She ‘committed suicide before the war ended. ee rae) Ce ema wa hes products, including fertilisers. OTe cad Ce eee) Ces eed Peetu beara See tee tid Fe tk ua) Ct ead tee ee eed DienA. Examiner's tip Remember that the yield is the ‘amount of product obtained compared with (that is. divided by) the amount we would obiain fal of the reactants were used up to make product. ‘We have just sean how ammonia is made in the Haber process. Nitrogen and hydrogen react to make ammonia in a reversible reaction: N, + 3H, = 2NH, ‘As the balanced equation above shows, there are 4molesules of gas on the leftthand side of the equation (N, + 3H). But on the righthand side there are only 2molecules of gas (2NH,. This means that the volume of the reactants is muph greater than the volume of the products. So an increase in prossure tend to shift the position of equilibrium to the right, producing more ammonia, ‘@_ How does the volume of the products in the Haber process compare with tho volume of the roactants? To get the maximum possiole yield of ammonia, we need to make the pressure as high as possible, But very high pressures nead lots of energy to compress the gases. Very high pressures also need expensive reaction vessels and pipes. They have to be strong enough to withstand very high pressures. Otherwise there is always the dangar of an exolosion. To avoid the higher costs of building a stronger chemical plant, the Haber process uses a prassura of 200 atmospheres. This is a good compromise — it gives a lower veld than it would with even higher pressures but it does recuce the expense. Figure 1 its very expensive to build chernicl plants that cperate at high pressures ‘The effact of temperature on the Haber process is more complicated than the effect of pressure. The forward reaction Is exothermic. So if the temperature is low, thie would increase the amount of ammonia in the reaction mixture et equilibrium.Ste Butat a low temperature, the rate of the reaction would be very slow. That's bacause the particles would collide less often and would have less energy. To make ammonia commercially we must get the reaction to go quickly. We don't want to waste time waiting for the ammonia to be produced. To do this we need another compromise. A reasonably high temperature is used to get the reaction going at a reasonable rato, even though this reduces the yield of ammonia. Look at Figure 2. Figure 2 Tho concitiore forthe Haber 1 process ae a compromise between gating a reasonable yied of ammonia and getting the reaction to take place ata fas! enough rate Te ‘The Haber process is ‘sometimes called the Haber- 9" ibo * 200 * 200" 400 * sho Rosch Process, sree Fritz he eesti rnrions) aor ound et how ammonia from nitrogen and Alowar temperature can also reduce the effectiveness ofthe iron catalyst. See hydrogen but Garl Bosch catriod out tho work ofind the Yield of armoni (5) eS8 88 8e2a8e8 below. ‘best concitions for the reaction. Bosch and his team carried out The effect of a catalyst 6500 experiments to find the ‘Wo alsa use an iron catalyst to spaed up the reaction. A catalyst speeds best catalyst for the reaction. up the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions by the same amount. Thoreforo it doos not affect the actual yield of ammonia but we do got it formed more quickly. ‘Summary ques! "| Copy and completa using the words below: ovo decreases exothermic fewer increasing left pressure released | [RES Rarer ares The Haber process is so energy is ....... during the reaction. pressure of around 200 ‘This means thet....... he temperature ....... the yield of amnmonia. Pe heduaae Increasing the... will increase the yield of ammonia, because there eer ay are ........ Molegules of gas on the right-hand side of the equation than tions onthe......-hand side eo Look at Figure 2. Neteller Whati the approximate yiold of ammonia at a temperature of 500°C ammonia, they would make ‘and 400 atmospheres pressure? Pere deat Whati the epproximate yield of ammonia at a temperature of 500°C eas and 100 atmospheras pressure? and 400 atmosphoros prossure? (Soe What is the approximate yield of ammonia ata temperature of 200°C SSS and 100 atmospheres pressure? Pee ad @ Why is the Haber process carried out at araund 200 atmospheres ‘would be produced too and 450°C? parTITEL nee Summary questions @ ® Copy and complete the table. -C3 4.9 ‘Add dute [Ade Flametest Substance acid sodium hydrox solution Nating (Nothing | Faeyellow |Yellew observac_[obsorved | precpitata Fizing- |Palebue |Notneeded |Nothing gastume | prociptcto observed Iimewater formed cloudy a b e a Caleium chlorite (2 An unknown compound gave the following positive tests when analysed: * The Bunsen flame turned lilac in aflame test. * When cissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution added, a white precipitaie was formed, Name the unknown compound. A ctudent put 25.0cm* of sadium hydroxide solution of anunknown concentration into a conical flask using a pipette. The sodium hydroxide reacted with exactly 20.0cm! of 0.50mol/dm® hydrochloric acid added from a burette ‘a Write the balanced symbol equi bi How many moles of hydrochloric acid are there in 20.0em’ of 0.50molidm? hydrochloric acia? ii How many moles of socium hydroxide will tis react with? ¢ Whatis the concentration of tha sodium hydroxide solution: in moles per dm"? iin grams per dm*? (A, values: Na = 23; for this reaction 16, H=1) TH] @ A chemical reaction can make product Z from reactants X and Y. Under the reaction conetions, X, Y and Z are cases X, Vand Z react in the proportions 1 : 2:2. The reaction Js carried out at 250°C and 100 atmospheres. The reaction is reversible, and itis exothermic inthe forward direction. 4 Write a balanced symbol equation for this (raversible) reaction. b How would increasing the pressure affect: the amount of Z formed, the rate at which Z is formed? © How would increasing the temperature affect: the amount of Z formed the rate at which Z is forned? [x] (© Explain why the conditions in the Haber process (209 atmospharos pressure and a temporature of 460°C) aro described as a ‘compromise’. TH] 9G You have been asked to design an investigation to find out the changes in pH as you add an acid to an alkali ‘You have a burette into which you have been told to add some diltte hydrochloric acid. The tlask will contain your sodium hydroxide solution. ‘You have to add the acid to the alkali and get a reading of the pH as more and more acid is acciod. a You have a choice of eithor using an indicator and. recording the colour changes or a pH meter and recording the pH. Which would you choose? Explain your choice, b How much acid would you add at a time? Explain your answer. © Why would you stir the flask before checking the pH? d_Why would it be important to repeat the titration at least one more time? @ How would you present your results? 1 If you knew thet both the acid and the alkall were of the ‘same concentration, how might you check the accuracy of your results?1 AQ#/Examination-style questions @ ‘The label is from a packet of low sodium sal. LOW SODIUM SALT ares / Potassium ahoride Sosa SS ooo bgnlen art a Astudent tested some low sodium salt to shaw that it contains carbonate ions. Describe and give the result of a test for carbonate ions. Q b The student identified chloride ions using acidified silver nitrate solution. | Name the acid the student should use te acidity the solution. @ State what you would see when acicified silver nitrate solution is added to a solution of low sodium sat. (t) © Flame taste can be used to identify potassium ions and sodium ions. [Describe now to do a flame test on low sodium salt, 2 ii Suggest why itis dificult to identify both of these ions in low sodium salt using a flame test. OC AQA, 2009 ‘The diagram shows the main stagas in tha Haber process. Nwrogos | Tot as ao ptsed orton a Urea itgan rae | om ‘and hydrogen {cota eae uv Thomidur of 5G anmonia, nvogen and hydtogen fom ‘the reacoris cooled ‘Ammonia iqueies ad separates tom, ‘the madre Tra niregen and hydrogen rbeure s compressed twa pressure of 200 amospheres and heaias to 450% + arenoria Use the diagram to help you to answer these questions. ‘@ Complete the word equation for the reaction that takes place in the reactor. nitrogen + = w b What does the symbol — mean? © Whatis the purpose of the ironin the reactor? (1) @ What is done with the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen? a ‘AQA, 2008 End of chapter questions 9 Sulturic acid and potassium hydroxide react to produce sodium sulfate and water. Astudent was given 200. cm* of potassium hydroxide solution and 20cm? of a solution of sulfuric acid. The student was asked to do a titration to find the volumes af the solutions that react to produce a neutral solution. The student was given some mothyl orange indicator, which is yellow in alkaline solutions and red in acidic solutions. a In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using ‘specialist terms whore appropriate. Describe how the student should do a titration to find ‘the volume of the sulfurie acid that reacts with 25.0cm* of the potassium hycroxide solution. Include in your answer the names