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Aksum University, Electrical and computer Engineering Department
Aksum University
College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Laboratory Manual for Electrical

Workshop Practice– I
Prepared by:
1
Electrical workshop practice one
Contents:
Page
Chapter one: General Workshop Safety ..............................................3
1.1 personal Safety

1.2 Safety Signs
1.3 Earthling and protection system
Chapter two: Splicing, Soldering and Termination of Wires ……………….7
2.1 Splicing of wires

2.2 Lab one related to splicing
2.3 Soldering of wires
2.4 Lab two related to soldering
2.5 Termination of wires
Chapter three: Drawings, Wiring Materials and Accessories ……..………11

3.1 Type of drawing
3.2 Wiring symbol
3.3 Switches
3.4 Lamps
3.5 Cable and conduits
Chapter four: Wiring electrical circuits…………………………….………25

4.1 Distribution of electrical energy
4.2 Methods of wiring
4.5 Wiring systems
Chapter five: labs related to Residential Installation………
2
Chapter one general workshop safety

1.1 personal safety
Concern for own safety as well as the safety of others should always be on mind.
Most safety procedures are common sense but, because some hazards are not
obvious, there are regulations born out of experience which are designed to make the
workplace safe.
Electrical safety principles;
 The need to use safe working practices and safety equipment to avoid the
risk of injury to yourself and to others in the case of your work.
 Don’t take shortcuts which compromise your safety, or that of anybody else.
 You should make yourself aware of procedures and used at your place of
work to prevent accidents and to deal with common incidents.
 You should know how to isolate electrical supplies and how work safely on
electrical circuit.
 Horseplay, fighting and practical jokes are extremely dangerous.
 Always keep your working area clean and orderly.
 If something looks unsafe or if you in doubt. ASK!
 Understand the procedure before starting the work
 Don’t energize any circuit unless you are sure that no one is working on the
circuit
 Don’t touch switch boards, main switch, holder points etc with wet hands
 Use non conductive tools whenever possible.
 Take care while handling lamps, lamp holders, switches etc, because there
materials are brittle
 The owner is on you to use the safety equipment provided by your company.
Any damage to safety should be reported. Safe working practices are parts of
any job and you should always learn and adapt them as a natural way of
working.
EFFECTS OF CURRENT ON THE BODY
AC(mA) DC(mA) Effect

0—1 0—4 Perception
1—4 4—15 Surprise
4—21 15—80 Reflex action
21—40 80—160 Muscular inhabitation
40—100 160—300 Respiration failure
Over 100 Over 300 Usually fatal
3
SAFETY SIGNS
Safety signs are displayed in the working environment to inform workers of the rules and
regulations especially relevant to particular section of the workplace. They inform and give
warning of possible danger and must be obeyed.
They are four types of safety signs:
1. Warning signs
2. Adviser signs
3. Mandatory signs and
4. Prohibition signs
Warning signs (these give safety information)

Warning signs give safety information. These are triangular yellow signs with black border
and symbol. They give warning of a hazard or danger.
Warning signs
Advisory or safe condition sign

These are square or rectangular green signs with a white symbol and give information
about safety provision.
4
Advisor or safety condition signs

Mandatory signs (these are ‘must do’ signs)
These are circular blue signs with a white symbol, and are give the instruction must be
obeyed.
Mandatory signs
Prohibition signs (these are must not do signs)
These are circular white
sign with a red border
and Red Cross bar. They
indicate an activity
which must not be
done.
5
Prohibition signs
Earthing and protection system
We know that using electricity is one of the causes of accident in the work place. Using
electricity is a hazard because it has the potential, the possibility, to cause harm and,
therefore, the provision of protective device in an electrical installation is fundamental
two the whole concept of the safe use electricity.
The consumer main equipment provides:
 Protection against electric shock
 Protection against over current
 Isolation and switching
Protection against electrical shock is both basic protection and fault protection. Basic
protection is providing insulation and earthing on the live part cable. And fault protection
is also providing fuses or circuit breakers so that the supply is automatically disconnected
under fault condition.
Protection against overcurrent is achieved by providing a device which will automatically
disconnect the supply before the overcurrent can cause a rise in temperature that would
damage the installation
Isolation and switching is a mechanical process that is operating manually that provide the
whole installation , one circuit or one piece of equipment , may be cut off from the live
supply.
Earthing; earth is the conductive mass of the earth, its electrical potential taken as zero
and earthing is an act of connection that exposed conductive part of installation to main
protective earthing terminal of the installation.
LABRATORY ONE.
WIRES SPLICING, SOLDERING, AND TERMINATION OF WIRES AT TERMINAL SCREW:
AIM; to make different types of splicing, terminating and soldering
MATERIAL: Solid wire, Sand Paper Flux, Lead.
TOOLS: Nipper, Electrical knife, Steel Ruler, PLIERS AND electrical Soldering Iron
125W/220v.
Splicing and Joining:
Definition of splicing: is an electrical connection made by twisting wires together
6
Advantages of proper splicing: It makes the installation become mechanically and

electrically strong.
The disadvantage of poor splicing: if the splice is loose, these poorly constructed
joints will cause abnormal heating and arcing. If near inflammable material will result in a
fire hazard
Types of splice
There are four basic types of splices
A. Rat (pig) Tail Joint.
B. The T tap splicing or single brunch splice
C. T tap joint in strand
D. The western union splicing
Joining wires with connector tubes: Is used to connect terminal of one wire with another,
wire it is in the form of Bakelite, porcelain or plastic it also has small screws which are
used to make the connection. The connector must be able to take all strands of
conductors to be joined together
Procedure:
Laboratory job 1.1 Rat tail joint:
Pigtail splice also called rattail splice is used to join two wires in location where there is no pull or
strain on the wires.
Method:
1. Remove 4cm insulation from the end of both wires.

2. Cross the skinned wire 1 cm from the insulation and make a neck turn.
3. Clean the wire with sand paper.
4. Make the shoulders by twisting with thumb and fore –finger.
5. Complete the shoulder and cut of the extra wire with pliers.
Precautions:
1. Wire must be nicked while removing the insulation.

2. There should not be any gap between the turns.
3. Joints should not be loose. .
7
Fig 1
Laboratory job 1.2: making tap joint:
The tap splicing is used where you want to join a second wire to a conductor.
Method:
1. Remove insulation about 3 cm from center, of the running wire.

2. Remove 7.5 cm insulation from the end of tap wire.
4. Cross the 0.75 cm from insulation and make hook.
5. Make five turns of tape wire.
6. The joint should be terminating about 0.75 cm from the run wire.
Precautions:
1. Wire must not be nicked while removing the insulation.

3. Joint must not be loose.
Fig 2
Laboratory job 1.3 western union splice:
8
A western-union splice or straight joint is used to fasten two standards or two solid wires
together
Method:
1. Remove 7.5 cm insulation from the end of both wires.

2. Cross the skinned wires 2 cm from the insulation make a neck turn.
4. Make shoulders by twisting the wires, one hand holding firmly in the joint so that it should not
be loose.
5. Complete the twisting in one direction.
6. Repeat the process on the other wire twisting it in the opposite direction.
Precautions:
1. See that wire is not nicked, while removing the insulation.

