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Bristol Physics Notes Older PDF
Bristol Physics Notes Older PDF
Bristol Physics Notes Older PDF
1. SI UNITS ................................................................................................ 4
1.1 BASE UNITS .................................................................................. 1-1
1.2 DERIVED UNITS ............................................................................. 1-2
Basic SI Units
Length (L) Metre (m)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Time (t) Second (s)
Temperature;
Celsius () Degree Celsius (ºC)
Kelvin (T) Kelvin (K)
Electric Current (I) Ampere (A)
Derived SI Units
Area (A) Square Metre (m2)
Volume (V) Cubic Metre (m3)
Density () Kg / Cubic Metre (kg/m3)
Velocity (V) Metre per second (m/s)
Acceleration (a) Metre per second per second (m/s2)
Momentum Kg metre per second (kg.m/s)
Examples are:
Force (F) Newton (N)
Pressure (p) Pascal (Pa)
Energy (E) Joule (J)
Work (W) Joule (J)
Power (P) Watt (w)
Frequency (f) Hertz (Hz)
Note also that to avoid very large or small numbers, multiples or sub-multiples
are often used. For example;
2.1 DEFINITION
Hence, "A Newton is the unit of force that when applied to a mass of 1 kg. causes
that mass to accelerate at a rate of 1 m/s2.
Forces can also cause changes in shape or size of a body, which is important
when analysing the behaviour of materials.
2.5 VECTORS
Again, a vector quantity is one that has magnitude and direction.
It has been seen that force is such a quantity. Velocity and acceleration are
further examples.
2.6 RESULTANTS
Resultants are created when vector quantities are added or subtracted as seen
previously.
2.7 EQUILIBRIUMS
In chapter 2.1, it was defined that a force applied to a body would cause that
body to accelerate or change direction.
If at any stage a system of forces is applied to a body, such that their resultant is
zero, then that body will not accelerate or change direction. The system of
forces and the body are said to be in the equilibrium.
Note that this does not mean that there are no forces acting; it is just that their
total resultant or effect is zero.
2.8 RESOLUTION
This topic is important, but is really the opposite to Addition of forces.
Recalling that two forces can be added to give a single force known as the
Resultant, it is obvious that this single force can be considered as the addition of
the two original forces.
Therefore, the single force can be separated or Resolved into two components.
It should be appreciated that almost always the single force is resolved into two
components, that are mutually perpendicular.
This technique forms the basis of the mathematical methods for adding forces.
So if there are several vectors each can be resolved into two components.
e.g. F1 in direction 1, gives F1 sin 1, and F1 cos 1
F2 in direction 2, gives F2 sin 2, and F2 cos 2
F3 in direction 3, gives F3 sin 3, and F3 cos 3
etc, etc.
Once the components have been resolved, they can be added to give a total
force in the Datum direction, and a total force perpendicular to the Datum.
These additions can be done laboriously 'by hand' but the modern scientific
calculator renders this unnecessary.
Each vector should be entered and multiplied by the cosine of its direction and
added consecutively to arrive at a total, F cos .
This procedure should be repeated, by multiplying each vector by the sine of its
direction, and added consecutively to give F sin .
To calculate the Magnitude of the resultant,
Add (F sin )2 + (F cos )2 (= F2)
And find the square root of the addition (=F)
When two equal but opposite forces are present, whose lines of action are not
coincident, then they cause a rotation.
There must be datum position, such that the total moment to one side, causing a
clockwise rotation, is balanced by a total moment, on the other side, which
causes an anticlockwise rotation. In other words, the total weight can be
considered to act through that datum position (= line of action).
If the body is considered in two different position, the weight acts through two
lines of action, W 1 and W2 and these interact at point G, which is termed the
Centre of Gravity.
Hence, the Centre of Gravity is the point through which the Total Mass of the
body may be considered to act.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 15 May, 2015 Page 2-8
For a 3-dimensional body, the centre of gravity can be determined practically by
several methods, such as by measuring and equating moments, and thus is done
when calculating Weight and Balance of aircraft.
A 2-dimensional body (one of negligible thickness) is termed a lamina, which only
has area (not volume). The point G is then termed a Centroid. If a lamina is
suspended from point P, the centroid G will hang vertically below ‘P1’. If
suspended from P2 G will hang below P2. Position G is at the intersection as
shown.
A regular lamina, such as a rectangle, has its centre of gravity at the intersection
of the diagonals.
Other regular shapes have their centre of gravity at known positions, see the
table below.
The external forces induce internal stresses which oppose or balance the
external forces.
Stresses can occur in differing forms, dependent on the manner of application of
the external force.