of any apparatus that the student should us © b Tha student found that 20.00m* of sulfurie acir reacted with 25,0cm’ of the potassium hydroxice solution, ‘The equation for this reactios H,SO, + 2KOH > K,SO, + 2H,0 |The potassium hydroxide solution had a concentration of 5.60g/dm*. Calculate the concantration of the potassium hydraxide selution in motesfamr (Relative atomic masses: H = 1, © = 16, K= 89) [4] @) Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid it moles/dm*. [4] @) ‘A. Hydrogon for use in the Habor process can be produced by reacting methane with steam. The methane and steam mixture is passed over a nickel catalyst at 800°C and a pressure of 30 atmospheres. The equation for this, reaction is GH,(q) + H,0(a) = CO(g) + 3H,(a) ‘The forward reaction is endothermic. a1 What conditions of temperature would incraase the yield of products for the forward reaction at equilibrium? Explain your answer. @ ji Suggest why a temperature of 800°C, not higher or lower, is used in the industrial process. [1] (2) ‘What conditons of pressure would increase the yield of products from the forward reaction at equilibrium? Explain your answer. @ Il Suggest one reason why a pressure of 30, atmospheres is used in the industrial process. [4] a)eu ead era! Duce Ce eer pied ree cei structures of alcohols, Coe eC a fra Pe cad Not all carbon compounds are classified as organic, ‘compounds. The oxides cf carbon and compounds containing carbonate and hydrogencartonate ions are classed as inorganic ‘compounds. CO links For more information on the use of ethanol as a biofuel, see C145 Alternative fuels CO links For information about alcohols, see C2 5.2 Properties and uses of alcohols, (QA Examiner's tip Hyou draw displayed formulae, make sure you show al the bonds and all the ators. Organic chemistry Structures of alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters (« ‘The substances that form the basis of all living things, including ourselves, are organic compounds. Organic molecules all contain carbon atams. They tan to form the ‘backbone’ of organic molecules. You have already met some organic compounds in G1 Chapters 4, 6 and 6. You will probably recall how we draw molecules of alkanes and alkenes. oasis He ne ean 1 I \ I oliey é ¢ H i i sedan etd A I Ho H-o—c—o—H So H-6- T I ror oN I H H HHH OH HOw Methane Ethane Propane Ethene Propene Figure 1 Tho ctructurea ofthe emallet alkane anc alkene molecules, Tne lings between alms represent covalent bonds. Notice the double bonds fn atene and propane. This type (20 drawing to shaw the structure of a molecule & called a lsplayed formule’ Both alkanes and alkenes are made of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. However, there are many more ‘families’ of organic compounds that also contain a few other types of atom In this chapter we will earn about some organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The three ‘families’ we will look at are called alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters. Alcohols ‘You have also met a member of the alcohol ‘family’ before. This was ethanol, which can be used as a biofuel, So wirat is an alcohor? Imagine removing a H atom from an alkane molecule and replacing itwith an (©-H group. This would give us an alcohol molecule. The -OH group of atoms is an example of a functional group. functional group gives a ‘family’ of organic compounds their characteristic reactions. A ‘family’ of compounds with the same functional group is callec @ homologous series. ‘You need to know the fist three members of the hornologous series of alcohols: i "yt ii whon wbton bl ton i { rr Figure 2 The structures and nemes of te fist three alcohol molecules. We neme alcohols ‘rom the alkane wit the same rumber of catbon aioms. Just take the'e from the end ofthe akane’s name and replace twith ‘el Ifyou were asked for the formula of ethancl, you might count the atoms ina moleoule and wite C.H,O. This is correct but chemists can give more information ina structural formuia, Ths doesn't show all the bonds, as ina displayed formula, but shows what is bonded to each carbon atom. So for ethanol a chemist will often show its forma as GH,CH,OH (often shortenad to C,H,OH). Gan you see hhow this relates to the structure of ethanol shown in Figure 27 @ Whatis the structural formula of methanol?[Structures of elcahois, carboxylic acds and esters Carboxylic acids You will certainly know of one carboxylic acid. Ethanoic acid is the main acid In Vinegar. All carboxylic acids contain the -COOH functional group. Look at ‘the first three members of the homologous serias of carboxylic acids: we Z h-o—0" 9-6" Sonn 4h So-n hob Sonn Matnanaie acid anole aco Fropancic acd Figure 3 The stuctures and names of he fret roe carboxylic acid molecules ‘We show tha structural formula of each of the carbosyiic acids in Figure 3 as HCOOH, CH,COOH and CH,CH,COOH (or C,H,COOH). 1b What is the rule for naming a carboxylic acid? © What is the structural formula af methanoic acid? Figure 4 Vinagar contains loss than 110 per Cort ethanoic acid but the acie Esters provides the characteristic sharp iaste ‘and smell Esters are closely related to carboxylic acids. If we replace the H atom in the - COOH group by a hydrocarbon group we gel an ester. Here is the ester called ethy| ethancate: CD links For information about the homologous sories of carboxylic ‘An esters structural formula always has the-COO- functional group in it.The _acidls and esters, see C353 structural formula of ethyl ethanoate is CH, COOCH, CH, (or CH,COOC, Hy). Carboxylic acids and esters. Figure § Tho atusture of the cator ethyl ethancato Summary questions Copy and complete using the words and symbols below: esters ~COOH functional homologous ~OH group of atoms in an organic molecule, such a8-OH, is called 2 200, +3H,0Reaction with sodium The alcohols react in a similar way to water when sodium is added. The sodium fzzes, aiving off hydrogen gas, and dissolves away to form a solution. Their reactions are not as vigcrous as the reaction we cbaerve with water, Oxidation ‘Combustion is one way to oxidise an alcohol. However, when we use chemical oxidising agents, such es potassium dichromate(v|, we get different products. An alcohol is oxidised to a carboxylic acid when boiled with acidified potassium dichromate(y) solution, 1b Is potassium dichromate(v) a reducing agent or an oxidising agent? ‘So ethanol can be oxicised to ethanoic acid. The same reaction takes place ethanol is left exposad to air. Microbes in the air produce ethancic acid from the ethanol. That's why bottles of beer or wine taste and smell like vinegar when they ave left open, Practical Oxidation by microbes in air ‘Add S cm of ethanol to 60 om? of water in a conical flask, mix and test, the pH of the solution formed. Then mix Sem’ of ethanol with 50cm? of water in a second conical flask but this time seal the flask with a stopper. Leave bath solutions for a few weeks, swirling occasionally, © What happens to the pH of the solutions? ‘© Explain your observations, Ate etn 1 Copy and complet using the words below: hydrogen ethanole water carbon carboxyle neutral microbes Methanol, ethanol anc propanol all cssolve in water to frm a. solution. The alcohols react with socium metal, with the sodium fzzing to produce... gas. When they burn ini, they form dioxide 20 un 48 Bro products oF comaustion. Thoy aro also oxiciced by acidified potassium dichromate(u) solution to form. acids. “The ethanol in aloohokc chinks is oxidised to... acid by... exnosed to the ar. 2 List the main uses of alcohols. 3 Plan an investigation to see which alcohol — methanol, ethanol or propanol releases most energy per gram when It burns. iflett Figure 2 Alcohols are flammable They produce carbon diovide and water in their ‘combustion reactions Com ec pee eee) Se nue iy Cus ee a acu) Cee ea hee Re ue thea Fe ua) ee al ee uaa Ethanol can be oxidised PY ay chemical oxidising agents Pe hk arubero Se ue ehOrganic chemistry Carboxylic acids and esters ® You have already learned about the structure of carboxylic acids. The most well-known carboxylic acid is ethanoic acid. Ru eed Sed #0 H-o-0 ee ec uns feted hon NT Te td Ethanoio acid cies Bai CeCe) Figure 1 Ethanoic acid, CH,COOH, is the main acid in vinegar. ls old name was ‘acetic OU OES son Carbonyl actls we aso uoed Io make polestr Rove. Coes) Carboxylic acics, as theirname suggests, form acidic solutions when they a dissolve in water, You can look at their reactions in the next experiment Grrr CO links For more information on the Comparing ethanoic acid and hydrochloric acid structure of carboxylic acids, see 63 6:1 Structures of aloohols, carboxylic acids and esters. ‘Write down your obsorvations to compare ethancic acid with hydrochioric acid of the same concentration. a Take the pH of solutions of both acids. b Add alittle sodium carbonate to solutions of both acids. 