3. Joint must not be loose. .
Laboratory job 1.4: ‘T’ joint in strand wire:
Method:
1. Take 2 pieces of 20 cm each wire.

2. Remove the insulation of main wire at the required space, nearly 6 cm.
4. Remove the insulation of branch wire from one end nearly 10cms.
5. Gently untwist the strands of branch cable leaving 2 cm from the cable.
6. Separate the strands: three on each side and center one will bind the base.
9
7. Fit the main wire in between the divided strands of the main wire is in the middle part of the
main wire is in the middle of the strands.
8. Hold the firmly in one hand and with the other hand wind the strands in one direction on main
wire.
9. Repeat the same process on the other side in opposite direction.
Precautions:

2. Joint must not be loose. .
Laboratory job # 2:
Soldering flux:
Flux is a lime substance applied to a metallic surface to destroy the oxide layer and/or to
protect the soldering surface against re-oxidation and to promote the flow of solder on
the surface.
Fluxes used for (soft) soldering either contain acid or are completely free from acid. For
electrical work only non-corrosive acid free flux is suitable and corrosive acid flux should
be strictly excluded. The type of solder often determines the flux to be used for soldering.
Supplementary note on soldering
Soldering Copper Conductors
After splicing, conductors must be soldered; soldering adds security to the splice and
prevents conductor oxidation.
10
To do an affective soldering job, the parts to be soldered must be clean. Use sand
paper or lightly scrape the conductor with a knife. Avoid excessive or heavy scraping.
Copper is a good conductor of heat. When using a soldering iron, solder gun, or a small
torch, guard against excessive or prolonged heat to avoid heat damage of conductor
insulation.
To ensure a good solder job, use a non-corrosive soldering flux. Soldering flux comes
in a convenient paste form and is applied very sparingly to the splice to be soldered.
Soldering flux performs three functions: it is an additional cleaning agent, it aids in
tinning or coating the conductor when solder is applied and it ensures adhesion of
solder to the splice. Acid-type flux must never be used in electrical soldering jobs.
The solder used in electrical work is composed of 50% lead and 50% tin, known in
trade language as 50/50. This solder melts at approximately 400 degrees F, comes in
a form of a string and is available in various diameters. A Flux-contained, resin-core
string solder is also available and is widely used in the wiring and repair of electronic
equipment.
After the splice is completed and is mechanically secure, apply heat with a torch,
soldering iron, or solder gun. Remove the heat momentarily and apply small amount
of flux. Once again, apply the heat until the flux sizzles. Bring the solder to the splice,
and if its surface is hot enough, the solder will flow freely and neatly throughout the
splice. A well-soldered splice will be smooth, clean and have a shiny surface. Only
enough solder to cover the connection is necessary; avoid a buildup of solder. Shake
off any excess solder on the joint and proceed to insulate the splice.
The soldering iron: Soldering can be done with the aid of either a soldering iron or a
blow torch. The former is used if a source of electric energy is available while the
latter can be used in places where there is no electricity as well as in cases where a
uniform heating of a wide area is required. Due to the difference in the method of
heating there are two types of soldering irons.
a) Heating coil soldering iron: In such irons the heat is produced by a

Heating coil. Heating coil irons are usually of lower heat capacity and
they are widely used for general purpose.
b) Electric arc soldering iron: here the heat is generated by an electric

arc. Such irons have a greater heat capacity, provide high temperature,
and are used for making faster soldering.
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According to the length of heating time there are two types of soldering irons:
Periodically heated soldering iron: this type of iron stores heat during
heating and give it off during soldering. The draw-back of this soldering iron is
that more time is spent on heating than on soldering.
a) Continuously heated soldering iron:- Such irons could be heated

over a longer period. Thus they provide high labor productivity and
fairly constant heat.
Principle of operation of the heating coil soldering iron
The heating coil is made up of wire with high specific resistance such as nichrome or
fechral. Thus when the iron is supplied with voltage then the coil gets heated. The
heat is then conducted to the tip of the soldering iron through the heat resistant
minacity plate.
1. Soldering tip (Copper rod)

2. Micanite plate
3. Heating coil
4. Asbestos card
5. Sheet steel casing
6. Fastening screw
7. Handle tube
8. Fastening ring
9. Wooden handle
10. Supply wires
Cross-sectional view of a heating coil soldering iron.
The layer of micanite also insulates the tip from the coil. The tip is usually made of
copper rod. Since copper has a high heat capacity and good conductivity, it enables
rapid heat conduction from the body of the soldering iron to its working tip. The steel
casing encloses the coil and the copper rod. To lower heat radiation as well as to
insulate the coil, a layer of asbestos card is placed between the iron part and the
casing.
12
Tinning the iron: the copper tip of the soldering iron when exposed to air,
immediately becomes coated with a dull covering of copper oxide. For the iron
to solder well, this coating of oxide must be removed and prevented from
being formed. This is fulfilled by tinning the iron according to the following
procedure.
1. File the tip of the iron

2. Heat the iron moderately ( it should not be red hot)
3. Rub the hot soldering iron with a block of salmoniac (an ammonium
chloride salt) which readily decomposes into ammonia and
hydrogen chloride when it comes into contact with the hot metal.
Then the hydrogen chloride dissolves the metal oxide such as
copper oxide forming volatile chlorides and thus cleans the metal
surface. This enables the solder to adhere well.
4. Coat the copper (iron) with solder so as to form a bright silver-
colored coating.
Generally soldering requires
1. Always have the wires or the surface clean

2. Clean equipment, clean soldering iron,
3. Fresh soldering pastes
4. Moderate temperature of soldering iron
5. Correct heating of the metals being joined
6. Use the proper flux (rosin or acid)
7. Apply enough heat to the joint to let the solder melt and run like
water into the joint.
8. Use only a soldering tip which has been well tinned
9. Keeps heat applied until the solder runs freely around the wires
or metal pieces being joined?
10. When soldering small radio parts with short lead, grip the lead
close to electrical part with tweezers. The tweezers conduct the
heat away and prevent damage to the electrical part.
11. Do not allow the soldering tip to touch any electrical part or wire
insulation.
12. Do not overheat the soldering iron, because it causes corrosion
to form more quickly on the iron.
13. Be careful not to drop or use too much solder on the joins. This
can be the cause of "shorts".
14. Grip a soldering iron only by its handle.
15. Remove the plug from the source of power as soon as the
soldering has been completed.
Note: In good soldering all the metallic parts of the joint are evenly coated with
solder.
13
Soldering should be performed in well ventilated rooms.
Insulating the splice:
The National Electrical Code (NEC) specifies that the amount of insulation wound on
the completed splice must be equivalent to that removed from the conductors before
splicing. One approved method for splice insulation is the use of rubber and friction
tape. Rubber tape has a thin layer of unmilled rubber that is protected by a paper
covering. This is removed when the tape is applied.
Rubber tape is best applied while the splice is still warm. When the rubber tape has
been applied, friction tape is wound over it. Friction tape is a binder.
Vinyl electrical tape has excellent insulating qualities and may be applied directly to
the splice without the use of rubber or friction tape. Vinyl tapes have excellent
adhesion properties and provide a smooth and secure finished job. (Excerpt-Note,
Robert C. & Ruel, Oliver J. Residential construction wiring. Chicago, Science research
associates. Inc 1979)
Laboratory # 3
Termination
Definition of termination
Termination: The process of connecting lugs or connectors to the wires

as well as the preparation of the wire ends so as to enable them to be
connected to the terminals of electrical equipment is called termination.
Single-strand copper (solid) wires in sizes up to 10 sq.mm and multi-core
(stranded) wires in sizes up to 2.5 sq.mm may be connected to the terminals
of various instruments and apparatus without lugs. In this case the ends of
multi-strand conductors should be tinned while single strand aluminum
wires, before being connected to the terminals, should be scraped bright and
coated with Vaseline to protect them from oxidizing. Heavy gauge copper
wires and multi-core aluminum wires should be fitted with special lugs.
Types of termination
14
Ring-end termination
Procedure: A. Ring-end termination for solid wire
1. Skin about 20-25mm of the wire.
2. Clean the bare wire thoroughly and prepare it as in figure.
3. Using a round nose pliers bend back the wire to form a ring as shown in
figure d.
4. Check the diameter of the ring by means of the screw.
5. Shape out the ring.
6. Fasten the ring by the screw and make sure that it is securely connected.
Note:
1. The wire should be lopped in the same direction as the
tightening of the Screw
2. Sometimes stub and ring end terminated single core wires are
tinned to Prevent oxidation of the copper surface.
B. Ring end termination: is generally used for terminating small gauge

Stranded wires.
Stub-end termination
Procedure: Stub-end termination for the solid wire
1. Measure about 10 to 15 mm of the wire depending upon the

terminal to which the wire is to be connected.
15
2. Skin this portion of the wire.

