“Dynamic Modeling of Power

Electronics Circuits with Application

by SIMULINK”
 ‫‪Editors‬‬

‫احمد ابراهيم محمد شهاب‬ ‫ابراهيم كامل ابراهيم ابراهيم‬

‫احمد سمير عبد المعطي حسن‬ ‫احمد رفعت السيد عمي المواردي‬

‫احمد محمود السيد احمد‬ ‫احمد فخري محمد صبح خميل صبح‬

‫عصام فوزي محمود البشبيشي‬ ‫تبارك احمد فوزي عبد العزيز مدكور‬

‫محمد جمال حسن بدران عجوه‬ ‫كريم عبد الجواد محمد البدوي‬

‫محمد محسن عبد الفتاح ابوحسين‬ ‫محمد رضا محمد ابو جمره‬

‫محمود حسين حامد توفيق العجوز‬ ‫محمد محمد محمد السبع‬

‫معتز سامي عبد الفتاح محمد الزهار‬

 Preface

This project describes an efficient method to teach analysis and

simulation of power electronic converters to undergraduate students.
System-level modeling of power electronic converters reproduces only the
ideal switching behavior of the semiconductors and is a useful concept for
the numerical simulation of power converters,
Since simulations present no convergence problems and require little
computational time.
Switched state-space models, programmed in the MATLAB/SIMULINK
software package, can be advantageously used to simulate power converters
at the system level and also to design and study their controllers.
Switched state-space nonlinear models should be obtained using a
theoretical framework suitable for the enhanced control of variable
structure power systems.
Since the method is inherently nonlinear, no approximated linear models
are needed; and since state-space models are used, modern control
techniques (sliding mode, neural networks, and fuzzy logic) for power
converters can easily be used.
 Contents

Chapter 1:
1. Modeling techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. 1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 What is modeling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 What programs are used for modeling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Why using MATLAB simulation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 2:
2. Power Electronic | Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.2 Definition of power Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.3 Power electronic circuits requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.4 Power conversion system (PCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5 Interdisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics . . . . . . . . . .

2.6 Application of Power Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7 Overview of power semiconductor switches . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Switching Losses in Semiconductor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Power electronics example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 3:
3. Modeling of power electronic devices used for connect grid

with PV modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Circuit components for efficient electronic power conversion? .
..................................................

3.3 Boost (step-up) DC-DC converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4 Single-phase DC-AC grid-connected inverter . . . . . . . . .

3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4:
4. Solar Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Solar Irradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Types PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4 PV Module Simulink models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5 Simulink Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 5:
 Chapter 1

Modeling techniques
1. 1 Introduction:

Why Simulate?
There is a wide variety of reasons for under taking simulations of software
process models.
In many cases, simulation is an aid to decision making.
It also helps in risk reduction, and helps management at the strategic,
tactical, and Operational levels.

We have clustered the many reasons for using simulations of software

processes into six categories of purpose:

1. strategic management
2. planning
3. control and operational management
4. process improvement and technologyadoption
5. understanding
6. training and learning
When developing software process simulation models, identifying the
purpose and the questions issues management would like to address is central to
defining the model scope and data that need to be collected.
In the following paragraphs, examples of practical questions and issues
that can be addressed with simulation are presented for each of these six
Purpose categories. Simulation can help with training and learning about
software processes in several ways. Although this purpose cluster is closely
related to that of “Understanding”, the particular setting envisioned here is an
explicitly instructional one.
 Simulations provide a way for personnel to practice / learn project
management; this is analogous to pilots practicing on flight simulators.
A simulated environment can help management trainees learn the likely impacts
of common decisions (often mistakes),
e.g., rushing into coding, skipping inspections, or reducing testing time.
Finally, training through participation in simulations can help people to accept
the unreliability of their initial expectations about the results of given actions;

1.2 WHAT IS MODELING?

Modeling is the process of producing a model; a model is a representation

of the construction and working of some system of interest. A model is similar
to but simpler than the system it represents. One purpose of a model is to enable
the analyst to predict the effect of changes to the system. On the one hand, a
model should be a close approximation to the real system and incorporate most
of its salient features.
On the otherhand, it should not be so complex that it is impossible to
understand and experiment with it.
A good model is a judicious trade off between realism and simplicity.
Simulation practitioners recommend increasing the complexity of a
model. An important issue in modeling is model validity. Model validation
techniques include simulating the model under known input conditions and
comparing model output with system output.
Generally, a model intended for a simulation study is a mathematical
model developed with the help of simulation software.
Mathematical model classifications include deterministic (input and
output) variables are (fixed values) or stochastic (at least one of the input or
output variables is probabilistic); Static (time is not taken into account) or
dynamic (time-varying interactions among variables are taken into account).
Typically, simulation models are stochastic and dynamic.

1.3 What programs are used for modeling?

COMPUTER simulation plays an important role in the design, analysis,

and evaluation of power electronic converters and their controllers.
Designing and developing power electronic circuits without suitable
computer simulation are extremely laborious, error-prone, time-consuming, and
expensive.
Therefore, it is essential to teach, at the undergraduate level, power
converter modeling and simulation, together with the dynamic behavior of the
converter, using a theoretical framework suited for controller design and
development.
Nowadays, a variety of software tools, such as SPICE, EMTP, SABER,
CASPOC, SIMPLORER, SPECTRE, etc., is available to simulate electrical and
electronic circuits.
The most used simulators are SPICE or PSPICE user-friendly programs
designed to perform analysis of low power analog electronic circuits.
Several power electronics professors have used SPICE to simulate the
behavior of power electronics converters.

1.3.1 SPICE:
Simulation has, therefore, become a part of several power electronics
courses. SPICE is fitted with physical models of semiconductors and switching
devices. Physical modeling produces well-detailed results, but leads to high
calculation effort and often introduces convergence problems during transient
simulation (SPICE has 86% success rate). To overcome these convergence
problems, the power semiconductors are usually fitted with suitably designed
snubbers. Students and teachers are, therefore, committed to solving the
convergence problems and to reducing the computing time and memory needed,
both time consuming tasks, with suitable snubber circuits and device values.
It is able to perform the time-domain, steady-state behavior and transient
analysis needed to study most power electronic circuits. However, some built-in
capabilities of SPICE, such as dc operating point and small signal ac frequency
analysis, are not usable for power converters. SPICE ac frequency analysis does
not provide the dynamic transfer functions of power converters, because of the
switching operation of the power semiconductors. Therefore, two simulation
packages are often needed. Furthermore, because of the huge amount of memory
and CPU time required to converge problems, SPICE cannot easily handle the
usually long, transient analysis behavior of complex switching converter
topologies.
Since most physical details are not needed in the study of power
electronics, some well-known authors have used macro models of the
semiconductor switching devices to improve convergence and increase
simulation speed

1.3.2 The PSpice:

Light version has the following limitations: circuits have a maximum of

64 nodes, 10 transistors and 2 operational amplifiers.