7 ‘© Why did we use the same concentrations of each acid in the experiment? Carboxylic acids siill have the typical reactions of all acids. For example: ethanoic + sodium + scdium ++ water + carbon dioxide acid carbonate —_ethanoate ‘a Which gas is made when propanoic acid reacts with potassium carbonate? Why are carboxylic acids called ‘weak acids’? ‘You have seen how CO, gas is given off more slowly when a carbonate reacts with a carboxylic acid than with hydrochloric acid of the same concentration. Carboxylic acids are called weak acids, as opposed to strong acids such 2s hydrochloric acid. ft ‘The pH of a 0.1 mal/dm? solution of hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) is 1.0. Yet a0. mol/dim? solution of ethanoic acid (a weak acid) has a higher pH of 2.9. 102 Teng he ptotelon Figure 2 Tig he Hotessiion Tr cotton af ethane ace isnot ae ale oven though the two slilone have te sare concentration. Why is MST Acids must dissolve in water before they show their acidic properties. That is because in water all acids ionise. Their molecules split up to form a negative ion ‘and H" (aq) ions. Its the H*(aq) ions that all acidic solutions have in common. For example, in hydrochloric acid, the HCI molecules all ionise in water: HClaq) "5 Haq) + Cr (aa)‘We say that strong acids ionise completely in solution. However, in weak acids most of the molecules stay as thay ara. Only same will ionise (split up) in their solutions. A position of equilibrium is reached in which the molecules and ions, are all prosont. So in othanoio acid we get: CH,COOH{ag) = CH,COO- (aq) + H" faq) ‘Therefore given two aqueous solutions of equal concentration, the strong acid will have a higher concentration of Haq) ions than the solution of the weak acid. Soa woak acid has a higher pH (and reacts more slowly with a carbonate). Making esters Carboxyiic acids also react with aleahole to make esters. Water is also formed in this reversible reaction. An acid, usually sulfuric acid, is used as a catalyst. For example: ethanoie acid + ethanol "ethyl ethanoate + wator (CH,COOCH,) In general strong acd catalyst ester + water carboxylic acid + alcohol Horo is another example: ethanoic acid + methanol — methyl ethanoate + water The esters formad have distinctive smells. They are volatile (evaporate easily) Many smell sweet and frully. This makes them ideal to use In perfumes anc. food flavourings. b_ Name tho estar formed from othanoic acid and ethanol, ¢ Esters are volatile compounds. What does this mean? Copy and complete using the words below: reversible volatile alcohols perlumes sulfurl carbonates water Carboxylic acids react with Giving off carbon dioxide gas. Carboxylic acids also react with to form esters and.......... This reaction is catalysed by......... acid. The esters formed are... ‘compounds used in flavourings ad on. Write a word equation to show the reversible reaction between methanoic acid and ethanol. Expiain why propanole acid is described as a weak acid. [ Carboryic acids andesters QW Make sure you know how to tell the difference batween apids, alcohols and esters from their formulao, structuros and Properties. Demonstration Making esters Your teacher will show you how to make difforent esters using carboxylic acids and alcohols. After neutralising the acid with sodium hydrogencarbonate, carejuily emell the test tubes containing the different esters formed. © Write word equations for each reaction. Com © Solutions of carboxylic acids ee kd at el eee acidic solutions, releasing ees eee onan acids have a higher pH value than solutions of strong acids Scere as a eke) a carboxylic acid and an Dee aes] catalyst. eo Ceuta) tau cedrise Figure 1 Addicton to alcohol can ‘cause many problome fr the individual themselves ard society as a whole CO links For more informaticn on tho use of ethanol as a solvent in methylated spirits, see 08 5.2 Properties anc! uses of alcohols. ‘When European winemakers produce more wine than they can sell, itis distiled to make ethanol ‘or industrial purposes (not for alcoholic drinks). oie g © An alcoholic drink, such as one glass of red wine, can help people relax. It can halp relleve the stress for some people alter a hard day at work, However, too many people are drinking more than the maximum recommended amount of alcohol. This puts their health at risk. Alcohol has been associated with high blood pressure and heart disease. Excess alcohol can also damage the liver. In exireme cases, a liver transplant is the only way to avoid death A.cohol is a socially ecceptable drug. Like other drugs, some people become dapendent on it. Alechalics ara addicted to ethanol. Many ruin their lives because their behaviour changes as a result of drinking alconol. Ethanol is used in methylated spirits as a salvent. Some desperate addicts will drink this because it contains a lot of ethanol and it's cheap. They will do this even though it has hed toxic methanol added to it. Itelso contains emetios (substances that make you vomit) and foul-tasting chemicals. Drinking ‘methe’ causes liver failure, blindness and an early death. Other chemicals are also added to methylated spirits to make it more difficult to distil off the ethanol. By including chemicals with similar boiling points, people can’t separate off the ethanol for drinking. ‘Why is itvery difficult to distil ethanol from mathylated spirits? Alcoholic drinks are more expansive than methylated spirits becausa thay have tax added on. The government can use the Income generated for many good causes. However, we should weigh this against the costs of dealing with @ the health problems © days lost at work @ policing antisocial behaviour. Figure 2 Binge drinking cen cause Violen’ bet vou. n severe cases it leads 10 alcoholic poisoning. Doctors are reporing an increesing number of alcohol-related health problems in 20-10 80-yearalds These problems used tobe sean mainly in middle-aged alcchaliesRaising the cost of alcoholic drinks? ‘Some people are campaigning against the sale of cheap alcoholic crinks In supermarkets, They argue that it makes alcohol more easily available, ‘especially to young adults. Chaap promotions in bars are also criticised for encouracing excessive drinking. © Make a table with points for and against the banning of cheap alcoholic drinks in supermarkets and ‘happy hours’ in bars. Ethanol and esters as biofuels You have sean that ethanol can be used as 4 biofuel. Itis made by fermenting sugars from crops. We also looked at kicdiesel. This is made from plant oils which are esters. In procassing these esters, the oils ara droken down into ong-chain carboxylic acids. They are then reacted with methanol or ethanol (in the prosence of a catalyst) to make the esters used as biodiesel. b Which alechol is used to make an ethyl ester used as biodiose!? Howovor, the land used for biofuel crops could bo used for food crops. With an ever-increasing world population, feeding ourselves will become more of an issue, We will need more land for farming - both for fuels and food, ‘This new farming land is often made by cutting down and burning tropical increasing the percantage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Yet alternatives to crude oll are needed urgentyy, so what can we do? Activity The way ahead Work as a small group to make a list of ideas for a new government to help deal with the fuel crisis facing us. Prasent your ideas to the rest of the class and arrive at a single list together. ‘Summary questions | a Whatare the social atfecis of drinking alcohol and driving? b Some people would prefer ito be illegal to have any trace of alcohol in the blood at all when driving, Atpresent you must have more than ‘801mg of alcoho! per 100cm* of blood in order to be prosecuted. What might be ¢ difficulty with a limt of Omg of ethanol? 2 Ifmore and mere farmers grow crops for biofuels, what could happen to the price of crop-based foods such as bread? How might this bacame a cyclical problem which gets worse and then beiter at regular intervals? CO links For more information on using ethanol as a biofuel and vegetable oils for making biodiesel, look back to C1 4.5 Altemative iuels. 29? Did you know ‘You can buy this machine to make your own bodiesel at home. Itcan produce up to 50 Titres a day from a mixture of used or new cooking oils and methanol ek sivas Figure 3 A domortcbiodsol geeeior Com Proce ied and esters have many uses Sea eee Such as ethanol and solvents, Ce) rat cy Ce oaae Ce ented Ce aks Orta un conflict with the need to feed csOrganic chemistry: C3 5.1-C3 5.4 Summary questions o | Look at the three organic molecules A, B and C balow: ° 7 att te ee ie pine-e—o™ Hu 1 Scaled a err uM ig omer b Which one is an alcohol? © Which homologous series of organic compounds does B belong to? d Which of the compounds can be represented as CH,CH,COOCH,CH,? © Using a structural formula as shown in part d, give tho structural formulae of the other two compounds. (2 a Describe what you would sae happen if a small piece of sodium metal was dropped into a beaker containing some ethancl. b Name the gas given off in the reaction described in part a. 