Torsional stress, due to twist, is a variation of shear.
2.15 STRAIN
If a length of elastic is pulled, it stretches. If the pull is increases, it stretch more;
if reduced, it contracts.
Hookes law states that the amount of stretch (elongation) is proportional to the
applied force.
The degree of elongation or distortion has to be considered in relation to the
original length. The distortion is in fact a distortion of the crystal lattice.
2.16 SHEAR
In chapter 2.15, different stresses were introduced, including shear stress.
Shearing occurs when the applied load causes one 'layer' of material to move
relative to the adjacent layers etc. etc.
Shear stress is still expressed as load/area but is usually represented by another
2.17 TORSION
The shear strain is equal to the angular deflection multiplied by radius r divided
by the overall length L,
r
= L
= Fa + b
a
RB
= Fa + b
b
Similarly RA
The effect of these forces is to create shear along the beam.
The first diagram is defined as +ve shear, the second diagram as –ve shear.
This can be shown on a shear force diagram (SFD).
Note that each change to the SFD is equal to the load or force applied at that
position or point. In this diagram only concentrated or point loads exist.
Now consider an uniformly distributed load. The SFD will look like this.
Note that in this case, the BMD is all +ve (i.e. the beam is sagging everywhere)
and note also that it increases from zero as x increases to the left of B, up to a
maximum and then decreases as the effect of RB is reduced by the effect of
F , finally becoming zero at A.
A uniformly distributed load, whilst obeying the same principles, modifies the
BMD.
As x increases left of B, RB causes , but the distributed load also increases and
causes .
The BMD now looks like this.
3.1 WORK
It has been stated that a Force causes a body (mass) to move (accelerate) and
that the greater the force, the greater the acceleration. But consider the case
where a man applied a force to move a small car. He applied a force to overcome
its inertia, and then maintains a somewhat lesser force to overcome friction, and
to maintain movement.
Now clearly he will become progressively more tired the further he pushes the
car. This suggests that there is another aspect to force and movement that must
be considered.
This introduces Work, which is defined as the product of Force x Distance (i.e.
the greater the distance, the greater the work). As with force, the derived unit of
work becomes complicated – i.e. Work = Newtons x metres, and so is
replaced by a dedicated unit – the Joule, defined as:
“The work done when a force of 1 Newton is applied through a distance of
1 metre”.
A further question arises. Work may be "done", but it doesn’t just “happen”,
where does it come from? The answer is by expending Energy.
Energy can be thought – of as “stored” work. Alternatively, work is done when
Energy is expended. The unit of Energy is the same as for Work, i.e. the Joule.
Energy can exist or be stored in a number of different forms, and it is the change
of form that is normally found in many engineering devices.
Energy can be considered in the following forms.
Electrical
Chemical
Heat
Pressure
Potential
Kinetic - and there are other.
They will all be expressed in Joules.
One important principle underlies the conversion of one form to another. It is
known as the Conservation of Energy, which is:
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form
to another”.
This allows scientific equations to be derived, after investigation and analysis
involving physical experiments.
3.3 POWER
Recalling the man pushing the car, it was stated that the greater the distance the
car was pushed, the greater the work done (or the greater the energy expended).
But yet again, another factor arises for our consideration. The man will only be
capable of pushing it through a certain distance within a certain time. A more
powerful man will achieve the same distance in less time. So, the word Power
is introduced, which includes time in relation to doing work.
Power =
Work done = Force x distance = Force x speed
Time time
Again, for simplicity and clarity, a dedicated unit of power has been created, the
Watt.
“The Watt is the Power output when one Joule is achieved in one second”.
3.4 MOMENTUM
Momentum is a word in everyday use, but its precise meaning is less well-known.
We say that a large rugby forward, crashing through several tackles to score a
try, used his momentum. This seems to suggest a combination of size (mass)
and speed were the contributing factors.
In fact, momentum = mass x velocity (mv).
3.8 INERTIA
Inertia is resistance to a change of momentum. We are familiar with this, e.g. a
person standing in a moving vehicle; if the vehicle stops, the person lurches
forward, as his mass contains momentum. The greater the mass, the greater will
be its inertia.
It will be easier (require less torque) to cause the LH cylinder to rotate. This is
because the RH cylinder appears to have greater inertia, even through the
masses are the same.
So the moment of inertia () is a function of mass and radius. Although more
detailed study of the exact relationship is beyond the scope of this course, it can
be said that the M of I is proportional to the square of the radius.
4.1 PRINCIPLES
Gyroscopes are rotating masses (usually cylindrical in form) which are
deliberately employed because of the particular properties which they
demonstrate. (note, however, that any rotating mass may demonstrate these
properties, albeit unintentionally).