1.3.3 EMTP:

EMTP is an acronym for Electromagnetic Transients Program. It is

usually part of a battery of software tools targeting a slice of the spectrum of
design and operation problems presented by Electric Power Systems to the
Electrical Engineer, that of the so called "electromagnetic transients" and
associated insulation issues.

1.3.4 CASPOC:

It is best suited for modeling and simulating physical systems. It enables

full-system virtual prototyping of applications in analog/power electronics,
electric power generation/conversion/distribution and mechatronics. It is
especially designed for systems simulation. Real world electromechanical
problems require the ability to design magnetic and electric components that
produce needed forces and torques, such as motor and solenoid design. Optimal
electromechanical designs are restricted by package size, weight, thermal
considerations, available power and many other environmental limitations .

By using CASPOC, engineers can model, load and control in one

multilevel model. This multilevel program includes a circuit level for the
modeling of switched mode power supplies, a component level for the modeling
of electrical machines/loads and a system level for the modeling of control
algorithms. For educational purposes, CASPOC is the only simulator in the
market with a circuit animation feature, which contains a "Freeze and Go Back"
function.By combining a variety of technologies into one single user interface,
CASPOC combines the power and versatility required to challenge sophisticated
design problems
1.4 Why using simulation?

“MATLAB/SIMULINK” software is widely used for the simulation of

almost all types of dynamic systems. This software package is also valuable for
teaching and learning since it provides a series of standard routines and software
toolboxes, such as a control toolbox, system identification blocks, nonlinear
control design block set, and neural networks block set, which enable students to
perform system simulation, identification, and control.

The latest versions of MATLAB/SIMULINK include a “Power System

Block set”. This toolbox features electrical models of power semiconductors and
the most commonly used power devices (machines, transformers, power lines,
voltage sources), and allows simulation of power systems and power electronics.
This package is valuable for simulating well-known topologies several of
which are included as demonstrations, but it tends to generate too many
algebraic loops on more complex or novel power topologies.
These algebraic loops are difficult to handle (because they are inherent to
the modeling method) and are time consuming, often preventing simulation
convergence. Furthermore, this toolbox does not easily allow open-loop or
closed-loop simulation of series associations of power rectifiers, nor does it
study the steady and the transient-states in cases of unbalanced or distorted
and/or polluted power supply.
Considering the approach of with PSPICE and SIMPLORER, the authors
think that a system-level simulation, considering only the ideal switching and
functional behavior of power semiconductors would be desirable for
MATLAB/SIMULINK. The system-level simulation is fast enough and free of
algebraic loops and convergence problems (SIMULINK has built-in integration
methods suited to deal with stiff systems).
Therefore, it could avoid the problems of the “Power System Block set”
mentioned above.
Additionally, the system-level derived models to implement in
SIMULINK can be used for closed-loop controller design, since they are
switched state-space models.
This advantage is lost when using the “Power System Block set” or
“SIMPLORER.” Considering the increasing capabilities of
“MATLAB/SIMULINK” for the simulation of dynamic systems, it is
advantageous to adapt the ideal models of semiconductors and simulation
methods presented here for this software since only one software package is
needed. The simulation time is short (a few seconds); an excellent graphical
interface is available with parametric identification of the system and the ability
to choose the numerical integration method and toolboxes for closed-loop
control. In addition, the SIMULINK package offers the benefits of a hierarchical
structure and uses “MATLAB” as its mathematical engine.
If required, the modeling method here proposed could be adapted to other
programs. Since the goal is to teach nonlinear mathematical modeling and
control and the simulation of power converters, the simulation models described
are quite suitable to studypower electronics converters in drives or other
applications whose simulation times are not too long, since only the ideal
behavior of the power switches is considered.
This work was initially developed for research in the area of new
topologies for power electronics. However, further developments allowed its use
as a valuable teaching aid.
1.5 Application

Example 1: DC Motor Speed Modeling in Simulink

Physical setup:

A common actuator in control systems is the DC motor. It directly

provides rotary motion and, coupled with wheels or drums and cables, can
provide transitional motion. The electric circuit of the armature and the free
body diagram of the rotor are shown in the following figure:

For this example, we will assume the following values for the physical
parameters:
Moment of inertia of the rotor (J) = 0.01 kg.m^2/s^2
Damping ratio of the mechanical system (b) = 0.1 Nms
Electromotive force constant (K= Ke=Kt) = 0.01 N m/Amp
Electric resistance (R) = 1 ohm
Electric inductance (L) = 0.5 H
Input (V): Source Voltage
Output (theta): position of shaft the rotor and shaft are assumed to be rigid
The motor torque, T, is related to the armature current, i, by a constant factor Kt.
The back emf, e, is related to the rotational velocity by the following equations:

T = Kt i

𝒅𝜽
𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆
𝒅𝒕

In SI units (which we will use),Kt (armature constant) is equal to Ke (motor

constant).

Building the Model:

This system will be modeled by summing the torques acting on the rotor
inertia and integrating the acceleration to give the velocity. Also, Kirckoff's laws
will be applied to the armature circuit.

 Open Simulink and open a new model window.

First, we will model the integrals of the rotational acceleration and of the rate of
change of armature current.
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
=
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑖
=𝑖
𝑑𝑡

 Insert an Integrator block (from the linear block library) and draw lines
to and from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d2/dt2 (theta)" and the output line "d/dt(theta)" as
shown below. To add such a label, double click in the empty space just
above the line.
  Insert another Integrator block above the previous one and draw lines to
and from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d/dt (I)" and the output line "I".

Next, we will start to model both Newton's law and Kirchoff'’s law. These laws
applied to the motor system give the following equations:

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝜃 1 𝑑𝜃
𝐽 2 =𝑇−𝑏 → = 𝐾𝑡 𝑖 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐽 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝜃
𝐿 = −𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉 − 𝑒 → = −𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉 − 𝐾𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐽 𝑑𝑡

The angular acceleration is equal to 1/J multiplied by the sum of two terms (one
pos., one neg.). Similarly, the derivative of current is equal to 1/L multiplied by
the sum of three terms (one pos., two neg.).
 Insert two Gain blocks, (from the Linear block library) one attached to
each of the integrators.
 Edit the gain block corresponding to angular acceleration by double-
clicking it and changing its value to "1/J".
 Change the label of this Gain block to "inertia" by clicking on the word
"Gain" underneath the block.
 Similarly, edit the other Gain's value to "1/L" and it's label to
Inductance.
 Insert two Sum blocks (from the Linear block library), one attached by
a line to each of the Gain blocks.
 Edit the signs of the Sum block corresponding to rotation to "+-" since
one term is positive and one is negative.
 Edit the signs of the other Sum block to "-+-" to represent the signs of
the terms in Kirchhoff's equation.
Now, we will add in the torques which is represented in Newton's equation.
First, we will add in the damping torque.