3. Clean the bare wire end thoroughly
4. Fasten this end of the wire by the contact screw and check the
quality of the contact, e.g. attach the wire to a banana plug.
Procedure: Stub-end termination for stranded wire

1. Skin about 10-15mm of the wire depending upon the terminal to which it is
to be connected.
2. Clean the strands of the wire and prepare it as in fig.
3. Twist the strands together to form a solid wire.
4. Tin the bare end of the wire by dipping it in the solder bath after coating it
with flux.
5. Cover the root of the terminal with insulating tape.
6. Insert the terminated end of the wire into the outlet terminal and fasten it
by the screw.
Lug-end termination
Crimping type
Soldering type
- Crimping and soldering lugs into the ends of wires, creates
Reliable contact of the wires and cables with the terminals of the
electrical equipment.
Note:
1. Single-strand wires with cross-section greater than 10sq.mm are

also
Terminated by means of lugs, the procedure to be followed
being analogous to the one stated above.
16
2. Single as well as multi-strand Aluminum wires may also be

terminate same manner as copper wires, but the special
features of Aluminum Wire connections have to take into
consideration.
Laboratory # 4: WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES
In order to assemble properly and intelligently the great number of available electrical
devices, fittings, materials and equipment to form a complete wiring system, we must
understand the basic principles regarding them.
4.1. WIRE AND CABLE
The term wire and cable are used more or less synonymously in house wiring. In practice
bare conductors, whether single or stranded together are termed as Wire and Conductors covered
with insulation are termed as cables.
The necessary requirements of cable are that it should
Conduct electricity efficiently, cheaply and safely, this should neither be small so as to
have a large internal voltage drop nor be too large so as to cost too much. Its insulation should be
such as to prevent leakage of current in unwanted direction and thus to minimize risk of fire and
shock.
17
A Cable consists of three parts:
A) The conductor or core that is the metal Wire or strand of Wires carrying the current.
B) The insulation or dielectric; a covering of insulating material to avoid leakage current from the
Conductor.
C) The protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damage
4.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS USED IN CABLES:
Silver: Though Silver is the best conductor but due to its higher cost it is hardly used anywhere.
Copper: It is cheaper comparatively. It is mechanically strong, hard, extremely tough, and durable
and ductile. It is highly resistive to corrosion, Oxidation and pitting.
Aluminum: Aluminum is frequently used in place of copper for bare electric cables used for long
distance power distribution. The electrical conductivity of aluminum is about 60% of that of
copper. So for the same resistance for a given length, the aluminum required is 1.61 times that of
copper in volume. And 1.26 times of that of copper in diameter.
The only application of aluminum cables for wiring in buildings is for a continuous bus- bar system
of distribution, used sometimes in blocks of flats or office buildings for rising mains and sub-mains
of larger sectional areas.
Copper and Aluminum is the materials used as conductors in power and lighting cables.
4.3. INSULATING MATERIALS:
The insulation material used in electric cable must possess following properties:
I. High resistivity
ii. High flexibility
Iii. Non-inflammability
iv. High resistivity to moisture, acids or alkalis qualities.
So the type of insulating material used depends upon the service for which the cable is
required for.
The various types of insulting materials used in cables are :-
1. Rubber: Rubber may be natural or synthetic. Its relative permittivity is between 2

and 3 and its dielectric strength is 30KV/mm. Though it posses high insulting qualities,
it absorbs moisture readily ,softens when heated to a temperature of 60 oC to 70 oC,
swells under the action of mineral oils and ages when exposed to light . Hence pure
rubber cannot be used as insulating material.
18
2. PVC: Polyvinyl chloride is a man made thermo- plastic which is tough,

Incombustible and chemically unreactive. Its chief drawback is that it softens at
temperatures above 80oC. It does not deteriorate with age. PVC insulated
cables are usually employed for low and medium voltage domestic and
industrial lights and power installations.
3. Vulcanized India rubber. It is prepared by mixing India rubber with Minerals
such as sulphur, zinc red lead, etc. The copper conductors used in this cable are
tinned to protect them from corrosive action of rubber on copper. The use of
VIR cables is limited to low voltage distribution and internal wiring as paper
insulated cables have largely superseded them.
4. Impregnated Paper. It is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric
Strength (30KV/mm) and high insulation resistivity (10 M ohm-cm). The main
advantage of paper insulated cables is that a cable of given size can be worked
out at a higher current density than a VIR cable. Paper insulated cables are
used for conveying large power in transmission and distribution and
particularly for distribution at low voltage in congested areas where the joints
are to be provided only at terminal apparatus or where the joints are rare,
owing to cheapness and durability over VIR cable.
Mechanical Protection:
 All the insulating materials used in the manufacture of cables are mechanically week, so
requires some form of protection against mechanical injury.
 Mechanical protection is usually provided to power cables laid direct in the ground by
providing two layers of steel tape in such a way that upper layer covers the joint in the
lower layer.
 Where tensile strength of the cable is required steel wire armouring is employed.
 With regard to ordinary main cable, aluminum sheathing has been recently introduced.
 The cables provided with aluminum sheathing does not require such as rubber sandwich
or covering of PVC.
4.4. TYPES OF CABLES USED IN INTERNAL WIRING:
 the type of conductor

 the number of cores
 The voltage grading and the type of insulation used.
19
 The wires employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups
according to:-
Number of cores, the cables may be divides into the classes known as:
Single core,
twin core,
Twin core with ECC (earth continuity conductor) cables Etc.
Voltage grading the cables may be divided into two classes:

250/440volt. And
650/1100volt cables
Insulation is:
1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) Cables: VIR cables are available in

250/440 volt as well as in 650/1100 volt grades and used for general
conduit wiring.
2. Lead Sheathed Cables: These cables are also available in 250/440 volt
grade and are used for internal wiring where climatic condition has
moisture. The lead sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated
conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead.
3. PVC Cables: These cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt
grades and are used in concealed wiring system. Since PVC is harder
than rubber, PVC cables do not require cotton taping and braiding over it
for mechanical and moisture protection.
4. Weather Proof Cables: These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for
power supply. These cables are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
5. Flexible Cords and Cables: A flexible cord consists of wires either silk or
cotton or plastic covered. Plastic cover is more popular as it is available in
various pleasing colors. Flexibility and strength is by using conductors
having large number of strands.
Colors of Conductors:
 The wiring regulations require that all conductors have to be identified by some
means to identify their function.
20
 For example, according to the British wiring regulation, the phase conductors of
three-phase system are colored red, yellow and blue with the neutral colored
black.
 Protective colors are identified by green/yellow.
Colors identification of bare conductors and cable cores (EELPA`s

Regulation).
Function Color identification of core of rubber or PVC insulated cable.
Earthing W hite
Live of A.C single-phase circuit Green
Neutral of A.C single-phase or three- Black

phase circuit
Phase R of three-phase A.C circuit Green
Phase S of three-phase A.C circuit Yellow
Phase T of three-phase A.C circuit Red
General Specification of cables

 The complete specification of a cable will give the following information:
i) The size of the cable
ii) The type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminum).
iii) Number of cores that the cable consists of (i.e. single core, twin core, and
three Cores, twin core with ECC etc.
iv) Voltage grade
v) Type of insulation, taping, braiding and compounding
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4.5. CONDUITS:
 The commonest method of installing cables is to draw them into a conduit.
 The conduit can be steel or plastic.
 Steel conduit is made in both light gauge and heavy gauge, of which heavy gauge is much
more frequently used.
 In general conduits can be classified as:
I) Light gauge steel-plain (unscrewed) conduit
ii) Heavy gauge steel-screwed conduit
III) Flexible conduit
iv) PVC conduit
i) Light Gauge Steel Conduit:
This type of conduit is used with special grip fittings. It is available with an external
diameter of 12mm, 16mm, 19mm, 25mm, 31 mm, 38mm and 50mm.
In general light gauge is the cheapest and quickest of the conduit installations but should be used
where the location is dry and there is little likelihood of mechanical damage
ii) Heavy Gauge screwed Steel Conduit:

Though it is very expensive, this type of conduit provides a permanent installation
with a maximum of protection for the cables.
 The joints into fittings are by means of screw threads which provide mechanical strength
and good electrical continuity.
 These are available in approximately 3 meter lengths and are threaded at the two ends.
iii) Flexible steel Conduit:
This usually consists of light galvanized steel strip spirally wound and, to some extent,
interlocked, so as to form a tube.
 One of the most common uses of flexible conduit is for protecting the final connections to
motors. It has the additional advantage of reducing the transmission of vibration.
However, the flexible conduit is costly than the rigid conduit.
iv) PVC Conduit:
 This type of conduit wiring is finding wide applications
in internal wiring because it is light in weight, shock proof, anti-termite, self
extinguishing and fire resistant, acid and alkaline resistant.
 Such conduits can be used for surface, lower-level or hidden type wirings.
 Conduits may be joined by the screwed or plain type of couplers (sockets) depending upon
whether conduits are of the screwed type or plain type.
 In long runs of conduits, inspection type couplers are provided.
 Fixing method shall be the same except that in this case spacing shall be at every 60cm
instead of 1.0m in case of metallic conduit.
Conduit Accessories and Fittings
 Conduit Couplers:
 Couplers are used to join two lengths of conduit.
22
 The lengths of the screwed conduit are always threaded at both ends on the outer side.
 Bends, Elbows and Tees:
 In general conduit fittings include bends, elbows and tees.
 Conduit is available in lengths from 3m to 5m and for straight runs of greater length,
 All these can be either of the inspection type (provided with the detachable lid) or solid.
 Bends are usually used for change in direction of conduit. These should never be sharp.
The minimum allowable radius of curvature is 2.5 times the outside diameter of the
conduit.
 Solid elbows and tees should be used only at the end of the conduit run ( e.g. close behind
a light fitting or accessory). The detachable lid provided in inspection type tees and elbows
facilitate pulling of cables.
 Conduit Boxes:
 Conduit boxes are used in surface conduit wiring as well as concealed conduit wiring.
 The conduit boxes are of different designs.
These serve the following purposes.
1. For providing connections to light, fan and other points.
 The conduit boxes serving the purpose are known as outlet boxes because conduits
terminate at the boxes.
 These boxes may have entry either from side or from back or from sides.
2. For pulling of cables into the conduits.
 The boxes serving this purpose are known as inspection boxes. These are provided after
every 30m length of straight run.
3. For housing junction of cables.
 The conduit boxes serving this purpose are known as junction boxes
4.6. LIHTING ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS:

• Switches:
 The most familiar switch is that used to control lighting circuits. Most are rated at 5/6A,
but rating at 15A are also available.
 Three types of switches are available;
 single pole
 two-way and
 Four-way (intermediate), each for the control of a practical circuit arrangement.
o Switches for water-heaters are of the double-pole type and rated to carry 20A. Other
ratings for the double-pole switches.
23
o Dimmer switches are used to allow control of level lighting from a luminary;
o Water tight switches are designed for outdoor use while splash-proof switches are found
in situations where water is present, such as in shower rooms.
o Most switches tend to be from mounded plastic. Metal-clad versions are also available for
industrial use.
o Switches are of two types, known as surface switches (or tumbler switches) and flush
switches (concealed switches).
 lamp holders
 These are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp and yet they must
hold the lamp in firm metallic contact to prevent overheating.
 There are three main sizes of lamp holders;
The Bayonet-cap (B.C)
The medium Edison screw (E.S) and
The Goliath screw (G.E.S)
 For ordinary tungsten filament lamps up to 200W the lamp caps and thus the lam holders
are B.C, up to 300W the caps are E.S, and above 300w they are G.E.S.
 In any case where a lamp is to be installed the appropriate size and type of holder must be
fitted.
 Lamp holders may be either the insulated type of Bakelite or the brass types with
porcelain interior.
 Plugs and socket-outlets
 These are used to enable portable apparatus to be connected to the fixed wiring and
comprise two or three contact tubes and terminals.
 The plug is the movable part connected to the apparatus by flexible wire, and comprises
two or three contact pins to fit into the contact tubes.
4.7. FUSES:
2. A fuse element consists essentially of a piece of copper or tin-lead alloy wire which will
melt when carrying a predetermined current. This element with contacts, carrier, and
base is called a fuse.
3. It is placed in series with the circuit to be protected, and automatically breaks the circuit
when overloaded.
4. In general, the regulations regarding fuses require that fuses shall be accessible, and shall
be fitted either on the front of a switch-board or in protecting cases.
5. In most cases of installation work, the fuses are fitted in a distribution board.
6. The time for blowing out of a fuse depends upon the magnitude of excess current. The
larger the fault current the more rapidly the fuse blows.
24
 There are three main types of fuses;

I) the renewable
ii) The cartridge and
iii) The HRC (high breaking capacity) fuse; the latter is a development of
the cartridge type.
 Three terms are used in connection with fuses:
Current rating this is the maximum current that a fuse will carry
indefinitely without undue deterioration of the fuse- element.
Fusing current this is the minimum current that will ‘blow’ the fuse
Fusing factor this is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the current
rating.
Fusing factor = minimum fusing current/ current rating >= 1
4.8. CIRCUIT BREAKERS

It is a device designed to open and close a circuit by non- automatic means, and to open
the circuit automatically on a predetermined over –current without injury to itself when
properly applied within its rating.
So a circuit breaker is combination device composed of a manual switch and an over-

current device.
A circuit breaker has several advantages over any type of fuse.

a) In the event of a fault or overload, all the poles are simultaneously
disconnected from the supply.
b) Overload and time-lags are capable of adjustment within limits.
c) The circuit can be closed again quickly onto the fault safely.
 Essentially a circuit breaker consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. As current
flows through the strip, heat is created and the strip bends. If enough current flows
through the strip, it bends enough to release a trip that opens the contacts, interrupting
the circuit just as it is interrupted when a fuse blows or a switch is opened.
 In addition to the bimetallic strip that operates by heat, most breakers have a magnetic
arrangement that open the breaker instantly in case of short circuit.
 A circuit breaker can be considered a switch that opens itself in case of overload.
 Circuit breakers are rated in amperes just as fuses are rated.
 Standard ratings: both fuse and circuit breakers are available in standard rating of
6,10,16,20,25,35,50,63,80,100,125,160,224, 250,300 and large sizes
4.9. DISTRIBUTION BOARD
25
A distribution board is an assemblage of parts, including one or more

fuses or circuit breakers, arranged for the distribution of electrical energy
to final circuits or to other sub-distribution boards. It consists of a case
inside which is a frame holding a number of fuse (circuit breaker) carriers.
Behind the frame or sometimes alongside or above it, is a bus-bar to
which the incoming sub-main is connected.
From the bus-bar there is connection provided to one side of each fuse
way (circuit breaker).
Each final sub-circuit is then connected by the installer to the outgoing
terminal of the fuse ways.
A second bus-bar is provided to which the incoming neutral and the
neutral of the outgoing circuits are connected.
 The standard distribution boards usually have 4, 6,8,12 or 24 fuse ways. Both single-phase
and three-phase are available.
It is not necessary to utilize all the available fuse ways on a board, and in
fact it is very desirable to leave several spare ways on each board for
future extensions
LABORATORY # 5. WIRING ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:

5.1. Distribution of electrical energy:
There are two methods of distribution of electrical energy beyond energy meter in the domestic
and power installation.
 Distribution board system

 The tree system
26
I. Distribution board system: this method is common system adopted by consumers of

domestic installations. The fuse of various sub-circuit are grouped together at a place
close to main switch known as distribution board. See figure below:
One wire is taken from bus bar through a fuse and neutral is taken from a neutral link. The pair of
wires (phase and neutral) taken from main distribution boards is fed to a final sub-circuit board.
The sub-distribution boards are employed near the load center if the building is large. The cable
feeding the sub-distribution board should be large enough to carry a load of points to be feed
from there. The sub-distribution board installed near the load center is mainly to save cable and to
prevent to great voltage drop.
The number of circuit and sub-circuits are decided on the basis of number of points and load to be
connected to the supply.
II. The tree system: in this system smaller branches are taken from the main board. A fuse is
inserted at the commencement of each branch. This system is not allowed due to the
following disadvantage:
a. Voltage across all the lamps doesn’t remain the same. The lamp in the last branch
will have less voltage across the due to voltage drop in the leads.
b. A number of joints are involved in every circuit.
c. The fuses are not at one place.
d. Fault location is difficult if a fault occurs, all the joints in the wiring will be
inspected thoroughly to locate fault. See figure below;
27
5.2. METHODS OF WIRING:

There are two methods by which connection to various electrical points are given:
a. Joint box method

b. Loop in method
Joint box method: in joint box method, the connections to electrical points are given through
joints made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joint cut-outs. See figure below:
In this system the length of wire required may be less but the same offset by extra cost of joint.
The other disadvantage, fault location may be difficult and as such, all joint boxes have to be
inspected to locate the fault. The fixing of joint box may required skill and may not give good look.
Joint boxes should be located in accessible position.
28
Loop in system: most commonly for domestic installations. In this system when a connection is
required for a lamp through switch, the feeding conductor is looped-in by ringing it direct to the
terminal of the switch and then carrying it forward again to the next switch.
The phase wire is looped-in from one switch to other and neutral are looped-in from point to
another. See figure bellow:
The main advantages are:
 No junction boxes are required