'B 2 Draw the displayed formula of propanoic acid, showing al the ators and bonds. b Some calcium carbonate powder is dropped into a test tube of a solution of propanoic acid, How would you positively identify the gas given oif? © 2 Whatis the name ofthis compound? LA H—G-c* oH OH \ f omG—G-# b Write a word equation showing how thie compound can ba made. Include the catalyst. © The compound shown is volatile, What can you say about its boiling point? Name the carboxylic acid and the alcohol we would, use to make propyl mathanoate, 5 State one use of a alechols b carboxylic acids cesters, 6 Describe how could you distinguish between samples of ethanol, ethanoic acid and athyl athanoata using simple ‘ests. 7 Propanol was burned in a soirit burner and the products of combustion were tested as shown below: - Tovater f pump ef tosena a In the style of Question 1 d, write tha structural formula of propanol. b After the propanol has been burning for a while, what happens in: i the U-tube HL the bolling tube containing limewater? ¢ What doas this experiment show? d Write a word equation to show the combustion of propanol. Write a balanced symbol equation to show the combustion of propanol. TH] B You are given a 0. mol/dm* solution of nitric acid, and a solution cf propanoic acid with the same cencentration ‘@ What can you predict about the pH of the two solutions? [tH] 'b Explain your answer to part a. [H]End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 41) The displayed formula of a compound is if Ho9—F—-0-H HOW Choose an answer from the lists to complete each sentence. a This compound is called a methanol ethanol propanol b The structural iormula of this compound is a CH,CH,OH CH,COOH CH,COOCH, ¢ The functional group in this compound is a -COOH -OH -CO0- 2 The structural formulae of three substances A, B and C are shown. CH,CH,COOH CH,CH,CH,OH A c @ Match each substance with the group of compounds towhich it belongs. CH,COOGH,CH, B alcohol i carboxylic acid iit ester “ b Which substance is called ethyl etnanoate? o © Which substance has the formula C,H,0,? o 3 A technician found three bottles of iquids on a shelf. The labels had fallen off. The labe's were ethanol, ethanoic acid and ethy| ethanoate. The technician wrote A, B and C on the three bottles and tested the liquids. The technician's results are shown in the table. Test Results A B c ‘Ade e few drops of liquid | red green | green to 2m’ of water and add Universal Indicator. ‘Add a few crops of fizzed | no no ‘sodium carbonate reaction | reaction olution to 2em? of liquid ‘Add a small plece of not fzzed | no sodium to 26m* of tquid | tested reaction Match the labals with the liquids A, Band , aiving reasons for your conclusions. 4) 4 Methylated spirits is a mixture of ethanol with to 10% methanol. Methanol is much more toxic than ethanol. Methylated spirits is used as a fuol for spirit burnors and as a solvent for cleaning and decorating. ‘The equation for the complete combusticn of ethanol is: CH,CH,OH + 80,+ 200, + 3H,0 i Write a word equation for the complete combustion of methanol 0) Il Suggest two reasons why methylated spirits is suitable for uso as a fual in epirit bumors used as camping stoves, @ b i Whatis the structural formula of methanol? (1) Hl Explain why methanol mixes completely with ethanol. @ Methylated spirits can be used to clean glass windows and mirrors. Suggest two properties that make it, sultable for cleaning glass. @ Methylated spirits containing 90 to 95% ethanol costs much less than vodka containing 40% ethanol. This is because alcohol sold in the UK for drinking is taxed at a high rate by the UK government. i Suggest one reason why the UK goverament tax alcohol for drinking at a high rata. O} Hl Why is methylated spirts not taxed al the same rato? Oy '§ a Tho flavour and smell of wine that is kept in bottles for soma time may improve. re of the reactions that may take place is: GHCOOH + CH,CH,OH ~ CH,COOCH,CH, + H.0 Explain why this reaction would improve the small of the wine. @ b Beer contains about 5% ethancl. Explain why beer that is left exposed to the air for several hours tastes cour. @) 6 Sulfuric acid ionisas completely when dissolved in water. ‘a Balance the equation that shows what happons to sulfuric acid in water. H,SO aq) > H’ (aq) + $0,* (aa) [HI @) b Write a balanced symbol equation to show what happens when ethanoic acid, CH,GOOH, is dissolved in water, [HI] @) ¢ You have been given two solutions of acids with the ‘sama concentration. One is ethancic acid, the cther Is sulfuric acid. Describe and give the results of a test that you could use to show which acid is in each solution. Explain the results of your test. [H] ©)Brinton rea) 1 The diagram shows a simplified flow diagram of a water treatment works which supplies drinking water. tts fon weve sie ten gon i a a ee 2. pS e/a a i What is the purpose of filtration’ o fi What isthe purpose of chlorination? 0 bb Samples of the treated water must be tested at regular intorvals. Suggest one reason why. o € In some paris of the country the water supplied to homes is hard water. {Name one fon that can make water hard 0 ii Explain how hard water caa affect central hooting systems. @ lit State one advantage af hard water. o AOA, 2007 2. Ethanol can be used as 2 fuel. The equation for the combustion of ethanol is: CH,CH,OH + 30, 2C0, + 31,0 Use the energy level diagram to help you answer these questions. a How can you tell from the diagram that this reaction is exothermic? wo Copy the diggram and draw a line to show what happens ifacatalystis used, (1) © What is tho effect of a catalyst on the overall energy change for the reaction? (1) ‘The student decided to caleulate the energy change using bond energies. He wrote this equation to help. HH it H—G—G—0-H + s[0—0] — 2[0—c—o] + alH—o—H] Hon He looked up the following bond energies. Bond | Bondenergyinkj per mole | Bond | Bond energy in kJ per mole cH 43 O-H 464 ce 347 ‘O=0 498 co 336 C=O B05 Calculate the energy needed to break the bands in the reactants. (H1@) «© Calculate the energy released when the bonds in the products arc formed. —[H1] @) 1 Calculate the energy change forthe reaction. [HI @ -&) QW In questions thet ack you to explain, such as Qt ¢ you must link the points logically and coherently in your answer. This means you should use words like "pecause’ and ‘therefore’ in your explanation.3. Some chemical tests were done on solutions of four substances, A,B, Cand D. The lable shows the tests and the results of the tests Sahatance | Flame test alour | Sodiem hydroride | Nirie aid and | Hydrochloric acid olution added | ser nitrate and barium chloride solution added | added a No eolour White precipitate | No reaction White precipitate thet dite in exces sodium hydroxide » Lise Noreaction Cream precpiate | No reaction © Ccrimon "No reaction White precipiae | No reaction » Nocolous Green presfiate | Noveaction ‘White precipitate ‘Name the four substances A, B, Cand D. @) 4 When compound X with the formula CH,COOCH,CH, is heated with dilute hydrochloric acid it reacts with water. Two compounds Y and Z are produced. The equation for the reaction is: CH,COOCH,CH, + H,0 CH,COOH + CH,CH,OH x Y Z a Name compounds X, ¥ and Z. @ bb Foreach of X, Y and Z,, name the group of organic compounds to which it belongs. ° © ¥ and Z can be separated by distillation, They are both celoucless liquids. Describe simple test that you could use to distinguish between Y and Z. Give the results of the test for both ¥ and Z. 3 5 Inthis question you will be assessed for using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Ammonia is produced by the Haber process. In the process nitrogen and hydiogen are mixed. The pressure is increased to about 200atmospheres. The gases are passed over an iron catalyst at about 450°C. Tae equation for the reaction is N,(8) + 3H,(g) = 2NH, (a) ‘The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible. This affects the amount of ammonia that itis possible to obtain from the process. The graph shows how the pressure and temperature affect the percentage of ammonia that can be produced. 80 é En g Eo E 0 5 0 10280 alo) 500 ain Ps ‘Use thi informa ogether with your knowledge ofthe proces t expla wy ‘any industrial ammonia plants operate at 200atmoqperes and 450°C. (6) AQA, 2006 End of unit questions oe Many candidates find ‘questions like @3 about chemical tests dificult because they do not know the tosts and thoir rosuits. ‘Your teacher should give you seme practice in Going the tests in the lab. Write out a checklist of the reagents used for the tasts and their results and learn them thoroughly. JA’ Examiner's tip ‘You should be familiar with the formulae of organic compounds and ‘the functional groups named in the specification fend should be able to idemify the type of organic ‘compound from its structural formule, 261A Accurate A measurement is considered ‘accureteifitis judged to be close to the tue va. ‘Acid Asour substance which can aiteck ‘metal, clothing or skin. The cnerical ‘opposite of en alkali. When dissolved in water, ts solution has @ pH number less than 7. Acids are proton (H" ion) donors. Activation energy The minimum energy needed to star offa reaction Alkali ts solution has a pH number more than? ‘Alkali metal Elements in Group 1 ofthe periodic table ea lithium (i, sodium (Na), potaseium Ki ‘Alkane Saturated hycrocerton with the ‘general formule C,H,,,,€9, methane, thane and propane ‘Alkene Unsaturated hydrocarbon which contains