Basic concepts can be gained by reference to a hand-held bicycle wheel.
Imagine the wheel to be stationary; it is easy to tilt the axle one way or another.
4.2 RIGIDITY
Now rotate the wheel. Because the mass of the wheel is rotating, it now has
angular momentum. Two properties now become apparent.
The rotating wheel is now difficult to tilt, this is resistance is termed Rigidity.
4.3 PRECESSION
If sufficient force or torque is applied to tilt the wheel, the manner or direction in
which it tilts or moves is interesting.
4.4 TORQUE
The torque required to cause precession, or the rate of precession resulting from
applied torque, depends on moment of inertia and angular velocity. Remember
that direction of rotation will determine direction of precession.
5.1 PRINCIPLES
Friction is that phenomenon in nature that always seems to be present and acts
so as to retard things that move, relative to things that are either stationary or
moving slowly. How large that frictional force is depends on the nature of the two
surfaces of the object concerned. Rough surfaces generally produce more
friction than smooth surfaces, and some materials are naturally 'slippery'.
Friction can operate in any direction, but always acts in the sense opposing
motion.
The diagram shows a body (mass m) on an inclined plane. As the angle of the
plane () is increased, the body remains stationary, until at some particular value
of , it begins to move down the plane. This is because the frictional force (F)
opposing motion has reached its maximum value.
F mg sin
= = tan
R mg cos
F
This ratio (tan ) is termed the Coefficient of Friction. It is generally considered
R
in mechanics to have a value less than 1, but some materials have a 'stickiness'
associated with them which exceeds this value.
Note also that cases occur where static friction (friction associated with
stationary objects) is greater than running friction (where objects are now in
motion).
A useful example is in flying-control systems, where engineers have to perform
both static and running friction checks.
6.1 PRINCIPLES
When considering motion, it is important to define reference points or datums (as
has been done with other topics). With kinematics, we usually consider datums
involving position and time. We then go on to consider the distance or
displacement of the body from that position, with respect to time elapsed.
It is now necessary to define precisely some of the words used to describe
motion, (which are common in everyday speech).
Distance and time do not need defining as such, but we have seen that they must
relate to the datums. Distance and time are usually represented by symbols
x and t (although s is sometimes used instead of x).
6.2 SPEED
Speed = rate of change of displacement or position
change of position
= time
x s
v = where v represents speed.
t t
A word of caution - this assumes that the speed is unchanging (constant). If
not, the speed is an average speed.
6.3 VELOCITY
Velocity is similar to speed, but not identical. The difference is that velocity
includes a directional component; hence velocity is a vector (magnitude and
direction - the magnitude component is speed).
Acceleration = rate of change of velocity
change of velocity
= time
v2 - v1
a = t where a represents acceleration.
(In the above, v, represents the initial velocity, v2 represents the final velocity
during time period t).
6.4 ACCELERATION
Note that as acceleration = rate of change of velocity, then it must also be a
vector quantity. This fact is important when we consider circular motion, where
direction is changing.
Remember, speed is a scalar, (magnitude only)
Velocity is a vector (magnitude and direction)
If the final velocity v2 is less than v1, then obviously the body has slowed. This
implies that the acceleration is negative. Other words such as deceleration or
retardation may be used.
Here the pilot intended to fly from A to B (the vector AB represents the speed of
the aircraft through the air), but while flying towards B the effect of the wind
vector BC was to 'blow' the aircraft off-course to C. So how is the pilot to fly to B
instead of C?
Obviously, the answer is to fly (head) towards D, so that the wind blows the
aircraft to B (see diagram).
Note that this is a vector triangle, in which we know 4 of the components;
i.e. the wind magnitude and direction
the air speed (magnitude)
the track angle (direction)
The other two components may therefore be deduced, i.e. the aircraft heading
and the aircraft groundspeed. Note that the difference between heading and
track is termed drift. The aircraft groundspeed, (i.e. the speed relative to the
ground) is used to compute the travelling time.
This is a particular aeronautical example. More generally, if there are two vectors
v1 and v2, then we can find relative velocity.
change of velocity v2 - v1
Acceleration a = time = t , this is usually re-arranged so
v2 = v1 + at.
6.9 AREA
distance
One important concept - velocity = time ,
therefore distance = velocity x time
= area under the velocity - time graph.
1
x = 2 (v2 + v1)t
1 2
x = v1t + at
2
and v 22 v 12 2ax
(v1 and x may appear as u and s, and x may appear as x2 – x1 = difference
between position x2 and position x1).
v2
The acceleration present = r , where v is the (constant) speed and r is the
radius of the circular path.