 Since no joints are concealed in walls and roof space, they are made
only at outlets and switch boards.
5.3. WIRING SYSTEMS:

A wiring system is an assembly of parts used in the formation of one or more electric circuits.
It consists of the conductor, together with its insulation, its protection against mechanical
damage (sheathing and/or armoring). Certain wiring accessories for fixing the system joining,
and terminating the conductors.
There are various wiring systems, of these, the most commonly employed wiring systems are:
1. Sheathed wiring system

2. Cleat wiring system
3. All-insulated wiring system
4. Catenary wiring system
5. Conduit system
6. Trunking systems
1. Sheathed wiring system
29
The two main metal sheathed wiring systems found today include the lead-alloy sheathed
(LAS) and mineral-insulated metal sheathed (MMS).
The cables of the LAS system are insulated with vulcanized rubber and sheathed overall with a
lead-based alloy containing tin and antimony. It is available in circular single core, or flat2-and
3-corewith or without a copper circuit protective conductor .LAS system may be run on the
surface or concealed. Generally they require no further protection, unless they are exposed to
mechanical damage. The lead sheath is used particularly at the metal junction boxes with
which the LAS system is used. At those junction boxes, metal bonding clamps are used. Cables
are fixed with clips or saddles.
The following points should be noted when installing cables in the sheathed wiring system:
 According to the IEE regulation, the lead sheathed should be continuous

throughout the installation either by soldering or bonding with clamps.
 The cable must be supported by proper metal clips, saddles etc. which must
not be more than 35 cm apart on vertical run and 22 cm on horizontal run.
 The support employed must not be of such material that reacts chemically
with the sheath.
 The cable should not run over the damp place.
 Las cables must not be allowed to come in contact with (extra-low voltage
wiring systems) example bell and telephones, or with gas and water
pipes.
2. Cleat wiring system
This type of wiring is not used practically for permanent wiring and is only suitable for
temporary wiring purpose such as for marriage with advantages of saving in labor and
overall cost.
The system does not give any protection against mechanical damage and so it is useful
only for dry situation and where the cables remain inaccessible.
The cleats are made in two halves one base and the other cap. The base is grooved to
accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and whole of it is then screwed on
wooden plugs (gut ties) previously cemented in to the wall to the supporting wall and
ceiling. Thus the cables are firmly gripped between the two halves of the cleats and
secured to the supporting wall and ceiling. The cleats used are of different sizes and
different types in order to accommodate cables of different sizes and different numbers of
cables respectively. The cleats are the three types: one grooves, two grooves and three
30
grooves to accommodate one, two and three cables respectively. For low voltage (up to
250v) installations, cleats shall be of such dimensions that cable shall not be less than 2.5
cm apart for branch circuits and less than 4 cm apart for sub mains.
This type of wiring is very suitable for temporary installation in dry places. This is also
accepted where appearance is not so important and cheapness is the main consideration.
This system is not suitable for use in domestic premises.
3. All-insulated wiring system:
This wiring system includes TRS (tough-rubber sheathed) and PVC (PVC sheathed) cables.
Their main disadvantage is that they don’t offer adequate protection against mechanical
damage; through they are relatively cheap and easy to install.
The following points are to be observed when installing all-insulated wiring systems:
 Wherever possible the cores of the cable must be identified by

colors.
 At switches, socket outlets and lighting fittings and junction boxes, the sheath of
the cable must be taken inside the accessory.
 TRS and PVC cables can be buried direct in plaster provided care is taken to
insurethat there is no likelihood of damage being caused by say nails and screws.
4. Catenary system
These systems are designed to take supplies from one building to anather by over head
means, or else for building with high ceilings. In this system, insulated cables are carried on a steel
wire strained between two points. For short runs the steel wire carries the cables which are taped
to it.
The composite catenary cable consists of a high tensile galvanized steel wire round which are
located the PVC cables. When installing this type of system it is important to ensure that the steel
wires carry the weight and not the conductors themselves. If the system is used out of doors it is
advisable to fill the connecting boxes with a plastic compound against the entry of moisture. The
catenary wire must be securely fixed at each end. The clearance between the cables and the
ground must be adequate. A pole may have to be used to act as an intermediate support between
the two ends. The cable where it leaves the catenary should pass through a suitable glazed
porcelain lead-in tube.
5. Conduit system
In this system of wiring conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of saddles
or pipe hooks or buried under the walls and cables are drawn in to them. In damp situations the
conduits can be spaced from the walls by means of wooden blocks fixed below the pipes at
31
regular interval. In order to facilitate drawing o0f cables a number of inspection fitting are
provided along its length. The conduits should be electrically and mechanically continuous and
connected to earth at some suitable point.
Conduit s is mainly used to accommodate single insulated non-sheathed conductors. They are, of
course, used for sheathed cables where additional protection from mechanical damage is required
conduits are available in steel PVC and flexible forms.
Steel conduit:
Steel conduits are of two types. They are
-light gauge conduit and
-heavy gauge (screwed) conduit
The light gauge conduit is used for cheap work. It is not water tight and even damp proof and is
not permitted for voltage exceeding 250v.
Screwed steel conduit (solid drawn or welded seam) is used for medium voltage circuits and in
places where good mechanical protection and absolute protection from moisture is desired. In
general the finish of the conduit is black enamel (a smooth coat of enamel both on the inside and
outside surface of the tube).galvanized conduit is also employed, especially in damp insulations
when the conduit is on the surface but under ordinary conditions buried in walls it offers little,if
any ,advantage over good enameled conduits.
The advantages of steel conduit include the following:
1. Good protection against mechanical damage.

2. Complete protection against fire due to short circuits etc.
3. The whole system is water proof
4. Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy
5. It can be used as a circuit protective conductor (CPC), though it is common to
run separate CPC in the conduit.
The main disadvantages of steel conduit are the following:
1. It is a very costly of wiring

2. Its erection is not so easy and requires time
3. Experience and highly skilled labor is required for carrying out the job
4. Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation unless the
system out lets are drained and ventilate.
32
Conduit size is stated in terms of its outer diameter as 11, 13.15, 16, 21, 23, 29, 36, and 48
mm.the number of cables that can be drawn in to one conduit is given by EEPCO’S regulations.
Table b-4 this is to allow for ventilation of current-carrying cables, to allow for removable and
replacement of conductors and in some cases where the existing conduit capacity is not up to its
limit to allow new circuits to be drawn in.
Drawing in cables is carried out by using a draw-in tape made from steel or nylon which is fed
in to the conduit and attached to the cables and then pulled through the conduit. Conduits can be
fixed to the walls by using saddles.
The following points should be noted in the installation of steel conduits:
1. The conduit must be electrically continuous and properly earthed at some