acarbon-carfon double bond. Its general formulas C,H, €0 ethene CH, Alloy & miziuré of metals (end sometimes non-metals) For example, brass s a micture of copper and zine Aluminium A low density, omresion- resistant metal used in mary aloys, including those used in the aircraft industry. ‘Anitydrous Describes a substance that dees not contain water ‘Anomalous results Results thet do not match the pattern seen inthe other data collected or are well outside the range of other repeat readings. They shoulé be retested and ifnecozeary discarded. ‘Aqueous solution The rixture rade by ‘adding # soluble eubstance to water. ‘Atmosphere The relatively thin layer of gases that surround planet Earth ‘Atom The smallest part ofan element that can stil be recognised as thet elerrent. ‘Atomic number The number of poxons {which equals the number of electrons) in an stom. itis sometimes called the proton number. Bar chart A char! with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent The bars should be of equal width ard ars usually plotted horizontally or vertically. Also callec & bar graph. Baze The oxide, hydroxide or carbonate ‘ofa metal that wl react with an acid, forming a salt as one othe produe's. an alkal). Bases are proton (H’ ion) acceptors Biodegradable Materials that cen be broken down by microorganisms, Biodiesel Fuel forcars made from plant lls Biofuel Fuel made from animel or plant ucts, Bioleaching Process of extraction ‘of matals fram ores using ‘microorganisms, Blast furnace The huge reaction vessels used in indusiry to exiractiran from its Bond energy The energy needed to break a paricular chemical bond. Brine Asolution of sodium chloride in water Buretie A.leng gless tute wih atep ‘at one end ared markings fo show Volumes of iquid, used to add procieoly known amounts of iquids to a Solution in aconical flask below it. c Calcium carbonate The main compound found in limastone, tis a white sold whose forrula is C2C0,, Calcium hydroxide A white solid mede by reacting calcium oxide with water It Ieused as a cheap alkal in incucty. Calelum oxide A white sold made by bheeting limestone strongly, 4. na lime hls, Carbon monoxide A toric gas whose formulais CO. Carbon steel Alloy of ron containing ‘ortrolleg, emall emourts of carbon. Cast Iron The impure iron taken directly from a blest furnace, Catalyst A substance that speads up ‘chemical reaction but remains chemically unchanged kself a! the enc of the reaction Catalytic converter Fitod to exhauete of vehicles to reduce pollutants released. Cement A buiding meterial made by ‘eating limestone and clay. Chromatography The pracese whereby ‘small amounts of dissolved substances are separated by tunring a solvent ‘long araterial euch ae ebsorbort paper Collision theory An explantion ot ‘chemical ceactions in terms of reacting pparicles coliding with sufficient energy {ora reaction to teke plece. Compound A substance mede when ‘we o* mere elements are chemically bonded togather. For example, water (H,0) is @ compound mace from bytregen and exygen onerete A bulling material made by mixing cement, sand ang aggregate {erushae rock) with water Control group Han experimentisto ‘determine the efact of changng & single variable, a conirol is offen setup inwhich tho Independent variable ie not changed, thus enabling a compatison tobe made. Ihe investicaton is of the survey type 2 control gioup is usually tetablished to serve the eame purpoee. Convection currents The circular mation of matter caused by neating in luis. Coppertich ore Rack that contains @ high properton of a copper compound Core The centre ofthe Earth Covalent bond The attraction between ‘wa atoms that snere one or more pairs of electrons. Covalent bonding The attraction between two atoms that share one or more pars. electons, Cracking The reaction used in the oilindustry to break down large hydrocarbons into smell, more Ugoful ones, Thie accura when the hydrocarbon vapour Is elther passed over a hat catalyst or mixed with steam And heated to a high temperature Crust The outer solic layer of the Earth Data Information, ether qualkative oF {quantiative, that have Deen colected. Delocalised siectron Bending electron ‘hat sna longer associated with any ore partcular atom Directly proportional A relationship that, when drawn on a ine graph, shows a postive linear relaionchip that crosses through the origi. Displace When one element takes the ‘lace of anatherin a compound. For ‘example: fron + copper eulfate + kan sulfate + copper Distillation Seperetion of aliquid trom ‘a micture by evaporation followed by ‘ondoncation Dot end cross dlagram A drawing 10 show the errangement of the outer shell electrons only ofthe aterrs or ‘onsin aubstance. Double bond A covalent bond mace by ‘he sharing of two pairs of electrons. E number Number assigned to a food additive that has been approved for Use in Europe. Itis depleyed on food packaging Electrolysis The breakdown of a ‘substance containing iors by electiity, cs lifa base dissolves in water itis called$$ __________en ee Electrolyte Aliquid, containing ‘tee-moving Ions, tha! Is broken ‘conn by elzctriciy in the process of electraiys Electron A tiny particle with anegatve ‘charge. Elections erbitthe nucleus in ‘tems ar ions. Electronic structure A set of numbers {0 show te arrangementol electrons In thelr shels (or anergy levels), eg. the electronic structure ofa potassium ater ie 2 6 8 1 Electroplating The process of depositing ‘ thn layer of metal on an cbject during electrolysis Element A substence made up of only ‘one type of aiom, Ar element cant bbe broken dawn chemically into any simpler substance, Empirical formula The aimploet ratio of ‘elements in @ compound Emulsifier A substance which helos keep immiscible liquids (¢g. ol and water) ‘mixed 20 that they do not separate out Into layers. Emulsion & mixture of liquids that do not issolva in each other Endothermic A reaction thet takes in ‘energy from he surreunclngs, End point The pcint in a ttration where the reaction is complete and titration shoud stop, Energy level see Shel Equilibrium The point in a reversible ‘ection in which the forward and backward rates of reaction are the ‘same, Therefore, the amounts ct substances present in the reacting ‘mixture remain conatant, Error Sometimes called an uncertainty. Error ~ human Otten presentin the ‘collection of data. and may be randorn ‘or ayatomatie. For example, the afoot ‘of human reaction te when recording short time intervals wih a stopwatch, Error - random Causes readings tobe ‘spread abeut the true value, cus to results varying inan unpredictable wey from one measurement to the next. Random errors ate present when any measurement is made, and cannot bbe corrected. The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more ‘measurements and caleviating a new Error syatematle Causes readings 1 bbe spread about some value other tan the true value, dua fo reaults differing fromthe tue value by # consistent ‘arrount each time @ measurement is ‘made. Sources of systematic error ‘can include the environment, motheds cf observation orinstumarts used. ‘Systematic errors cannot be dealt with by simple repeats. fa systerraticerrcr ie euspocted, the data colection chould berepeated ising dferentiecinique cr a different set of equipment, ard t results compared, Errr— zea Any inotion tata Teasing system ges afase ead when the ue vee ofameesured Canty is ar, fer scarp, the Aeedle onan ammeter fang fra toeero when no curent ows Ethene An alkene with the formula CH,. Evidence Data which have been shows tobe Exathermls A reacton that ges out energy fo he surroundings F Falr test A falrtestis ane In which only he independent varable has been jowed to affect the ceprencent variable, Fermentation The reaction in which the ‘enzymes in yeast turn glucoss ‘ethanol and carbon diavid. Flammable Cesly ignted and cepable of ‘burning replay, Food additive A substance added to a {ood in order to preserveit ore improve its taste, texture or appesrence: Fraction Hydrocarbons with similar boiling pons separated from crude oil Fractional diatillation Away to eoparate Tiguids froma mixture of iquids by bbollng off the substances at dtterere temoeratures, then condensing and collecting the liquide. Fullerene Form af the element carbon, ‘that ean form a large cage-like structure, based on hexagoral rings of ‘carbon atoms Functional group An atom or group of ‘toms that give organic compouncs: their characteristic reactions G Ges Asie ofmate: Ges chromatography The process ‘Stovaratng ie compenorcain a macure by passing be vapours frrougha colummand detecting tem fs they leave re coum a ciferent, times Giant covalent structure Auge sO network of covalently bonded atoms (C0 te gantatioe of cabor sto ia Send grptt Giant ates Aruge > network of etoms tions eg the gar ot ete in Stem chet) Ginrt structure See Giantlatice Global clmmnng Te rtcton ef unit by tay sold partes the ar Global warming. The increasing ofthe average temporature etre Earth Group atte elements each cota (aboled to 7 and 0} down the perbatctabie H Half equation An ecuation that describes ‘eduction (gain afalactrons) 0: ‘oxidation (088 of electrons), such a2 the reactions