This can be shown by a diagram, with a person holding a string tied to a mass
which is rotating around the person.
Tensile force in string acts inwards to provide centripetal force acting on mass.
Tensile force at the other end of the string acts outwards exerting centrifugal
reaction on person.
(Note again - cases involving changing speeds as well as direction are beyond
the scope of this course).
8.1 PENDULUM
If a pendulum is displaced from its stationary position
and released, it will swing back towards that position.
On reaching it however, it will not stop, because its
inertia carries it on to an equal but opposite
displacement. It then returns towards the stationary
position, but carries on swinging etc, etc. Note that the
time period can be measured from a any position,
through to the next time that position is reached, with
the motion in the original direction
The resulting motion, up and down, can be plotted against time and will result in
a typical graph, which is sinusoidal.
11.1 DENSITY
mass m
Density of a solid, liquid or gas is defined as = volume = V
A large mass in a small volume means a high density, and vice versa. The unit
of density depends on the units of mass and volume; e.g. density = kg/m3 in SI
units.
Solids, particularly metals, often have a high density, gases are of low density.
11.3 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy implies floatation, and may involve solids immersed in liquids or gases,
one liquid in another, one gas in another and so on. It is a function of relative
Densities.
An object that floats has a R.D. less than the medium in which it floats. Its
weight is obviously supported by some interactive force (upthrust) between the
object and that medium.
Archimedes states that the upthrust is equal to the weight of the volume of the
medium that was displaced by the floating object, i.e. the volume of object below
the surface.
11.4 PRESSURE
Previous topics have introduced forces or loads, and then considered stress,
which can be thought of as intensity of load. Stress is the term associated with
solids. The equivalent term associated with fluids is pressure, so pressure =
force F
area . p = A.
F1
In this diagram, a force F1 is input to the fluid, creating pressure, equal to A
1
throughout the fluid. This pressure acts on area A2, and hence an output force F2
is generated.
F1 F2
If the pressure P is constant, then = and if A2 is greater than A1, the
A1 A2
output force F2 is greater than F1.
A mechanical advantage has been created, just like using levers or pulleys. This
is the principle behind the hydraulic jack.
But remember, you don't get something for nothing; energy in = energy out or
work in = work out, and work = force x distance. In other words, distance moved
by F1 has to be greater than distance moved by F2.
In this diagram, the pressure acting on x x1 is due to the weight of the fluid (in this
case a liquid) acting downwards.
This weight W = mg (g = gravitational constant)
But mass = volume density
= height cross-sectional area density
= h.A.
Therefore downward force = h..g. A. acting on A
hg.A/
Therefore, the pressure = A/
= hpg
This is the static pressure acting at depth h within a stationary fluid of density p.
This is straightforward enough to understand as the simple diagram
demonstrates. (we can "see" the liquid)
But the same principle applies to gases also, and we know that at altitude, the
reduced density is accompanied by reduced static pressure.
We are not aware of the static pressure within the atmosphere which acts on our
bodies, the density is low (almost 1000 times less than water). Divers, however,
quickly become aware of increasing water pressure as they descend.
But we do become aware of greater air pressures whenever moving air is
involved, as on a windy day for example. The pressure associated with moving
air is termed dynamic pressure.
In aeronautics, moving air is essential to flight, and so dynamic pressure is
frequently referred-to.
Dynamic pressure = ½ v2 where = density, v = velocity.
Note how the pressure is proportional to the square of the air velocity.
12.2 CONVERSION
An engineering student should be able to convert from one temperature to
another;
5
e.g. convert ºF to ºC - Subtract 32, then multiply by
9
9
convert ºC to ºF - Multiply by 5 , then add 32
So L2 - L1 = L1 (2 - 1)
Where L2 and L1 are final and initial lengths,
2 and 1 are final and initial temperatures
And is a material constant (coefficient of linear expansion).
12.3.2 VOLUMETRIC
Expansion can be considered as a change in length (see above), a change in
area or change in volume.
The change in volume, v2 - v1 = v1 (2 - 1)
Where = the coefficient of volumetric expansion. (note that = 3 (see
above)).
Different materials expand at different rates, and this may be used, for
example, when shrink fitting components
If a fixed mass of gas (e.g. air) is heated from temperature T1 to T2, its initial
volume V1 increases to V2. Note that the increase is linear (the graph follows a
straight-line). Note that if the line is extended back, it crosses the T (x) axis at
-273ºC, or absolute zero.
V V1 V2
The slope is constant, therefore T is constant, or T = T (temperature must
1 2
be expressed in ºK).
This illustrates Charles Law.