 Insert a gain block below the inertia block, select it by single-clicking on

it, and select Flip from the Format menu (or type Ctrl-F) to flip it left-to-
right.
 Set the gain value to "b" and rename this block to "damping".
 Tap a line (hold Ctrl while drawing) off the rotational integrator's output
and connect it to the input of the damping gain block.
 Draw a line from the damping gain output to the negative input of the
rotational Sum block.
 Next, we will add in the torque from the armature.
 Insert a gain block attached to the positive input of the rotational Sum
block with a line.
 Edit its value to "K" to represent the motor constant and Label it "Kt".
 Continue drawing the line leading from the current integrator and connect
it to the Kt gain block.
Now, we will add in the voltage terms which are represented in Kirchoff's
equation. First, we will add in the voltage drop across the coil resistance.

 Insert a gain block above the inductance block, and flip it left-to-right.
 Set the gain value to "R" and rename this block to "Resistance".
 Tap a line (hold Ctrl while drawing) off the current integrator's output
and connect it to the input of the resistance gain block.
 Draw a line from the resistance gain output to the upper negative input
of the current equation Sum block.

Next, we will add in the back emf from the motor.

 Insert a gain block attached to the other negative input of the current
Sum block with a line.
 Edit its value to "K" to represent the motor constant and Label it "Ke".
 Tap a line off the rotational integrator output and connect it to the Ke
gain block.
The third voltage term in the Kirchoff equation is the control input, V. We will
apply a step input.

 Insert a Step block (from the Sources block library) and connect it with
a line to the positive input of the current Sum block.
 To view the output speed, insert a Scope (from the Sinks block library)
connected to the output of the rotational integrator.
 To provide a appropriate unit step input at t=0, double-click the Step
block and set the Step Time to "0".

Open-loop response:

To simulate this system, first, an appropriate simulation time must be set.

Select Parameters from the Simulation menu and enter "3" in the Stop Time
field.3seconds is long enough to view the open-loop response. The physical
parameters must now be set. Run the following commands at the MATLAB
prompt:

J=0.01;
b=0.1;
K=0.01;
R=1;
L=0.5;
Run the simulation (Ctrl-t or Start on the Simulation menu). When the
simulation is finished, double-click on the scope and hit its autoscale button.
You should see the following output.
Example 2: DC Motor Position Modeling in Simulink

Physical setup:
A common actuator in control systems is the DC motor. It directly provides
rotary motion and, coupled with wheels or drums and cables, can provide
transitional motion. The electric circuit of the armature and the free body
diagram of the rotor are shown in the following figure:

For this example, we will assume the following values for the physical
parameters. These values were derived by experiment from an actual motor in
Carnegie Mellon's undergraduate controls lab.

Moment of inertia of the rotor (J) = 3.2284E-6 kg.m^2/s^2

damping ratio of the mechanical system (b) = 3.5077E-6 Nms
Electromotive force constant (K=Ke=Kt) = 0.0274 Nm/Amp
Electric resistances (R) = 4 ohm
Electric inductance (L) = 2.75E-6 H
Input (V): Source Voltage
Output (theta): position of shaft the rotor and shaft are assumed to be rigid

The motor torque, T, is related to the armature current, i, by a constant factor Kt.
The back emf, e, is related to the rotational velocity by the following equations:
 𝑇 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼

𝑑𝜃
𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒
𝑑𝑡

In SI units (which we will use),

𝐾𝑡 (armature constant) is equal to 𝐾𝑒 (motor constant).

Building the Model:

This system will be modeled by summing the torques acting on the rotor
inertia and integrating the acceleration to give the velocity, and integrating
velocity to get position. Also, Kirchhoff's laws will be applied to the armature
circuit. Open Simulink and open a new model window. First, we will model the
integrals of the rotational acceleration and of the rate of change of armature
current.

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= = 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
=𝑖
𝑑𝑡

 Insert an Integrator block (from the linear block library) and draw lines
to and from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d2/dt2 (theta)" and the output line "d/dt (theta)" as
shown below. To add such a label, double click in the empty space just
above the line.
 Insert another Integrator block attached to the output of the previous
one and draw a line from its output terminal.
  Label the output line "theta".
 Insert a third Integrator block above the first one and draw lines to and
from its input and output terminals.
 Label the input line "d/dt(I)" and the output line "I".

Next, we will start to model both Newton's law and Kirchhoff's law. These laws
applied to the motor system give the following equations:

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝜃 1 𝑑𝜃
𝐽 2 =𝑇−𝑏 → = 𝐾 𝑖 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐽 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝜃
𝐿 = −𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉 − 𝑒 → = −𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉 − 𝐾𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐽 𝑑𝑡

The angular acceleration is equal to 1/J multiplied by the sum of two terms (one
pos., one neg.). Similarly, the derivative of current is equal to 1/L multiplied by
the sum of three terms (one pos., two neg.).
  Insert two Gain blocks, (from the Linear block library) one attached to
each of the leftmost integrators.
 Edit the gain block corresponding to angular acceleration by double-
clicking it and changing its value to "1/J".
 Change the label of this Gain block to "inertia" by clicking on the word
"Gain" underneath the block.
 Similarly, edit the other Gain's value to "1/L" and it's label to
Inductance.
 Insert two Sum blocks (from the Linear block library), one attached by
a line to each of the Gain blocks.
 Edit the signs of the Sum block corresponding to rotation to "+-" since
one term is positive and one is negative.
 Edit the signs of the other Sum block to "-+-" to represent the signs of
the terms in Kirchhoff's equation.

Now, we will add in the torques which is represented in Newton's equation.

First, we will add in the damping torque.
  Insert a gain block below the inertia block, select it by single-clicking
on it, and select Flip from the Format menu (or type Ctrl-F) to flip it
left-to-right.
 Set the gain value to "b" and rename this block to "damping".
 Tap a line (hold Ctrl while drawing) off the first rotational integrator's
output (d/dt (theta)) and connect it to the input of the damping gain
block.
 Draw a line from the damping gain output to the negative input of the
rotational Sum block.

Next, we will add in the torque from the armature.

 Insert a gain block attached to the positive input of the rotational Sum
block with a line.
 Edit it's value to "K" to represent the motor constant and Label it "Kt".
 Continue drawing the line leading from the current integrator and
connect it to the Kt gain block.
Now, we will add in the voltage terms which are represented in Kirchoff's
equation. First, we will add in the voltage drop across the coil resistance.