that take place at the electrodes during electoysis. For ‘example: Nav + es Na, Hardening The process of reacting plant lls wity hydrogen toralse thelr meting point. This is used to make spreadable margarine. Hard water Water in which itis difficult ‘to foim allather with soap. It contains calcium andor magnesium ions which react with soap to pradice scum. Hazard A hazard is something (for ‘example, an object. ¢ property ofa ubstance or an activity) that ean ‘cause herr. High-alloy steel Expensive aly ofiron ‘mired with relatively large proporions of ather metals.eg, eainlose stec! Wwhicn contains nickel and chromium along with the iron. Homologous series A graup ot related ‘organie compcunds that have the same functional group, eg. the molecules cf ‘the homologaus series of alcohols all contain the OH group. Hydrated Describes a substance that contains waterinits crystals, e 9 hydrated capper aulfate. Hydration A reaction in which water (HO Is chericaly adced to a compouind Hydrocarbon A compound containing ‘only hydrogen and carton. Hydrogenated oll Oil which has had hhydrogon added to itto reduce ite ‘degree of saturation hr the hardering process fo make margerine. Hydrophilic The water-ioving part of an ‘emulsifier melecule. Hydrophobic The water-hating hydrocarbon part of an emulsifier meleaule. Hypothesis proposal intended to ‘explain cortan facts or observations. Incomplete combustion When a uel ‘buns in insufficient oxygen, producing carbon monexide ee a taxie product. Inert Unreectve, Intermolecular forces The attraction ‘between the individual molecules in a covalently bonded aubstance, Interval The quantity between readings, forexamole, a set of 11 readings ‘equally epaced over a distance of tm would give an interva of 10cm. lon Acherged particle produced by the oss ar gain of slecsrons, lon-exchange column A water softener ‘which works by replacing calolum ‘and magnesium ions with sodium o° hydrogen ions, removing the hercnees. lonie bond The electrostatic force of attraction between posttvely and negatively charged ions,8 OO Ionic bonding The electrostate force ‘of atracton between postively and negatively charged ions Isotope Ato thet haa the came number ‘of protons but different number of neutrons, je. ithasthe same atomic ‘number but different mass number. L Limewater The commen name for ‘caiclum hydroxide soutien, Line graph Used when both variables are ‘continuous, The ine shoulé rarmaly bealline of best ft, and may be sireight fora smooth curve. (Exceationall ‘20m (mainly biclogioa) iveatigation the line may be a 'pontto-paint Ine.) Liquid A state of matter Low-alloy steel Alloy of tan containing ‘small amounts (1-5 per cent) of ether metals Macromolecule Giant covelent structure Nantie The layer ofthe Earh between fs ‘rust and lis core. Mass number The number of protons plueneutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Nass spectrometer A machine that can bbe used to analyse small amounts of a aubetance to icantly it and to find te telatve molecular mass. ean The arithmetcal averace of a series ‘of numbers Mixture When some elements or ‘compounds are mixed together ‘nd intermingle but co nat react fogether (12. no new substance is made). A mixture is nota pure substance Mole The emount of substance in the telatve etoric or formula mass of & aubetance in grame. Nolecular formula The chemical formula that shows the actual numbers of ators ina particular molecule fog CH). Molécilar ion peak The peak onthe ‘mass spectrum ofa substance which tolls us the relative molecular ass of the substance. The paakis produced by the heaviest positive ion shown on the mass spectrum. Molecule A group of atoms bonded togethereg. PCI, Nonitor Observations made overa, period of tina, Nonomers Small reactive melecules that teact together in repeating sequences tofom a very large molecule (@ polymer), Nortar A bullding material usee to bind bricks together. tis made by mixng ‘cement and sand with water N Nanoscience The study of very thy particles or structures between 1 and 400 nanometras in size - where 1 nanometrs ~ 10.9 metres. Neutral A solution with a pH value ot 7 ‘which is neither acigic nor an alkaline, Alternatively, somathing that carries ‘no overall electrical charge ~ ne'ther positively nor negatively charged. Neutralisation The chemicel reaction ‘of en acid with 2 base in which they ‘cancel each ether out, forming a salt and water. I the base is a carbonate or bhycrogen carbonate, carbon dicxide is also prodiced in the reaction Neutron A dense pertcle found in the ‘nucleus of an atom. itis electrically neural, carrying no charge. Nitrogen oxida Gaseous pellutent given off rom moto: vehicles, a cause of acid rain Non-renewable Something which cannot ‘ba replaced ones it's used up. Nucleus (ofan atom) The very small and ‘dense central pari of an atom which ‘eartains protons and neutrons. fo} Opinion A belet not backed up by facts, ‘or evidence, re. Gre is rock which containe enough ‘meial to make iteconomically worthwnile 0 extract the metal Oxidation The reection when oxygen is added to a substance (or when electrons are los!) Oxidised A reaction where oxygen is added to a substance (or when ‘loctrone are lost fram a substance) P Particulate Smell clid particle given off rom moto! vehicles as a result Incompete combustion o ts uel. Percentage yield The actual mess of ‘product colacted in areaction divided bythe meximum mass that cauld have been formed in theory, multipled by 100. Periodic table An arrangement of ‘elements in the order of thek atomic ‘numbers, forming groups and perods Permsnent hard water Hard water ‘whose calclum ardior magrosium fons are not removed when the water Is boiled, thus remaining hard. pH scale A nurber which shows how ‘strongly ecidie or alkaline a acution, Is Acds havea pH value of lessthan 7 (pH 1 is stengly acidic). Alkalis have pH value above 7 (pH 14 is strongly alkaline). A neutral quid hae @ pH value of 7 Phytomining The process of extraction of ‘metals irom ores using plan's Pipette A glass tube used to measure ‘accurate volumes of liquids. Polymer Asubstance made from very large molecules mace up of many repeating units eg poly(ethene) Polymerisation The reaction ot monomers to make a polymer. Precipitate An iraoluble selid formed by ‘a reaction taking place in solution, Precise A precise measurement is ore in Which there fs very itle spread abcut the mean value, Precision degends only on the extent af random errors it ication of how close results rato the tua value. Precision A precise sét of repeat readings willbe closely grouped together Prediction A forecast or statement about ‘the way something will happen in the suture. In science itis not just simple {guece, bocauee its based on come. prior knowedge or on a hypothesis, Product A substance made es a result of ‘a chemical reaction Propene An alkene with the formula C,H, Proton A thy posite particle found Inside the nucleus of an atom. Range The maximum and minimum dependent variables; important in ‘ensuring that any pattern is cetected, Reactant A substance we start with ‘before a chemical reaction takes place. Reactivity serles A Ist of elements ‘notder of ther reactivty The most teactive element is putat the top ofthe fst, eduction A reaction In which oxygen removed (or elactrors are gainec). Relationship The link between the variables that were Invesilgatec. ‘These relationships may be: causal, lie changing xis the reason why y changes; by association, jc. both x andy change atthe same time, tut ‘he changes may both be causad by a third variable changing: by chance Folative atomic mass, A, The average mass of the atoms al an element compared with carbon 12 (which is given a mass of exactly 12). The average mass must take inio account the proportions ofthe naturally occurring isctopes of the element Relative formula mass, 14, The total ‘ofthe relatve atomic masees, added Up in the ratio showin in the chemical formula, of a substance. Repeatable A measurement is repeatable ifthe criginal exparimentar repeats ‘the investigation using same method and equipment and obtains the same resuits,Reproducible A measurement io ‘eproducibieif he Investigation Is repeated by another person, or by using diferent equipment ar techniques, end the eame roeuks are cbiained, Respiration The process by which food ‘molecilee are broken down to release ‘energy fer the cells. Resoluilon This Is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) cof a measuring inatument thet perceptible change in the reading Retention time The time lakes @ ‘component in @ mixture to pass through the column during gee chromategraaty, Reversible reaction A reaction in which the products can re-form the reactants Risk The likethood that a hazard wil ‘ectualy cause harm. We can -educe ‘isk by Identilying the hazard ard cong something to protect against that hazard s Salt A saitis a compound formed when ‘come or all ofthe hydrogen in an ‘acid is replaced by a metal (° by ‘an ammonium on). For example, potassium nirete, KNO, (from ritic. ‘cid Saturated tydrecarbon Describes & hydrocarbon that contains as many hydrogen atoms as possible hn each meleotle. ‘Scale (imescale) The