suitable point.
2. Inspection tees, ends or boxes should be used at all bends.
3. Edges of conduits should be field before laying to remove burrs etc and to save
cable insulation from mechanical damage.
4. In long horizontal runs of conduit, where there is a risk of condensation collecting
inside the conduit, drainage points should be provided.
5. Conduit pipes should be fixed by heavy gauge saddles at an interval of not more
than one meter: but on either side of the couplers or bends or similar fittings
saddles should be fixed at a distance of 30-cm from the centre of such fittings.
6. The conduit must be erected and securely fixed before cables are drawn in.
7. Threading should be done carefully and no damage should occur to the finish,
particularly if the black enamel type is used.
8. No exposed threads are allowed
9. Over-crowding of cables should be avoided in conduits.
10. The phase and neutral conductors must be bunched in the same conduit.
PVC conduit:
It is available in both light and heavy grades and does not need to be threaded unless so
specified by the job. The conduit is available as ring, semi-rigid and flexible round. Expansion
couplers are used at every 8-m.
33
PVC conduit is easy to work as compared to metallic conduit and virtually the same range
of system accessories and supports used for metallic conduit is available for PVC. Bending can be
done using bending springs. Jointing PVC conduit is by means of a push fit and sealed with PVC
solvent adhesive used sparingly.
Flexible conduit:
This type of conduit is used to provide a suitable connection between a ring conduit
system or trunking and some type of electrical equipment such as motors where there is a need
for the equipment to be moved within small limits of its mounting position. The conduits are also
used to absorb vibration:
To prevent it from transmitted to the rigid installation. Flexible conduits may be metallic or plastic.
A separate CPC is required and it can run inside or outside of the conduits.
Trunking:
Trunking is a fabricated casing for conductors and cables, generally rectangular in shape with a
removable lid which allows the conductors to be laid in rather than be drawn in as is the case with
conduit. It is used where a large number of conductors are to be carried, or follow the same route.
Trunking is not necessarily a complete wiring system and is thus associated with conduits to allow
connection to wiring accessories and mounting boxes. Both steel and PVC trunking are available
with a wide range of such accessories as bends, tees, risers and reducers.
Wiring lighting and fan circuits:
Lights connected in series: this system is normally applied for decorative lighting where
May lights are connected in series and controlled by one switch. The current will therefore pass
from one to the other. See below:
In series circuits with large number of lamps or other current consuming equipment, it is
important consider the total number of current to be carried by threat particular circuit for
considering minimum size of cables and other load calculations.
Lighting circuit in parallel: used to provide dim lighting or full bright light through the same lamps
by using special switches such as two ways and off switch. This is possible by connecting parallel
34
lamps of the circuits in series. The same circuit is used for dim lights and full bright lamps with
addition of a few more connections.
Circuit examples of fan and light circuits:
Circuit -1-wiring diagram, schematic diagram and single line representations to control one
lighting point by one way switch:
Wiring diagram: diagram showing practical implementation of the schematic diagram with
connections actually made to the electrical points.
Schematic diagram: also called circuit diagram .it is an explanatory diagram intended to facilitate
the understanding of the details operation of the circuit.
Single line diagram:
A diagram showing number of conductors needed accessories and lay out (electrical) symbol of
accessories.
35
Laboratory # 6: RESIDENTIAL INSTALLATION:

Laboratory job 6.1
One lamp controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch (spst). N.B. As we are not equipped
with low voltage power supply, we will be working on 220V, 50Hz. It is mandatory to adhere
to safe working procedures and methods.
1. Given the symbols and the indicated positioning scale in fig 1, complete the lay out
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. Scale 1:10
JB
S
220V, 50Hz
SW
Fig 1 Incomplete layout diagram of a lamp controlled with an spst switch
2. Based on the layout diagram, draw a complete circuit diagram. Get your work checked
by the instructor and after getting approval proceed to construct the wiring on the
circuit board.
3.Laboratory job 6.2
Two lamps connected in series are controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch (spst). N.B.
As we are not equipped with low voltage power supply, we will be working on 220V, 50Hz. It
is mandatory to adhere to safe working procedures and methods.
36
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. L1 and L2 are equidistance from
joint point and 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB
S
220V, 50Hz
SW
Fig 2 Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps connected in series
Controlled with an spst switch
circuit board.
Question
1. Using two lamps with equal power ratings, compare the intensity of light between the
two lamps when power is turned on.
2. Repeat question 1 for two lamps with different power ratings
3. What happens if you unscrew one of the lamps and turn on power?
4. What is the disadvantage of the series wiring?
Laboratory job 6.3
Two lamps connected in parallel are controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch. N.B. As
we are not equipped with low voltage power supply, we will be working on 220V, 50Hz. It is
mandatory to adhere to safe working procedures and methods.
37
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. L1 and L2 are equidistance from
joint point and 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB
S
220V, 50Hz
SW
Fig 3 Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps connected in parallel

controlled with an spst switch
circuit board.
Question
1. Using two lamps with equal power ratings, compare the intensity of light between
the two lamps when power is turned on.
2. Repeat question 1 for two lamps with different power ratings
3. What happens if you unscrew one of the lamps and turn on power?
4. What is the advantage of the series wiring?
38
Laboratory job 6.4
Two lamps independently controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch. N.B. As we are not
equipped with low voltage power supply, we will be working on 220V, 50Hz. It is mandatory
to adhere to safe working procedures and methods.
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. L1 and L2, JB1 and JB2, SW1and SW2
are symmetrically spaced 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB2
S JB1
220V, 50Hz
SW1 SW2
Fig 4 Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps independently
controlled with an spst switch
circuit board.
39
Question
Give two reasons why the wiring set up shown in fig 4 will be advantageous if installed
in a living room.
Laboratory job 6.5
Four lamps of two groups controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch. Group one
consists of lamps 1and 2, and group2 consists of lamps 3 and 4. Group 1 is controlled by
SW1 and group 2 by SW2. N.B. As we are not equipped with low voltage power supply we
will be working on 220V, 50Hz. It is mandatory to adhere to safe working procedures and
methods.
diagram. The lamps and vertically positioned junction boxes are symmetrically located
with in a vertical space of 15cm X 30cm horizontal space. The vertical distance between
the horizontally positioned junction boxes and switches is 30cm. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB1
L1 L2
JB2
JB5
S JB3 JB4
220V, 50Hz
Fig 5 Incomplete layout diagram ofSW

two
1 groups of four lamps with
SW2each group
Independently controlled with an SPST switch
circuit board.
40
Question
Give some specific examples where such kind of wiring is applicable.
Laboratory job 6.6
Two lamps are controlled by a single-pole, single-throw switch to which one earthed single-
phase socket closely attached and a socket is controlled by a switch closely attached to it.
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. L1 and L2 are controlled by SW1
attached on the first socket. SW2 on the second socket controls the socket it self.
Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB2
S JB1
220V, 50Hz
Fig 6 Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps and a socket independently

controlled with an SPST switch
circuit board.
41
Question
Give two reasons why the wiring set up shown in fig 6 will be advantageous if installed
in a living room.
42
Laboratory job 6.7
A single lamp controlled from two different places by means of three way switches.
1. Given the symbols and the indicated positioning scale in fig 7, complete the lay out diagram.
Distance between components is 50cm. JB1 and JB2, SW1and SW2 are symmetrically
spaced 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1
JB2
S JB1
220V, 50Hz
SW1 SW2
Fig 7 Incomplete layout diagram of a single lamp controlled from two
Different positions with three-way switches
2. Based on the layout diagram, draw a complete circuit diagram. Get your work checked by
the instructor and after getting approval proceed to construct the wiring on the circuit
board.
Question
State briefly the application of three-way switch.
43
Laboratory job 6.8

Two lamps controlled from two different places by means of three way switches.
Distance between components is 50cm. L1 and L2, JB1 and JB2, SW1and SW2 are
symmetrically spaced 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
JB2
S JB1
220V, 50Hz
SW1 SW2
Fig 8 Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps controlled from two different
Positions with three-way switches
board.
Question
Draw the schematic diagram of three lamps simultaneously controlled from two different
positions by means of three way switches.
44
Laboratory job 6.9

A single lamp controlled from three different places by means of two three-way switches and one
intermediate switch.
Distance between components is 50cm. JB1, JB2 and JB3, SW1, SW2 and SW3 are
symmetrically spaced 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1
S JB1 JB3
JB2
220V, 50Hz
SW1 SW2 SW3
Fig 9 Incomplete layout diagram of a single lamp controlled from three
Different positions with three-way switches & intermediate switch.
board.
Question
State some areas of application of such circuits.
45
Laboratory job 6.10
Two fluorescent lamps (one single, the other double tube) controlled from four different places by
means of two three-way switches and two intermediate switches.
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. JB1, JB2, JB3 and JB4; SW1, SW2, SW3,
and SW4; L1 and L2 are symmetrically spaced 20cm apart. Scale 1:10
L1 L2
S JB1 JB2 JB3 JB4

220V, 50Hz
SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4
Fig 10 Incomplete layout diagram of two fluorescent lamps controlled from

three different positions with three-way switches & intermediate switches.
board.
Assignment
Given two lamps and two three way switches draw a circuit diagram such that the following
sequential operation will be fulfilled.
 When you operate the first three way switch the lamps will connect in series
 When you operate the second three way switch the lamps will connect in
parallel
 If you operate the first switch for the second time, only one of the lamps
give light
 If you operate the second switch for the second time, both lamps will turn
off
46
Laboratory job 6.11
Operating a bell from a single point
diagram. Distance between components is 50cm. Scale 1:10
Bell
JB
S
220V, 50Hz
Push button
Fig 11 Incomplete layout diagram of a bell
board.
Question
1. Where do you think such circuits are applicable?