 Insert a gain block above the inductance block, and flip it left-to-right.
 Set the gain value to "R" and rename this block to "Resistance".
 Tap a line (hold Ctrl while drawing) off the current integrator's output
and connect it to the input of the resistance gain block.
 Draw a line from the resistance gain output to the upper negative input
of the current equation Sum block.

Next, we will add in the back emf from the motor.

 Insert a gain block attached to the other negative input of the current
Sum block with a line.
 Edit it's value to "K" to represent the motor constant and Label it "Ke".
 Tap a line off the first rotational integrator's output (d/dt(theta)) and
connect it to the Ke gain block.
The third voltage term in the Kirchhoff equation is the control input, V. We will
apply a step input.

 Insert a Step block (from the Sources block library) and connect it with
a line to the positive input of the current Sum block.
 To view the output speed, insert a Scope (from the Sinks block library)
connected to the output of the second rotational integrator (theta).
 To provide an appropriate unit step input at t=0, double-click the Step
block and set the Step Time to "0".

Open-loop response:

The physical parameters must now be set. Run the following commands at
the MATLAB prompt:
 J=3.2284E-6;
b=3.5077E-6;
K=0.0274;
R=4;
L=2.75E-6;
Run the simulation (Ctrl-t or Start on the Simulation menu). When the
simulation is finished, double-click on the scope and hit its autoscale button.
You should see the following output.
1.6 Conclusion:

These chapter discuses why we use simulate what modeling mean and
provide programs used for modeling. We using “MATLAB simulink” and why
specifically use “MATLAB simulink” and applications by using “MATLAB
simulink” .
 Chapter 2

Power Electronic | Overview

2.1 Introduction

The first electronics revolution began in 1948 with the invention of the
silicon transistor at bell telephone laboratories by Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley. Most of today's advanced electronic technologies are traceable to that
invention, and modern microelectronics has evolved over the years from these
silicon semiconductors. The second electronics revolution began with
development of a commercial the thyristor by the general electric company in
1958. That was the beginning of a new era of power electronics. Since then,
many different types of power semiconductor devices and conversion techniques
have been introduced. The demand for energy, particularly in electrical forms, is
ever-increasing in order to improve the standard of living.

Power electronics helps with the efficient use of electricity, thereby

reducing power consumption. Semiconductor devices are used as switches for
power conversion or processing, as are solid state electronics for efficient
control of the amount of power and energy flow. Higher efficiency and lower
losses are sought for devices for arrange of applications, from microwave ovens
to high-voltage dc transmission. New devices and power electronics systems are
now evolving for even more effective control of power and energy. Power
electronics has already found an important place in modern technology and has
revolutionized control of power and energy. As the voltage and current ratings
and switching characteristics of power semiconductor devices keep improving ,
the range of applications continues to expand in areas such as lamp controls ,
power supplies to motion control , factory automation , energy storage , multi-
megawatt industrial drives, and electric power transmission and distribution

The greater efficiency and tighter control features of power electronics are
becoming attractive for applications in motion control by replacing the earlier
electro-mechanical and electronic systems. Applications in power transmission
include high voltage Dc (HVDC) converter stations, flexible ac transmission
system (FACTS), and static VAR compensators. In power distribution these
include dc-to-ac conversion, dynamic filters, Frequency conversion and custom
power system.

2.2 Definition of power Electronics:

Power electronics is an enabling technology that achieves conversion of

electric power from one form to another, using a combination of high-power
semiconductor devices and passive component chiefly transformers, inductors,
and capacitors. The input and output may be alternating current (ac) or direct
current (dc) and may differ in magnitude and frequency. The conversion
sometimes involves multiple stages with two or more converters connected in a
cascade. The end goals of a power electronic converter are to achieve high
efficiency of conversion, minimize size and weight, and achieve desired
regulation of the output

Figure 2.1 block diagram of a power electronic system

2.3 Power electronic circuits requirements:

 control system
 semiconductor switches
 passive components
 thermal management systems
 packaging, protection devices
 dc and ac disconnects, and enclosures

2.4 Power conversion system (PCS):

The power processor usually consists of more than power conversion stage, as
shown in figure. Most practical topologies require energy storage element
such as (capacitors and inductors), which also decouples the input and the
output side converters

Figure 2.2 power processor block diagram

2.4.1 Power Flow through Converters:

• Converter is a general term

• An ac/dc converter is shown here
• Rectifier Mode of operation when power from ac to dc
• Inverter Mode of operation when power from ac to dc

Figure 2.3 Ac –To-Dc Converters

2.4. Converters performance:

Converters can perform the function of:

(1) Rectifying (Ac to Dc) (3) Inverting (Dc to ac)

(2) Chopper (Dc to Dc) (4) Cyclo-Converter (Ac to Ac)

2.5 Interdisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics:

The study of power electronics includes many fields within electrical
engineering as shown in figure. Combining the knowledge of these fields makes
the study of power electronics as challenging as interesting

Figure 2.4 interdisciplinary natures of power electronics

2.6 Application of Power Electronics:

(a) Residential
Refrigeration and freezers

Space heating

Air conditioning

Cooking
 Lighting

Electronics (personal computers, other entertainment equipment)

(b) Commercial
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

Central refrigeration

Lighting

Computers and office equipment

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs)

Elevators

(c) Industrial
Pumps

Compressors

Blowers and fans

Machine tools (robots)

Arc furnaces, induction furnaces

Lighting

Industrial lasers

Induction heating

Welding

(d) Transportation
Traction control of electric vehicles

Battery chargers for electric vehicles

Electric locomotives

Street cars, trolley buses

 Subways

Automotive electronics including engine controls

(e) Utility systems

High-voltage dc transmission (HVDC)

Static var compensation (SVC)

Supplemental energy sources (wind, photovoltaic and fuel cells)

Energy storage systems

Induced-draft fans and boiler

Feedwater pumps

(f) Aerospace
Space shuttle power supply systems

Satellite power systems

Aircraft power systems

(g) Telecommunications
Battery chargers

Power supplies (dc and UPS)

2.7 Overview of power semiconductor switches:

The various semiconductor devices can be classified into three categories with
respect to the way they can be controlled

-uncontrolled

The on and off states of power switch are controlled by the power circuit .such
as Diode
-semi controlled

Latched on by a control signal but must be turned off by the power circuit .such
as Thyristor

-fully controlled

Turned on and off by control signals .such as the main kind of Transistors

Diode

A diode is a semiconductor device that conducts current in one direction only.