"The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to the
absolute temperature".
shown by AB. At B, corresponding to 100ºC (the boiling point of water) the graph
follows BC, which represents the constant temperature of 100ºC. After a time,
the graph resumes its original path, CD.
What was happened to the heat supplied during the time period between B and
C?
The answer is that it was used, not to raise the temperature, but to change the
state from water into steam. This is termed latent heat, and also features when
ice melts to become water.
So latent heat is the heat required to cause a change of state, and sensible
heat is the heat required to cause a change of temperature.
13.1 LAWS
Charles Law has already been referred to. Boyle’s law assumes constant
volume.
Boyle's Law states that "the pressure of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to its volume".
Summarised:
V
is constant V1 = V2
T T1 T2
p
is constant p1 = p2
T T1 T2
pV is constant p = p1V1
2 V2
These laws are often combined to give:
pV
is a constant p1V1 = p2V2
T T1 T2
= mR where m is the mass of gas considered, and R is the Gas Constant.
The work done by or on the gas is given by the area under the p-v curve.
If we go from v1 to v2 (expansion) work is done by the gas.
If we go from v2 to v1 (compression) work is done on the gas.
The exact amount of work depends on the exact nature of the expansion /
compression, i.e. is the relevant gas law pv = constant or pvn = constant or pv
= constant?
These different equations give different curves, and hence different work values,
but this is beyond the scope of this module.
Note also that an expanding gas tends to cool; a gas being compressed tends to
heat-up.
14.2 REFLECTION
Light can also be reflected, usually by mirrors, which are made by depositing a
thin layer of metal on one side of a piece of glass. Some interesting facts may be
obtained.
When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection, usually termed an image. The
diagram above shows 2 reflected rays, viewing an object O from two different
angles. Note the reflected rays appear to come from I which corresponds to the
image, and lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object, and appears the
same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Note also that the image is a virtual image, it can be seen, but cannot be shown
on a screen.
Note also that it appears the same size as the object, and is laterally inverted.
These are features of images in plane mirrors.
Mirrors can also be curves, sometimes they are spherical, sometimes parabolic.
The basic law, incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved surface
allows the rays to be focussed or dispersed.
Concave mirrors (e.g. shaving mirrors) give a magnified, erect (right way up)
image, if viewed from close-to.
Convex mirrors (e.g. driving mirrors) give a smaller, erect image, but with a wide
field of view.
Parabolic reflectors can focus a wide parallel beam. By placing the bulb at the
focus, they can produce a strong beam of light. (Conversely, they can focus
microwave signals when used as an aerial).
14.4 REFRACTION
Another phenomena may occur. In the diagram, ray (1) has been refracted
across the boundary, but ray (2) has been internally reflected at the boundary.
There is a critical angle of incidence when the ray in the denser medium does not
emerge, but travels along the boundary.
1
The relationship sine C = exists.
Refraction is the basic principle which explains the workings of prisms and
lenses.
As with mirrors, images can be real or virtual, erect or inverted, and larger or
smaller. The nature of the image will depend on the type of lens, and the
position of the object in relation to the focal length of the lens, (the focal length
is a function of the curvature of the lens surfaces).
(Aircraft travelling at speeds greater than Mach 1 are supersonic, and generating
shock waves).
15.2 FREQUENCY
Frequency (f) of sound is related to the number of vibrations that the molecules
perform in a unit of time. The amount (or distance) which the molecules vibrate
about their main position is termed the amplitude.
Another term exists, i.e. wavelength (). A formula exists, linking frequency and
wavelength.
f. = constant = speed of sound
High-pitches sounds are of high frequency, and vice versa.
15.3 INTENSITY
The intensity of sound (its 'loudness) is dependent on the intensity of the
pressure variations, and thus is related to the amplitude. The amplitude of the
vibration is proportional to the energy input into the generation of the wave.
15.4 PITCH
Pitch is another word for frequency (see previous paragraph).
16.2 ATOMS
If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of
three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are
ATOMS, two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The water is a compound, the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every
element has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements
and therefore 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the
same types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of
hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen
joined together, but the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined
together.
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as
single atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the
Helium atom is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change.
16.2.3.1 Protons
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:
Eg. Hydrogen 1 proton
Helium 2 protons
Lithium 3 protons
Beryllium 4 protons
etc
Copper 29 protons
etc
Uranium 92 protons
The number of protons is referred to as the atomic number, thus the atomic
number of copper is 29.
16.2.3.2 Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There
is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact
atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example
chlorine may contain 18 – 20 neutrons in its nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight
of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and the
neutrons.
16.2.3.3 Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties
of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 15 May, 2015 Page 16-2
16.3 PERIODIC TABLE