2. Draw a schematic diagram to operate a bell from two different positions, for instance,
from dining room and corridor.
47
Laboratory job 6.12
Annunciator circuits:
Operating a bell from different positions and indicating the positions.
Bell
Flags Indicator
1 2 3 4R
P1 P2 P3 P4
Reset
Fig 12 Annunciator circuit
Given the circuit above, draw its wiring diagram and construct it on circuit board.
Question
List some areas of application of such circuits.
48
Laboratory job 6.13:

Combinational circuits
Given the following layout diagram indicate the number of wiring on the layout diagram and draw
the wiring diagram. Place components symmetrically.
220V
Circuit (a)- a lamp controlled from two positions, a bell, and
a socket with ground circuit
220V
Circuit (b)- one controll position for the lamp and a socket
added to circuit (a)
Fig 13 Incomplete layout diagrams for sample combinational circuits
Question:
Draw a schematic circuit diagram similar to circuit (b), if the push-button were to be closely
attached to the four-way switch.
49
Laboratory job 6.14
Power board
The power and the control devices shown below will be used in subsequent lab exercises requiring 3-
phase supply. Install the power and control devices on a board as shown.
Power board
Main
Switch
25A
Fuses
Control Board
Breakers
Contac
3 1 1 1 tor+ov-
Socket Conta Conta Timer
erload
ctor ctor
relay
16A 16A 10A
16A
Y Y
Buttons
Start Stop Reverse
Fig 16 power and control devices
50
Laboratory job 6.15

A typical example of industrial wiring is shown below, which consists of:
a) Circuit 1: two group of light with two single pole switches (ganged switch),
Protected by 10A circuit breaker.
b) Circuit 2: two single phase socket outlets with ground, protected by 16A
Circuit breakers.
c) Circuit 3: two three phase socket outlets with ground, protected by 16A
Three phase circuit breakers.
Install the circuits according to the diagram shown below using ½ inch pipe.
NOTE: All the branch circuits are controlled from the power board you have constructed
in lab 16. The instructor must check the circuits before you apply power.
Fig 17 A typical example of industrial wiring
51
Laboratory # 6: INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION:

Principle of contactor and direct control motor:
AIM: connecting starter with contactors and running of induction motors.
MATERIALS: cables, starters, contactors, fuses and other devices.
TOOLS: Electrician knife, screwdrivers, pliers.

INTRODUCTION:
A contactor is a device, actuated by electromagnetic means, for establishing and
interrupting an electric power circuit repeatedly.
The principal parts of a contactor are the electromagnet, the contacts and the arc
quenching structure. The basic working principle can be shown from fig. below. When the
solenoid coil is energized from an ac source the moving armature is attracted upwards and the
moving contacts make contacts with the stationary contact. When the solenoid coil is de
energized the armature drops out and the contacts open. Normally double break contacts are
employed in contactors, for cutting the voltage in half on each contact providing high arc
rupturing capacity and longer contact life.
Fig. contactor
52
The AC electromagnet consists of thin laminations with an insulation coating to reduce the iron
loses due to eddy currents. The coil surrounds the center leg and the moving armature extends
partially in to the coil. Due to ac supply, wherein the magnetizing current and flux passes
through zero twice in each cycle, the armature tends to open momentarily up on each reversal,
resulting in chattering of the magnet. To avoid this shading ring is embedded in the pole face.
The shading ring is a short circuited loop of conducting material. Whenever the main flux passes
through zero, the shading pole contributes an auxiliary flux which holds the magnet armature
closed.
When the magnet is open, the air gap is large; hence the reactance (and impedance) is low.
When the coil is energized, the coil will draw a large in rush current, and as the magnet
armature closes, the air gap becomes smaller and smaller, the reactance increases and the coil
current decreases. When the armature is closed the coil current drops to the magnetizing
current which is sufficient to hold the contactor closed against the force of the contact springs.
Magnetizing current and inrush current must be taken in to consideration for selection of
control transformers, push-buttons, etc.
Function of a contactor:
1. To establish and interrupt electric power as per requirement.
2. To provide no-volt and under volt protection. A contactor in conjunction with a
pushbutton provides no voltage protection which is required for machine tools to
prevent inadvertent restarting after a power supply failure. The design of the coil
enables the contactor to operate effectively for supply voltage between 85% and
110% of rated supply. Hence when voltage falls below 85 % of rated coil voltage, the
contactor drops out, preventing over loading of the motor.
AC motors operate from alternating current (ac) power sources. The magnetic fields
typically are generated using coils on the rotor and the stator , and the field movement
occurs naturally in the stator due to the alternating nature of the input power. These
motors are in expensive to build and operate, reliable, and usually run from standard line
power. The power supply frequency determines the speed of an ac motor, so if operated
from line power, the speed of rotation is always the same. Variable frequency power
drives control the speed of ac motors, but such drives are expensive.
AC induction motor is then most common motor used in industry and mains powered
home appliances. AC induction motors offer users simple, rugged construction and easy
maintenance.
An ac induction motor consists of two basic parts: these are stator and rotor and this
machine is analogous to an ac transformer with a rotating secondary.
53
The motor’s name comes from the alternating current (ac) induces in to the rotor by the
rotating magnetic flux produced in the stator. Motor torque is developed from
interaction of currents flowing in the rotor bars and the stator rotating magnetic field.
The magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed, the motor theoretical top speed that
would result in no torque output.
There are also other ac motor types than ac induction motors. Here are many different
low power motor types. Permanent split capacitor motors are designed for single speed
applications using single phase power. These motors require continuous duty, motor run
capacitors connected in the auxiliary winding circuit to produce starting torque
synchronous designs provide exact speed from no load to full load, asynchronous motors
have regulation usually less than 3% speed change from no load to full load:
Split phase motors are designed for single speed applications using single phase power
.the specially designed auxiliary winding produces starting torque and is then
disconnected by an in ternary l mechanical, centrifugal starting switch. Start or run
capacitor is required. However, an electrolytic start capacitor may be connected in series
with the auxiliary winding to increase starting torque and reduce starting current. There
are also motors called UNIVERSAL MOTORS where their speed can be easily controlled
using PWM control methods (phase control of ac power).
The first purpose of a motor controller is to start and stop the equipment. A magnetic
contactor provides the traditional and still most common start stop control. Protection
must be provided to prevent motor thermal damage due to high currents caused by
mechanical overloads. Overload relays in motor controllers are connected in the motor
current circuit between the contactor and the motor. They are provided with three
current sensing elements, one per phase, and a control contact, which is wired to open
the contactor. Relay operation includes an inverse time characteristic; the higher the
magnitude of an overload, the shorter the time delay before opening then contactor. For
most applications, the level above which the relay senses an overload is 115% of FLA, and
the relay which hold LRA for at least 10sec to accommodate starting of high inertia loads.
54
Development of the control circuit:

The control circuit is usually constructed using a control bus, giving spacing between 100 and
150 mm, between the horizontal lines, depending up on the complexity of the control circuit.
With the circuit there are two push buttons. i.e., start and stop push buttons. Start push
buttons are always normally open and stop push buttons are normally closed. This buttons are
connected sequentially so as to save the wiring cable of the installation and to minimize the
cost and as well increasing clarity.
The operation of the above control circuit is first the circuit must be constructed from stop push
button and start push button consecutively. Then the start push button (P3) is also provided
with its auxiliary contact. Auxiliary contact is used to run the motor even if the start push
button is released. But the principal thing is the operation is becoming complete if the coil is
energized. To do this the start push button must be pressed. But if the start push button is
spring return to open, when the button is released the coil will be de-energized and the motor
will stop.
55
METHODS OF MOTOR STARTING:

In general, there are five basic methods of starting induction motors:
1. Direct on line starting (DOL) starting
2. Star -delta or wye-delta starting
3. Autotransformer starting
4. Reactor or resistor starting
5. Soft starting
Except for DOL starting, the prime objective of this alternative strting method is to reduce
the supply voltage to the motor, with the express purpose of reducing the inrush currents that
occur during the starting operation.
1. Direct on line starting (DOL) starting:

DOL starting has been used with success for many years, particularly with smaller squirrel
cage induction motors. It is unfortunate that many utilities still have many restrictions in place
that limit the size of motors that can be started direct on line.
The diagram shows a typical full-voltage magnetic starter equipped with three thermal overloads with
start-stop buttons.
1. Explain how the circuit shown below operates.