The current is conducted from its anode to cathode, but not in the opposite
direction in the shown figure illustrates the voltage, current characteristic of a
diode

Figure 2.5: (a) Diode symbol, (b) I-V characteristic, (c) idealized characteristic
Thyristors

The most popular types of the Thyristor family are the one known as the silicon
controlled thyristor (SCT). The circuit symbol and I_V characteristics are shown
in the figure .the main current flow from the anode A to the cathode K.

In its off state the thyristor can block a forward polarity voltage and not
conduct, as shown in the figure (b)

The thyristor can be triggered into the on state by applying a pulse of a positive
gate current for a short duration provided that the device is in its forward
blocking state the resulting I_V relationship is shown by the on state portion of
the characteristics shown in the figure (b) the forward voltage drop in the on
state is only a few volts (typically 1_3 volt) depending on the device blocking
voltage rating.

Figure 2.6: (a) Thyristor symbol, (b) I-V characteristic, (c) idealized characteristic
Controllable switches (Transistor)

Transistor can be operated in 3 region "cut off, active and saturation

In the cut –off region transistor is off, both junction (EB and CB) are reversed
biased. In the cut off state the transistor acts as an open switch between the
collector and emitter

In the Active region transistor acts as an amplifier (CB junction is reverse biased
and EB junction is forward biased)

In saturation region the transistor acts as a closed switch and both the
junctions CB and EB are forward biased

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

A bi-polar junction transistor is a 3 layer, 3 terminals device. The 3 terminals are

base, emitter and collector. It has 2 junction "collector base junction (CB) and
emitter base junction (EB)"

Transistors are of 2 types NPN and PNP transistor. The different configurations
are common base, common collector and common emitter common emitter
configuration is generally used in switching application.

Figure 2.7: BJT circuit symbols.

Figure 2.8.: (a) A BJT symbol, (b) I-V characteristic, (c) Idealized characteristic

IE =IC+IB

β=IC/IB

IC=β IB+ICE0

α=β/ (β+1)

α = Current amplification in common base circuit

0.99<α<1.0

β =α/ (1-α)

PT=VBE IB +VCE IC (The Total power loss)

MOSFET

Power MOSFET is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.

It is a voltage controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage.

It has high input impedance. MOSFET is operated in two states (On State and
OFF State). Switching speed of MOSFET is very high. Switching time is of the
order of nanoseconds.

MOSFET is three terminal devices. There are gate (G), drain (D) and source(s).

MOSFET are two types:

-Depletion MOSFET.

-Enhancement MOSFETs.

Depletion type MOSFET can be either an n-channel or p-channel

depletion type MOSFET.
A depletion type n-channel MOSFET

Consists of a p-type silicon substrate with two highly doped n+ silicon for low
resistance connection. An n-channel is diffused between drain and source

Figure 2.9: N-Channel DE-MOSFET Structure

A depletion type p-channel MOSFET

Consists of an n-type substrate into which highly doped p-regions and a p-

channel are diffused. The two p+ regions act as drain and source p-channel
operation is same except that the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of
n-channel
 Figure 2.10: P-Channel DE-MOSFET Structure

Enhancement type MOSFET has no physical channel and can be either

n—channel or p-channel.

An Enhancement type n-channel MOSFET

The p-substrate extends up to the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped n
regions act drain and source.

Figure 2.11: N-Channel E-MOSFET Structure

An Enhancement type P-channel MOSFET
The n-substrate extends up to the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped p
regions act drain and source. For p-channel the polarities of voltages are
opposite to that of n-channel.

Figure 2.12: P-Channel E-MOSFET Structure

Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

IGBT is a voltage controlled device. It has high input impedance like a MOSFET
and low on state conduction losses like a BJT The basic silicon cross section of
an IGBT its construction is same as power MOSFET except that n+ layer at the
drain in a power MOSFET is replaced by p+ substrate called collector ..

IGBT has three terminals gate (g), collector(c) and emitter (e)

When an IGBT is turned off, it exhibits a "tail current" because holes are left in
the drift region. By adding an extra N+ buffer layer in what is known as"Punch-
Through" (PT) architecture, the trapped holes are quickly absorbed. Thus, the
PT IGBT switches faster, but typically handles less voltage than the NPT IGBT
 Figure 2.13

PT IGBT (punch-through IGBT) NPT IGBT (non punch-through IGBT)

IGBT features

IGBT combines the advantages of BJT's and MOSFET's features of IGBT are:

1- IGBT has high input impedance like MOSFET's

2- Low ON state conduction power losses like BJT's

3- There is no secondary breakdown problem like BJT's

4- By chip design and structure design, the equivalent drain to source

resistance Rds is controlled to behave like that of BJT
Figure 2.14: (a) An IGBT symbol, (b) I-V characteristic, (c) Idealized characteristic

Voltage, Current and frequency ratings of power semiconductor devices

Figure 2.15: Voltage, Current and frequency ratings of power semiconductor

devices
The generic model of controllable Switches:

Figure 2.16: generic controllable Switches

Characteristics of ideal controllable switch:

The ideal controllable switch has the following characteristics:

 Block arbitrary large forward and reverse voltages with zero current flow
when off
 conduct arbitrary large currents with zero voltages drop when on Switch
from on to off or vice versa instantaneously when triggered
 Vanishingly small power required from control source to trigger the
switch

2.8 Switching Losses in Semiconductor Devices

TC (on) =Tri+Tfv
Tri = current rise time
Tfv = voltage fall time
Power loss during on time is PT (t) = VT IT
Energy dissipated during on time WC (on) = (1/2) VD Io TC (on)
Similarly:
TC (off) =Tfi+Trv
Tfi = current fall time
Trv = voltage rise time
Energy dissipated during off time WC (off) = (1/2) VD Io TC (off)
W Total = WC (on) + WC (off)
P Total = FS W Total
P Total = (1/2) VD Io FS (TC (on) + TC (off))

This is an important result because it shows that the switching power loss in a
semiconductor switch varies linearly with the switching frequency and the
switching times. Therefore if devices with short switching times are available, it
is possible to operate at high switching frequencies in order to reduce filtering
requirements and at the same time keep the switching power loss in the device
from being excessive.