insoluble ‘substance formed when temporary hard wateris boiled, ‘Soum The preciptate forried when soap ‘eects mith calcium ancjcr magnesium ions in hard water, ‘Shape memory alloy Mixture of metals ‘which respond to changae temperature Shell (or energy level) An areain an ‘atcen, arcund its nucleus, where the tlootrone are found. ‘Smart polymer Polymersthat change in resparse to changes in their environment ‘Smelting Heating a metal ore in order to exit iis meta Soapless detergent A cleaning agent that doas not produce scum when used with hard water. ‘Soft water Water containing ro dissoved calcium and/or magnesium salts, 80 it teasily forms a lather with soap, Solid A ctato of atten Stainless steel A chromium-nichelaloy of see which does nct rust. State symbol The abbreviations used in balanced symbol equations ta show ifroactants and produsts are aol (6), liquid (), gas (@) o dissolved In water (aq ‘Steal An alley ofiran with smal emoun's ‘of carton or other metals, uch ae hickel and chromium, added Sulfur dioxide A toxic gas whose formula ie $0, causes acid ah Symbol equation A balenced chemical ‘equation showing the formula of each reactant and product inthe reaction, e9.H, + Cl,» 2HC! T Tectonic plates The huge slats of rock ‘that make up the Earth's erust andtep partof is martle ‘Temporary hard water Hard water which igsoftened when itis boiled. ‘Thormal decomposition The breakcown ‘ol acompound by hest, ‘Thermosetting polymer Folymer thet ‘can form extensive cross-inki between chaina, resulting in i ‘materials which are heat-resistant ‘Thermosottening polymer Polymer that forms plastics which can be softened by heat, thon remouldad into citferent shages as they cool dawn and set Titanium A shiny, cerrosion-resistent ‘metal used ta make alloys ‘Titration A method for meaauring the ‘volumes of two solutions that eect, together, ‘Transition element Elementfram the ‘central blook ofthe periodic tale. It has typical metalic properties and forms a coloured compound. ‘Transition metal See Transiion element ‘Trlal run Preliminary work that ie afton done to estabiisn a suitable range or interval fr the main investgation, U Universal indicator Arixture of inators which ean change through range o! colaure depending on the pH ‘1 asolution. Is colour is matched to a [pH number using a pH scale, k shows how strongly acidic or alkaline liquids ‘and solutions ar. Unsaturated hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon whose molecules contains at least one carbon-carbon ‘double bend, $$ __________en ee Unsaturated oil Plant cil whose ‘molecules coniain atleast one carbon— ‘carbon couble bond, Vv Valid Suitabilty of the investigative ‘procedure to anewer the quection being asked ‘Variable Physical, chemical cr biological quantity or characteristic. Variable - categorie Categorie veriabloe have values that are labels. For ‘example, names of plants or types of material Variable ~ continuous Canhave values Galled a quantty) tt can be given bby megsurement for example, ight intenaly, flow rate, etc). Variable - control A variable which may, in addion to the independent veviable, affect the outcome of the investigation ‘and therefore has to be kept constant cr at loact monitored. ‘Variable - dependent The variable for ‘which the value is measured for each ‘and every change in the independent vatiable ‘Variable ~ Independent The variable for which values are chanced or selected by the investigator Vegetable oll Oil extracted from plants Viscosity The resistance of aliquid to ‘owing or the ‘thickness’ or resistance cf aliquid t9 pouting Ww Wind Moving at. Word equation A way of describing what happens ina chemical eaction by showing the names ofall reactants and the praduete they form. Y Yield See Percentage yield. Sl“A accuracy 10,11 Acetic atid Soe ethanole acié acid rain 162 acids 148, 176-7, 254.5 ‘lal reactions "80 base reactions 178 metal reactions 173, 179 notation reactions 1 polirien 3 Eats 178, 179,180 ‘onorgy 158, 220 ‘Slcaholiocrinks 250-7 ‘Slcaholism 250 Slcohols 82-3, 250, 252-2 ‘all metals 29, 198, 199, 200-1 ‘all 146, 176°7, 180 akanos 02, 14 akenos 74-7 aloys50, 51,57, 190, 181 tering coneitins 242-3 aluminium 52,87, 186-7 amine aalas 102 ammonia 104,225, 244-7 fammeniimn chlor 148 ‘mmentim sas 160 analysis, ‘Retrumantal methods 161-2 smirtres 152 Cubetancoe 160-4 et, coer ze Ee as eee Ee bacteria, 101 balances equations 20,9 barcharte 16 basee 176,178 boauxte 180 best tne 10 Biodegradable plastics 80 biodiesel 70-1, 87,100, 267 biotels 70-1, 83, 87,257 Doolascring 95 biotechnoiogy 167 blast umzces 30, leach 148, 189. boling point 64 poling pots 72, 128, 00 bond broacingimaking 223 224 bord snergies 224.5 Bare mary Fansplants 299 beaseg7 bromides 223 bronza §7 bling materials 60-7, 42-5 Durtiog 334,238 ccalelum ehiorae 18, 208 ‘alctum Fyarexiae 4, 9, 117 ‘alelum oxide 35, 37 40 ‘Salculaions 216-27, 206-7 Salonmetors 218, 219, 220 ‘baal number 67 Sarbon 128-9. ‘daub bands 87 Feducion process 49 Inrocts 1 carbon eyes 105, ‘Sarbon cola inaimoephora 104, 108-7 hon eapturelsioraga 107 ‘carbonate reactione 42-0 ‘fosal uel burning 46 feel burning 45, €8, 70,74 ‘carbon manana 87,60, 6 Serban steels 0 ‘arbonate raectons 36-9 Garbonatos 292 Garbonyle acids 291, 254-5 cases ‘Sastre 50 Saaysts 164-7,223, Habor process 247 yanapartices 135. ‘vansiion elamants 203 catalyte coors $9, 188, 167 Calogoricvariatios 4 ‘Semen 38,43 shaleosis ba ‘homical anaysis 228-9 ‘hamical bonds 25, 30-1, 112-15, 198.21, “26.8 188 Bond snargios 224-5 broakine/making 229, 204 homical tomate 24.6, 9, 106-205, ‘homleal equilerlum 210-2 ‘homlcal factories 147 ‘hamical reactions 112, 168-07 ‘concentration emtaccs 162-3 ‘haatnerme ‘oacions 188-70, 173 equators 144-5 Sathermio reactions 168, 170, 172 pressure affects 162-3 reverse raactons 148-9, 170-1, 240-1, Sie surtact ara 68-9 ferment 60-4 valde cnet Sle Shen BS 50a 0 ‘oie 28, 19,208 gett Seton eaten 242,214 cea Reiteee Stromalogieny 13,82 Ghromuury plating Stews thbige Be or Slosedsysints 290, Ermer SH anua rs, :did’packs 173 Galan near 158, 10 Selouresprocpaté 0-1 Semauston 7 258 femnts fog Semen 25,91, 4, 112 orcanagas 2 Paring alemerts 208 concer easton 28-7 Senco concrete 20, 43, 45 ‘Sondons aiteing 242-3 Conductors 124, 125, 127, 191 ‘Sonsuuction industry 99 Cortinontal art 9 ‘Sortinuous variables 4 cortrol groups 8 Control variables 4,8 ‘onvecton curents 98 ooking 88 avalon bonds 6, 152,140.10, 128-0, 188 raking hyerecerbone 74-6 Srose inte, poymere 100 Srode of e2"8, 74-89 Ss Cans 66,97 Solis 108 alation 172 Yet moras 20 Dalton Jonn 25,126 data i017 decane 74. Scomposition 69 Soformation 1st Golocalised slecirons 121,129, 11 Sortisty 4 ‘Sependont variables 2, 4,5, 7,14 Sotorgonte 206 Sagrame, onorgy faves 224,29. Siamond 10, atomic moloculee 204 ‘esol engines 67 69. set os ‘recty proportional elaiorshigs 16 ‘Ssplaterrant 35,208 * {splayed forse 250 sillation 62, 94-6, 86, 212 ‘silod water 212 BN anaiysis 238 ‘ot and cross alagrams 114-15 Souble-sing als 8 Souble bonds 74 7 inking water 212-13, Enumbors £2, 150 Eantnae io? ‘atmesphore 96,07, 100-1, 104-7 teongine 029 etrictura 06-7 cearingualos 7, 08-6 tana 12 factrchy 107,124, 125,127,194 Sovtrodes 182, 104 5,187,186, 121 Soctrotyss 82.05, 168-9 Sertrayies 162 Secton shal 198 Sectronestucture 25 Soutons 25-8, 138, 198 ‘octrophoresis 238 Sectroplating 190-1 foment 24-5, 29, 196-205, fempineal ornate 143, ‘omlstiors £0, 91, 82 emulsions 90-1 ‘016 point of reactions 234 nagierieoarons 168-70, 179, 222-4, a 96-45, 117, 146-7, 208$$ _____ a ee ‘some 28 faleuatons 216-27 changes in soutions 220-4 henal reactions 156-70 tclison thory 158, 100 nergy level dares 21, 222-3 auaions 218. 0 equi 243 fue buring 278-13 energy fvels,sioms 28 Snvronmental Bsues 38, 88, 67-9, 226 enzymes 137 equations 32-2 ‘herria sompostion 149 Gherrical;eacions 164-5 energy 218 fal equations 164, 191 quits 240-8. eros 128 fttars 251, 255,257 Sthanoic (soa) acid 264,253, 954 Sthanal 9, 82-3, 177,280, 252-8 ‘lusts 257 in rine 266-7, thane 75,76, 77,88 ‘vatistion #7 fexidonce 2 5 18-18, 97 ‘rotermic reactions 168,170,172, 222-4, 243 experiments F face creams 194 ‘actors 7 Tar iosts8 Faraday, Michaol 162 fas 93 erwantation 82, 89 fvtsare 242 ‘itor 212-18 ‘Heme festa 220 Hemmabily 64 ‘Hue gee deauifurisation 60 ‘Huonds 241-15 ‘uotina 205| ‘Huorasie 2's: foo ‘eves 92.150 ‘Smulsins 99-4 Nogelabie ols 87, 86-9, 98, forense scionea 238. formulae 31, 119-17, 42-3 tosal tals ‘aclona disilation 2, 84-5, 105, factors ol prods 62.68 jactrons 121,128,131 Roteete 350-7 ‘uals ‘ternative foi 70-4 suming 687,107, ‘lonnar foals 8-9 ‘Snorgy rlesees 218-10 Iseuoa 228-7 coll 82-5, 74-09, fuleronce 120 {anctonal groupe 250, fumacoe G gas chromatography 162 {as desultursaton| (91 electrophoresis 288 Glartcovalantstrucures 128-9 Obart aticos 114. 