2. Sometimes, it is advisable to have a pilot light on the control circuit. Draw such a control
circuit with the pilot light ON when the motor runs and a pilot light OFF when the motor
stops.
3. Construct both the power and control circuit diagrams on the board. The instructor must
check the circuits before you apply power.
4. What is the main problem with this type of starting method on circuit breaker, over load
relay, magnetic starter and on the motor itself?
5. Can large motors (with power rating greater than 10hp) be started using this method?
56
R S T Control
Stop
OL
C C C Start
C
Overload relay
C
HeaV1
U1 ter W1
(OLH)
Power Circuit Control Circuit

Fig 18 across the line motor starting method
Question
Repeat Q2 so that the pilot light turns OFF when the motor runs and ON when it stops.
2. Star -delta or wye-delta starting :

One method of reducing the starting current of three phase motors is using wye-delta switch. This
method is used for three phase motors designed to run delta connected (the most common connection)
which also means that the motors rating is 380V. Using this method the motor is started with a voltage
per phase reduced to 58 %( 220/380x100) and correspondingly the starting current is low.
1. How many leads must come out from the motor so that they can be connected wye when
starting and then delta when running the motor?
2. Explain operation of the circuit and construct it. Have the circuit checked by the instructor
before you switch on the power.
3. Read the power rating of the motor from its name plate and then:
a) Select the rating of wye-delta switch required.
b) Choose the rating of fuses for fault protection
c) Select the rating of the overload relay for overload protection
4. Explain using a diagram how a wye-delta switches reduces the starting current of motor.
57
R S T
U1 V1 W1
Y-
Switch
M
U2 V2 W2
Fig 19 Y- motor starting circuit using Y- switch
Star-Delta motor starting using contactors without timer

In the above lab, we have seen that star-delta switches are used to reduce the starting current
of motors.
In this lab exercise of motor starting, we will use magnetic contactors instead of a wye-delta
switch. The circuit using magnetic contactors that we will construct is electrically interlocked.
1. Explain operation sequence of the wye-delta starting circuit shown below.
2. Construct the control and power circuit on the board. Before switching any power supply to
any of the circuit, it must be checked by the instructor.
3. Read the power rating of the circuit from its name plate and then:
a) Select the power rating of the connectors required for the motor.
b) Calculate the current rating and select fuses for fault protection.
c) Select the current rating of the over load relay for over load protection.
58
R S T Vontrol
Stop
OL
C1 C1 C1
Start Y
C3
C1
Start 
U1 V1 W1 C3
C3 C3 C3
M C2
C3
C2 C1 C3
C2 C2 C2
Power Circuit Control circuit
Fig 20 Semi-automatic wye-delta motor starting
Motor reversing using magnetic starter with electrical interlock:
Many electrical motor drive applications require motor reversing.

In this laboratory exercise, we will use magnetic contactors that are electrically interlocked to reverse
the direction of the rotation of the motor.
1. Explain operation sequence of the motor reversing circuit shown below.
2. Construct the control and power circuit on the board
3. Draw a power and control circuit for reversing a motor without stopping it using a ganged push
button.
What is the problem in using a single push button to reverse the motor without stopping it?
Note: Before switching any power supply to the circuit, it must be checked by the instructor.
59
R S T
(ii)
C1 C1 C1
OL
V Control
C2 C2 C2 C1 C2
(i)
M
(iii)
Power circuit C2 C1
C1 C2
(i) Clockwise
(ii) Stop
(iii) Anti-clockwise
Control circuit
Fig 22 Motor starting using magnetic starter
60
Motor Reversing using Magnetic Starter:
Vcontrol
R S T
Stop
OL
Start (cw)
C1 C1 C1 C2 C2 C2 C1
C1
Start (ccw)
C2
C2
U1 V1 W1
C1
C2
M
U2 V2 W2
Control circuit
Power circuit
Fig 23 Motor Reversing using Magnetic Starter
Autotransformer Starting:
Starting transformers are essentially autotransformers with a selection of secondary
tapping’s all representing a percentage of the full line voltage, typically 50%, 65 and 80%.
Initially the motor is connected to the 5o% tapping and then to the 65 and 80 % tapping’s in
turn. As with the resistance starters, this method can occupy a large amount of space and
requires even more expensive external circuitry .The transitions can also cause current spikes.
61
REACTOR OR RESISTOR STARTING:

Primary resistance starters work by introducing additional resistance (reactor) into the stator
windings, thus reducing the current drawn from the line.
After running of a given motor it may be stopped by any one of the following methods:
1. Manually, by depressing the momentary NC stop button.

2. By a suspended overload relay causing its NC contact in the control circuit to open.
3. By a short circuit causing the fuses to open and disconnect the motor from the line.
4. By a short circuit or overload in the control circuit, causing its low rated fuses to open.
5. By a suspended under voltage sufficient to cause the coil to become de-energized
6. By opening the main switch disconnecting the motor from the three phase supply.
The above mechanisms are commonly applicable for circuits that are used to control the
motors using direct on line starting.
Direct online starting draws nearly five to six times the rated current for a short duration. This inrush of
starting current produces momentary line voltage reductions affecting other electrical equipment.
Where the capacity of supply permits, even large induction motors may be started directly across the
line without damage to the motor.
Fig. Limitation of the starting current by reactor (resistor) starting method.
62
63
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Aksum University, Electrical and computer Engineering Department

College of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Manual for Electrical

1.1 personal Safety

Chapter two: Splicing, Soldering and Termination of Wires ……………….7

2.1 Splicing of wires

Chapter three: Drawings, Wiring Materials and Accessories ……..………11

Chapter four: Wiring electrical circuits…………………………….………25

Chapter five: labs related to Residential Installation………

Chapter one general workshop safety

AC(mA) DC(mA) Effect

They are four types of safety signs:

Warning signs (these give safety information)

Advisory or safe condition sign

Advisor or safety condition signs

AIM; to make different types of splicing, terminating and soldering

MATERIAL: Solid wire, Sand Paper Flux, Lead.

Splicing and Joining:

Definition of splicing: is an electrical connection made by twisting wires together

Advantages of proper splicing: It makes the installation become mechanically and

Laboratory job 1.1 Rat tail joint:

1. Remove 4cm insulation from the end of both wires.

1. Wire must be nicked while removing the insulation.

Laboratory job 1.2: making tap joint:

1. Remove insulation about 3 cm from center, of the running wire.

1. Wire must not be nicked while removing the insulation.

1. Remove 7.5 cm insulation from the end of both wires.

1. See that wire is not nicked, while removing the insulation.

Laboratory job 1.4: ‘T’ joint in strand wire:

1. Take 2 pieces of 20 cm each wire.

1. There should not be any gap between the turns.

Supplementary note on soldering

Soldering Copper Conductors

a) Heating coil soldering iron: In such irons the heat is produced by a

b) Electric arc soldering iron: here the heat is generated by an electric

a) Continuously heated soldering iron:- Such irons could be heated

Principle of operation of the heating coil soldering iron

1. Soldering tip (Copper rod)

Cross-sectional view of a heating coil soldering iron.

1. File the tip of the iron

Generally soldering requires

1. Always have the wires or the surface clean

Soldering should be performed in well ventilated rooms.

Insulating the splice:

Termination: The process of connecting lugs or connectors to the wires

B. Ring end termination: is generally used for terminating small gauge

1. Measure about 10 to 15 mm of the wire depending upon the

2. Skin this portion of the wire.

Procedure: Stub-end termination for stranded wire

1. Single-strand wires with cross-section greater than 10sq.mm are

2. Single as well as multi-strand Aluminum wires may also be

Laboratory # 4: WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES

4.1. WIRE AND CABLE

The necessary requirements of cable are that it should

A Cable consists of three parts:

C) The protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damage

4.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS USED IN CABLES:

4.3. INSULATING MATERIALS:

The various types of insulting materials used in cables are :-

1. Rubber: Rubber may be natural or synthetic. Its relative permittivity is between 2

2. PVC: Polyvinyl chloride is a man made thermo- plastic which is tough,

4.4. TYPES OF CABLES USED IN INTERNAL WIRING:

 the type of conductor

Twin core with ECC (earth continuity conductor) cables Etc.