The leakage current during the off-state (switch open) of controllable switches
is negligibly small and therefore the power loss during the off-state can be
neglected in practice.
Figure 2.17: (a) simplified damped inductive switching circuit, (b) switch
waveforms, (c) Instantaneous switch power loss
2.9 Power electronics example: switch mode dc power supply

In power electronics, the semiconductor devices are used as switches when the
device is on (approximating a closed switch) the voltage across the device is
very low (usually 1-3 volts maximum) and the current through it is large. The
power dissipation, while substantial, is much less than operating in the linear
amplification region at the same current level. When the device is off
(approximating an open switch) the voltage across the component is large but
the current is very small and the power dissipation in the off state can usually
be considered as zero. the above voltage regulation and electrical isolation are
achieved, for example by the circuit shown in Figure 2.18, in this system, the
utility input is rectified into a dc voltage V D , without a line frequency
transformer. By operating the transistor as a switch (either fully ON or fully
OFF) at some high switching frequency F S

Figure 2.18: Switch-mode dc power supply

2.10 Conclusion:
 Chapter 3

Modeling of power electronic

devices used for connect grid

with PV modules
3.1 Introduction

Electronic power conversion:

3.1.1 Four types of power electronics converter

Dc-dc conversion: change and control voltage magnitude.

Ac-dc rectification: possibly control dc voltage, ac current.

Dc-ac inversion: produce sinusoid of controllable magnitude and frequency.

Dc-accycloconversion: change and control voltage magnitude and frequency.

Control is invariably required In the PV system:

 Control input voltage of the DC-DC input voltage to operate PV at MPP

 Control shape of the DC-AC output current to follow a sinusoidal
reference
 Control current amplitude to balance the input and output power
3.1.2 High efficiency is essential

High efficiency is leads to low power loss with in converter Small size
and reliable operation is then feasible. Efficiency is a good measure of converter
performance.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Toachieve power conversion efficiency close to 100%

𝟏
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕( − 𝟏)
𝜼

3.1.3 One possible grid-connected PV system architecture

DC Input AC Output

𝑣𝑝𝑣 , 𝑖𝑝𝑣 𝑣𝑎𝑐 (𝑡)= 2𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin(𝜔𝑡)

ppv = vpv ipv 𝑖𝑎𝑐 (𝑡)= 2𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Pac = vrms irms

𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 (1 − cos(2𝜔𝑡))

Functions of the Power electronics converter

• Operate PV array at the maximum power point (MPP) under all

conditions

• Generate AC output current in phase with the AC utility gridvoltage

• Achieve power conversion efficiency close to 100%

𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝜂= =
𝑃𝑝𝑣 𝑣𝑝𝑣 𝑖𝑝𝑣

• Provide energy storage to balance the difference between PPV and

Pac(t)

Desirable features
• Minimum weight, size, cost
• High reliability

3.1.4 Power electronics converter

One possible realization:

Class objectives: introduction to circuits and control of a DC-DC converterand

single phase DC- AC inverter

3.2 Circuit components for efficient electronic power

conversion?

Power electronics converters are circuits consisting of

semiconductor devices operated as (near-ideal) switches,Capacitors and
magnetic components (inductors, transformers).

3.2.1 Ideal switch

Switch closed: 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 , Switch open: 𝑖 𝑡 =0

In either event: 𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 =0
Ideal switch consumes zero power
Power semiconductor devices (e.g. MOSFETs, diodes) operate as near
ideal power switches:
• When a power switch is ON, the voltage drop across it is relatively small
• When a power switch is OFF, the switch current is very close to zero

3.2.2 Capacitor

𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 𝑖𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑐

For periodic 𝑣𝑐 (t), 𝑖𝑐 (t): No losses (average capacitor power)

𝑇
𝑣𝑐
1 𝐶 𝐶 2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑐 = (𝑣𝑐 𝑇 − 𝑣𝑐2 0 = 0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑣𝑐 2𝑇
0

Capacitor charge balance (average capacitor current = 0)

𝟏 𝑻 𝑪 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕) 𝑪
𝑰𝒄 = 𝒊𝒄 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒅𝒗𝒄 = 𝒗 𝑻 − 𝒗𝒄 𝟎 =𝟎
𝑻 𝟎 𝑻 𝒗𝒄 (𝟎) 𝑻 𝒄
3.2.3 Inductor

𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝑙 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)

For periodic 𝑣𝑙 (t), 𝑖𝐿 (t):No losses (average inductor power = 0)

𝑻
𝟏 𝑳 𝒊𝑳 𝑻 𝑳 𝟐
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑷𝑳 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒊𝑳 𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝑳 = 𝒊 𝑻 − 𝒊𝟐𝑳 𝟎 =𝟎
𝑻 𝑻 𝒊𝑳 𝑻 𝟐𝑻 𝑳
𝟎

Inductor volt-second balance (average inductor voltage)

𝟏 𝑻 𝑳 𝒊𝑳 𝑻 𝑳
𝑽𝑳 = 𝒗𝑳 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒅𝒊𝑳 = 𝒊 𝑻 − 𝒊𝑳 𝟎 =𝟎
𝑻 𝟎 𝑻 𝒊𝑳 𝟎 𝑻 𝑳

3.3 Boost (step-up) DC-DC converter

Boost converter with Ideal switch

Fs= 1/Ts= switching frequency

Ts= switching period
D = switch duty ratio (or duty cycle),

Boost converter analysis

Position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

VL = Vg

ic = - V/R
Small ribble approximation
VL = Vg
ic = - V/R
Position 2
Inductor voltage and capacitor current

VL = Vg - v
ic = iL- V/R
Small ribble approximation
VL = Vg - v
ic = I - V/R

Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

D' = 1-D

Periodic steady-state operation

• Inductor volt-second balance: average inductor voltage = 0
• Capacitor charge balance: average capacitor current = 0
Inductor volt-second balance

Net volt-seconds applied to inductor

Over one switching period:

𝑻𝒔
𝒗𝑳 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑽𝒈 − 𝑽 𝑫′𝑻𝒔
𝟎
Equate to zero and collect terms:
𝑽𝒈 𝑫 + 𝑫′ − 𝑽𝑫′ = 𝟎
Solve for V:
𝑽𝒈
𝑽=
𝑫′
The voltage conversion ratio is therefore
𝑽 𝟏 𝟏
𝑴 𝑫 = = =
𝑽𝒈 𝑫′ 𝟏 − 𝑫

BoostDC voltage conversion ratio M = Vout/Vg

BoostDC-DC converter steps-up a DC input voltage by a ratio Mwhich is

electronically adjustable by changing the switch duty ratio.
Simulink model:
 Input voltage Vg= 100 V
 Inductance L = 200 𝜇H
 Capacitance C = 10 𝜇F
 Load resistance R = 100 𝛺
 Switch duty cycle D = 0.5
 Output voltage Vout = 200 V
 Input current Ig= IL= 4 A
 Power P = 400 W
 Switching frequency 𝐹𝑠 = 100 kHz

 Switching period 𝑇𝑠 = 10 𝜇s
Averaged (DC) model

Nolosses:

1 1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼
1−𝐷 𝑔 1 − 𝐷 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉𝑔 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