124 ‘labal dimming 63 flbalwarming 88, 107 go 40, 57,104 Srephits 26 srepho 6, 16 greenoube gases 09 Foun f elornants (alka metals] 200-4 (Grous 7 elomants(halogars) 204-5 itcups (Cremical elements) 25, 168, 290-1, 23S H Haper process 244-7 half equations 184, 191 haldos 282.9 halogens 208-5 hhand warmers 172 hard water 208-14,244 hardening €0 hazards & HD paly(ethone) 132 heals ksues alcohol misuse 250-7 hibropatements $9,299 homologous series 250 humans, boay terperature 172,173 hydrated supstances 170. hydrocarbons 63-8, 74-5 hnydrogals 73 hydrogan 71, 189, 206-7 hydrogen chicride 205 hhydrogen-poweted vehices 226-7 hydrogenated ots 88 hydropalle heads hydropaabic tals’ ot hydrowides 201 hypothasse 3, 6 teacteam 99 Incomplete combuston 67 Ineapendort varables 3, 45,7, 4 Inaeatars 177, 234 ineustry 146-7 164 Inert substancae 182 Insolubio satis 181 Instrumental analysis 151-8 Instruments fr measurement 12 Intermolecular forces 126 Interval, moasuremantreadings 10 investigatons@- 1118. 44-15 tncieas 282 Ibeina menochleride 244 tbr-eccnenge celumne 214 Ibricbandea0, 12-15 lorlecompounds 118-17, 124-5, 186 fore 30-4 23, 124, 164-5 ron Isotopes 199 K ine 97 knowledco 2 L lari tes 00 thee Scares 14, 124 terior ono law of octvos Quowtaras) 196-7 UD povenons) 2 toad rome 182-8, 184 Weongne 102-2 timoknes limo martar 42-3, 48 tmecoslo 209 Iiastone 8-45 4-7, 208 ‘avarsing ‘action cl 40-4 ing efbeat #8 17 line graphe 15, 46 linea rlatoncnipe 16 liquid nivogen tes lure 30, 200,204 ‘macromolecules 119,128, ‘magnesium carbonate $8 ‘magnesium chiorida 31 esium oxde 115 fata 54 ‘rare, Earth's 96, 97 ase numer 27, $28 felatve molecular mass 150 meds alata 107 Ghorieal arcs 220 Tanoscencs 14-9 poymoss eo Enepe memory slays 191 smoltng pars 12,138 200,202 Mandate, it 187 ‘Mososaunis 98 metas 42-59 ‘zi teacons 178, 179 Sea metal 29 earoonates 26 Snaruston industry 59 eas 00 Seetopiaing 160-1 factor 40.9 Santsructres 130-4 fone nonde a4, 44 iene formu te itles £8 ‘tact cares 48-9 see SRI 0 mmetgorte 108 menere 194, 18 ol sos 252,258 ra Miller Urey expoiment 102-2 trav wober Be mining 24,58 mites 62112, 62 mmol modi of substance) 14,296 molecular mula 43 molscular on peak 33 molecules 2591 ‘covant Bons 118-19, 126-8 caro 6 rmonforngo arabes 8 monomers 70-7, 132 mora 2,38 hnanopariies 134, 198 hhanabetence 1348 hhanatocn sus 135 hanatbae 135 anautres 17 agate ons 113, 134, 232-3 ‘outa solutions 178, 177 heutalisaton reactons 41, 148, 168,178, 180 fhoutens 25 27, 128 Nowlancs, John 186-7 ‘nick plating 190-4 rates 178. hibrogen 105 xicias 67, 80 igeses 39, 108 onmatale Me, 199—_a ee rucieue,atome 25,26, 198 rylon 422 oO bsorvetiens 6 ‘oceans 107 o1ee6, 71-29 ‘pence mining 56, 58 Obintans 4 Ores 48,94, 58 Organ chemistry 250-7 Dxicationvoxiasation 66, 184, 253 ‘oxygen 10, 105 P pants Pape Chorstgraty 150 arteultes 67 patioms 16 Datoentage yield 146-7 Pateantadae,elomontn acormpoun 182-2 ard tabla 24-7, 29,58, 196-203 rane hard wat 0 (peste) 73.8 pottol7i m alseale 7 Pctosymtoais 104 roming 5, 38 Bporoozse ‘nts Pefledieol 70+ shipraduts 88-08 hyomining 65,60 pelwere”? Pasties 76-7, 91 rocyeling?, 61 want 60 pum 187 Pallaton 26 ‘homical anayss 229, fuel bumingel3 totomatals 88 patyethore) 132 Iymoratlon 77 piers 8 32-3 iano coment poe long 1249, 12,84, 200-4 betas 200 21 ales 18, 20-1, 288 recitation restos 18% Son 1 esictons 26-7 Prsghamical reactions 182-3 Sind elm 32 aber process 246 products 25,98 propane as pane 78 Protone'26, 27,198 Q qualitative testing 236 ents octing 260 Suerrying $4 radioactvty 169 Fates of raction 158-67 Fandom eras 12-13, 1300 10,15 nts 22 2 one 149 Factions se chemical actions; ates of tescton, reactivity reactive mata 199 eur of elomonta 108 alogjena 204° rotate 106 ferise 40-9 ‘anaton elements 200 sacying 89770 ot uct 49, 14 ular seucures 114 orcad concrete 46 ‘oatorshigs 16.17 ‘otaive alam ass 140 ‘otalve termuamass 78), 142 ‘etatve molecular mass 153 satis maby ‘eproaucbity resouton 11.42 respration 163 ‘esd of vestigations 11,13, 14-18 ‘etprtion time 153.153 ‘evotsile reactios 148-9, 170-1. 240-4 202 ise Tock’ 96-45, 48 Remars 4223 rotary hins 37 s sats 176-1 Saurat tts 93 Saluratod hyorocarbors 3, 7 Seale (imescale) 208 ‘ricence $7 fimiatons 12 meted 2-17 andsacoty 18-19 oa wate’ 107 Sosmic waves $7 ‘Seeheatng'oods 172,173 aga avon materi 73 19 is atomic anergy ovals) 28-9 tharbet 108 eens diocda 128 biver 120,195, btver halle 293, ‘sma palmar 70 met tmog Seabloss detergent 200 isky as ose eystals2¢1 Soalum 200,201, 253 Souum carbonate 211 Soulum erie 118, 14,116 Soalum hyorode 48, 178, 188 Teactons 23041 softwar 208, 210-11,214 soulons ‘lectrohsis 185 0G) changes 220-1 Hates bale 178 188 romatoites fot strong acids 254-5, ctu forma 250, But ‘urlaco area, chemical reactions 150-0 surveys 8 ‘ybol acuctions 2 ‘yruhaaia ard analys 290-47 Syotometicorors 2-13 T tables 14 {tcionic patos 98, 9° temperature namical reactions 160+ testing 8,2 thermal deoompostion 28-7, 80,74, 149,160, themoceting polymers 128 themascttoning palymars 129 Hee 4s "Sn cane 100 tani 83 tirations 294-7 toxt metals 56 trarstion elements 189, 202-8 transition metale0, 1 ‘clavate 164, 160 Sater ‘warsplants, one marrow 239 ‘anspor 2337 ‘waverine 45 ‘nue values 10 Universal icfeator (UN 177 Unsaturated fais 98 Unsaturated hycrocasbons 74,78 Unsaturatedors 87 v vality 5,7, arlatlea 3-5, 7, 3,10, 4 washing soca D4 ‘wastewater roatment 184 ‘wator 208-18 ‘lial metal reactions 200-4 ‘hiotnatin 212,24 Covalent sence 118 Slectoiyeis 105 Sitors 22-19 Suordation 214-15, Saves 2418 ‘elatve formuiamass 14% {reatment pants 131 ‘reatmen provesses 212-13 weak adds 254-3 ‘Wegener, Aired 98 ‘word sauations 32 Y Yield chemical reactions) 146-7 z aro ertors 12 ne 0yoquinu ejoyan }80126U OY) 0} PopuNc U9Eq Jou BALY 19 pUE No ‘Pe}WO vesg eney (EO} ~ 06 SHequINU o}WO}e) SePIUNoY ey} PUE (L/~ BG SIeqUINU oIUIO}e) SEPIUELUET CYL. Lh Ob OL ‘SOL 20L 901 SOL vol 68 988 28 poyeoqueuine Ayny you ynq poyodes jecaerasjuepennen|unjouiau| umeroy | unicy fungeeod unre ferrmn] una | unpar wsaay useq eazy O1L— ZL SIsquNU SWC? ym sjuewey | 6H | sa | IW | SH | ua | GS | aa | ga | ow | eM | da lzz2l_| [peel _| [sezl | lazzl | [vezi | lesz! | [zoel | feel | Weel | feeel | lezel 98 s8 ve 8 ze 1s 08 6L eZ Lk OL SL PL €L ZL 2g 9g 3] cope: | eines | ured | ynusa | pes | ena | dros | pot | unne | una | umes | untww | untiry | umn | wsnigey | urtenan| iniey | unger ua | oav | od | ia | ad | a | BH | ny | id | at) so | om | m | eL | aH | wer | ea | so [ze2l_| fovel | [602] | soz _| 2oz | voc | boz | 26) | sé) | zor | o6r | oot | ter | er | s2b | cer | Zer | cer vs es 7 is os ey ey Ly oF oy vy cr ae Le Ov 6e 8c Ze Ban | EB | wis | sonstoe | OF | atin | unites | Se [uspeses | unto | unica [unpotien fmeertou urvon [pica | tir | usb | ure x | 1 | a | as | us | u | po | By | pad | uy) my | on | ow | aN | az | a | as | ay ber | ezt | ez | cer | ou | su | zu | eos | oor | cor | tor | [eel | 96 | eo | to | os | eB | oB ge se ve ee ce le of 4 8c Le 9 Se ve & ce ie 4 GL woul | ean | unnsps | ouisw Juniniveo| urmeo | ox | wedio | roou | year | toy frevetune] unioxo | unpewea| uaan |unpace | umoeo | umesed m™ | 4a | es | sv | e9 | eo | wz | no IN | oo | od | uw | to | A | We | og | eo | ve | os | ew | sz | x | w | so |seo| os | 6s | 99 | ss | zs | ts | oy | sy | ov | & BL db oh SL vb eb ch AL veo | ofp | ne frctdeus] wags | uniting lunSatcou} pos ay | 19 s d Is Ww 5w | eN ov ge a Le 8 Zé ve &e OL 6 8 L Q g pequinu (uajosd) SWOyE v © Bhs | axdny | volloo | vatiw | wee | ution suai wungiog | uta nw} 4 ]|of}n |o] a Joquiks 2]wWoye oa | on 4 6L gL tL a tb SSBW OIWOJE OAIE|e1 6 L r hon cota fo oH H v L o £4 9 $ F ¢ z I ‘syuatis}3 Jo a1qeL 1poned UL,ATX AR COLA) Checked by examiners Approved by AQA Continued success, inspiring all abilities AQA recognises the importance of good-quality tea assessment resources to accompany their specit ing, learning and . That's why they've chosen to work exclusively with Nelson Thornes. content and quality control, you can be confident that this course is as closely matched to the specification as it can be. Inthis Student Book, you will find double-page spreads covering each particular section of the specification in an accessible and appealing way, with clear progression through the topics. Every spread is packed with features to help aid and engage learning, including Learning objectives and Key points Understand what you are trying to find out at the start of each lesson and recap with key points at the end. How Science Works Thoroughly integrated throughout the book as well as a complete section dedicated to offering comprehensive guidance to this aspect of the specification. Maths skills Mathematical skills that are needed for the exams are highlighted and supported with short, visual explanations. AQA Examiner's tips Invaluable tips from AQA examiners to help achieve potential Summary and AQA Examination-style questions Each topic has summery questions to recap, and end-of-chapter questions help consolidate learning. AQA examination-style questions feature at the end of each chapter and unit ~in line with the new assessment criteria and written by AQA examiners. 5 Additional engaging online resources delivered via Kerboodle are also available in this series. Also included within Kerboodle are interactive, online versions of the Student Books. For more information on how to subscribe to Kerboodle please visit www.kerboodle.com Information on further resources in this series can be found at: www.nelsonthornes.com ISBN 972-1-085-0820-9 Ui i) ° B s, Nelson Thornes