Ideal boost DC-DC converter works as an ideal DC transformer with an

electronically adjustable step-up ratio
Modeling of losses

Losses in switched-mode power converters:

Conduction losses, due to voltage drops across inductorwinding
resistance, and across power semiconductorswitches when ON
Conduction losses depend strongly on the output power

Switching losses, due to energy lost during ON/OFFtransitions

Switching losses are not strongly dependent on output power; a portion
of switching loss remains even at zero output power
Switching losses are proportional to the switching frequency

Switching power loss = Transition energy loss * Switching frequency

Other losses, including:

• Losses in magnetic cores
• Power needed to operate control circuitry

Averaged (DC) model with losses

• Small RL models conduction losses due to inductor winding

Resistance and power switch resistances
• Small 𝐼𝑆𝑊 models switching and other load-independent losses
• Efficiency with losses, when the load current 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 is known:

𝟏
𝜼=
𝑹𝒍 (𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑰𝒔𝒘 )𝟐 𝑰𝒔𝒘
𝟏+ +
(𝟏 − 𝑫)𝟐 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

3.4 Single-phase DC-AC grid-connected inverter

• Switches in position 1 during DTs, in position 2 during (1-D)Ts

• Switching frequency fsw much greater than the AC line frequency (60
Hz or 50 Hz)
• By controlling the switch duty ratio D, it is possible to generate a sinusoidal
AC , currentI ac (+ small switching ripple) in phase with the AC line voltage, as
long asthe input DC voltage VDC is sufficiently high, i.e. as long as VDC is
greater than the peak AC line voltage
Position 1

𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑫𝑪 − 𝒗𝒂𝒄

𝒊𝑳 = 𝒊𝒂𝒄

𝒊𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊𝑳

Position 2

𝑽𝑳 = −𝑽𝑫𝑪 − 𝒗𝒂𝒄

𝒊𝑳 = 𝒊𝒂𝒄

𝒊𝒊𝒏 = −𝒊𝑳
Inductor volt-second balance

• Note that switching frequency fs>> ac line frequency

• Over a switching period, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 (t) const.

+𝑽𝑫𝒄 − 𝒗𝒂𝒄 , 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑫𝑻𝒔

𝒗𝑳 =
−𝑽𝑫𝒄 − 𝒗𝒂𝒄 , 𝑫𝑻𝒔 < 𝑡 ≤ 𝑻𝒔

𝑇𝑠
1
𝑉𝑙 = 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷(𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑣𝑎𝑐 ) + 1 − 𝐷 −𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑣𝑎𝑐
𝑇𝑠
0

= 2𝐷 − 1 𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 0

𝑣𝑎𝑐
𝑀 𝐷 = = 2𝐷 − 1
𝑉𝐷𝑐

−1 ≤ 𝑀(𝐷) ≤ 1

𝑉𝑑𝑐 must be greater than the peak of 𝑉𝑎𝑐

Control of AC line current

Control objectives:
• 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑀 sin (wt), in phase with AC line voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑐 (t)
• Amplitude 𝐼𝑀 (or RMS value) adjustable to controlpower delivered to the AC
line.
 𝑉𝑎𝑐 𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝒊𝒂𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟐𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝝎𝒕)
𝒑𝒂𝒄 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝒊𝒂𝒄 = 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝎 𝒕))
𝒑𝒂𝒄 = 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔

A simple current controller

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝐼𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑓 sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑖
position 1: 𝐼𝐿 <𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 –
2
𝑖
position 2: 𝐼𝐿 >𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 +
2
𝑖
𝐼𝐿 is always within of 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓
2
Simulink model

dcac_switching.mdl
Waveforms 𝑣𝑎𝑐 (t), 𝑖𝑎𝑐 (t), 𝑖𝑖𝑛 (t), and switch controlOver one AC line period
(1/60 s)
 Input voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 200 V
 Inductance L = 2 mH
 AC: 120Vrms, 60Hz
 𝐼𝐿 = 1 A
 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 360 W
With this simple controller frequency is variable

Averaged DC-AC inverter model with losses

• Small 𝑅𝐿 models inductor winding resistance and powerswitch
resistances
• Small 𝐼𝑆𝑊 models switching and other losses

DC-AC inverter efficiency example

Input voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 200 V

AC: 120Vrms, 60Hz
𝑅𝑙 = 0.8Ω
𝐼𝑆𝑊 = 50 m A
Pac= 0 to 600 W
Inverter efficiency of about 95% is typical
• At high power levels, RL conduction losses due to dominate.
• At low power levels, efficiency drops due to switching and Pac [W] other
fixed losses.
3.5 Conclusion
In this chapter we show:
1. Types of converter
2. Introduction to circuits and control of a DC-DC converter and single
phase DC- AC inverter
3. Boost (step-up) DC-DC converter
4. Single-phase DC-AC grid-connected inverter-
 Chapter 4

Solar energy
4.1 Introduction

Solar radiation received on earth in just one hour is more than what the
whole world's population consumes in one year.
The sun's heat and light provide an abundant source of energy that can be used
in many ways. Photovoltaic power systems convert sunlight into electricity
directly. Research and development efforts are under way to improve efficiency
and reduce cost of photovoltaic power systems in applications ranging from
roof-top residential to large industrial or electric utility sites.
In 1839, a young French physicist named Edmund Bacquerel discovered the
photovoltaic effect. While working with two metal electrodes in an electricity-
conducting solution, he noted that the apparatus generates voltage when exposed
to light.1 It was not until 1904, when Albert Einstein published a paper on the
photoelectric effect, that the general scientific community stopped looking at
photovoltaic as some type of scientific hoax.

4.1.1 Solar Irradiance

As depicted in Figure 4.1 there are three basic components to the solar
irradiance on a surface:

(i) Direct (beam),

(ii) Diffuse-scattered, and
(iii) Reflected short wavelength (solar) radiation from other surfaces.
Solar irradiance is the amount of solar energy incident on a surface per unit time,
per unit area.
The irradiance is typically expressed in kW/m2.
 Fig. 4.1. Components of solar radiation.

For concentrating solar power, only the direct component is of importance

since the mirrored surfaces are positioned to re-direct and concentrate the direct
beam sunlight.
The solar energy received is also affected by varying atmospheric conditions.
For example, weather conditions such as rain, wind, pressure, temperature,
humidity and pollution inhibit the solar to energy conversion processes.
Therefore, the availability of long-term measured data can also be useful;
however, such data are typically acquired for a limited number of collector
orientations.
4.2 Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic is the conversion of light directly into electricity through

semiconductor materials. The basic component of a PV system is solar cell. If
light with adequate energy falls onto silicon arranged to form a p-n junction and
penetrates to a point near the junction, then, because of the photo-electric effect,
it will create free electrons near the junction. These electrons immediately move
under the influence of the p-n junction's electric field. The electrons continue to
move through the cell to the surface of the cell. On the way towards the surface
of the cell some of the electrons may be re-absorbed by the silicon atoms, but
many electrons still reach the surface of the cell. These electrons can be
collected by a metallic grid and an electric current will flow if the grid is
connected to the metal contact on the other side of the cell by an external circuit.
As shown in figure 4.2.

Fig 4.2 PV cell (the p-n junction)

4.2.1 PV hierarchy

Fig. 4.3 the PV hierarchy

The PV hierarchy is shown in Fig. 4.3. One solar cell has output voltage of
around 0.5-0.6 V and very few appliances work at this voltage so solar cells are
connected in series in a module to increase the output voltage of the module.
The number of cells in a module is governed by the voltage of the module.
Photovoltaic module manufacturers make modules which can work with 12 V
batteries. In allowing for some over-voltage to charge the battery and to
compensate for lower output under non standard test conditions (STC), modules
usually have 33-36 solar cells in series to ensure reliable operation.

To increase the modules output current the series strings of solar cells are
connected in parallel. Based on the desired current-voltage output of the module,
solar cells are connected in both parallel and series combination.

The modules can then in turn be connected in series and parallel to have the
desired PV system voltage and current. Such combinations of modules are
referred to as arrays.
 4.2.2 PV Modules

PV modules or solar modules have dc electrical output power even though there
are no moving parts and no pollutants emitted. PV systems are modular which
gives it an advantage of being able to increase its size even after it has been
installed.

It is flexible, easily and quickly coordinated and constructed into an array or a

PV plant.
There are three types of PV modules Fig. 4.4 on the market and they differ in
the form of silicon used to manufacture them.

Fig. 4.4 Examples of the types of commercially available PV modules:

(a) Amorphous (b) monocrystalline and (c) polycrystalline.

(i) Amorphous silicon modules: these are made from uncrystallized forms of
silicon. They are often called thin film silicon (TFS) modules as the silicon is
deposited in a thin layer or film on a variety of surfaces, such as glass. This type
of module is in a dark matt color and performs well in low light conditions.
However, this has low efficiencies (typically 5–8%) and thus requires a much
larger roof area than all other technologies.

(ii) Monocrystalline solar cells: these are thin wafer cut from a large single
crystal of silicon to form the individual cells and are bluish black in color. This
type of cell has the best efficiency for a given module area and well made
modules have a proven long life.
(iii) Polycrystalline solar cells: these are thin wafers cut from a block of multiple
crystal silicon. They are easily recognized by its color (usually blue), but there
are other colors also and this is the most common panels available from a range
of manufacturers.

4.2.3 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion

The electrical output of PV modules depends on the electrical, thermal, solar

spectral and optical properties of the module (or array) as well as the angle and
amount of incident radiation. The amount of input radiation has a direct effect on
the current output of PV modules. The effect of variation in the solar spectrum
on module output is relatively small for air mass values between 1 and 2 for
crystalline PV modules. Empirical methods are available to estimate the effect of
changing solar spectrum on PV module currents.
For surfaces not normal to the incident sunlight, the density of incident radiation
is reduced, due to geometry, by a factor equal to the cosine of the angle of
incidence as shown in Fig 4.5
 Fig 4.5 an inclined surface, not normal to the incident radiation, receives a reduced
radiation density, due to geometric effects of the collector angle.

In addition to this typical cosine loss of input radiation, large collector angles
lead to optical losses due to reflectance from the surface of PV modules. These
optical losses result in a lower incident radiation on the PV cell under the glass,
than an inclined surface, not normal to the incident radiation, receives a reduced
radiation density, due to geometric effects of the collector angle.For crystalline
silicon PV modules, the effect of optical losses is significant for angles of
incidence greater than 55.
4.2.4 Shading effects on PV modules

Fig. 4.6 Equivalent circuit for solar cell in full sunlight.

Since PV modules have around 33–36 cells in series, shading on just one cell in
this series of cells can have reduction in power output from the PV module.
The equivalent circuit for the PV cell is shown in Fig. 4.6 where the cell is
in full sunlight.
 Fig. 4.7 (a) Equivalent circuit for nth cell in solar module to be shaded. The figure shows
typical solar output as a function of irradiation, (b) a typical power curve from a solar array.

The efficiency of the solar module reaches its peak at a unique point and this
point is called the maximum power point of the solar cell.
Figure 4.7 shows one of the cells shaded in a PV module of ncells. Rp and Rs are
the parallel leakage resistance and series resistance of a solar cell respectively.
When one of the cells in PV module is shaded the short circuit current (ISC)
through the shaded cell is zero and the diode becomes reverse biased hence the
current through the diode (Id) is zero. This results in the current produced by n −
1 cells in the PV module to pass through Rp and Rs which results in loss of
voltage. The drop in voltage (V) by the shaded cell is given by

Where V is the voltage output of PV module when all cells are in full sunlight.
Since Rp is much greater than Rs, Eq. simplifies to

𝑉
∆𝑉 ≅ + 𝐼𝑅𝑝
𝑛

4.2.5 Interconnection of PV modules

When modules are connected in series and parallel combination it contains by-
pass and blocking diodes. These diodes protect the modules and prevent it from
acting as a load in the dark or during shading.

4.3 Types of PV Systems

There are two types of PV systems:

4.3.1 Grid-connected system or utility interface (UI)

In a grid connected system, the grid acts as a back-up and there is no need for
battery storage unless there is a power outage problem. This makes grid
connected PV systems relatively simple. However, PV systems have to compete
with cheap grid supply which makes it hard to justify the PV system unless
some kinds of subsidies are provided.
Before power from the PV array is distributed to the a.c. loads and the utility
grid itgoes through a power conditioning unit which changes d.c. to a.c., which
maintainsquality of supply and helps to operate PV system most efficiently (Fig.
4.8).
PV systems can be economical because a PV array can supply power to homes
and businesses during mid day, when cost of electricity drawn from grid may be
high and when PV systems are an integral part of building.
 Fig 4.8 Grid connected PV system

4.3.2 Stand-alone system or off grid system

In case of standalone systems such as the PV-battery system, it has to compete
with a diesel generator (DG) or it competes with the cost of bringing the grid to
the site. Off grid systems must be designed with great care to assure satisfactory
performance.
Users must be willing to check and maintain batteries; they must be willing to
adjust their energy demands and must take responsibility of safe operation of the
system for the reward of getting electricity which is truly valued.
For standalone solar systems with battery storage charge controllers, invertersare
important components apart from solar panel and battery in the shown Figure
4.9
 Fig 4.9 Simple schematic of stand-alone solar with battery storage.

Charge controller as the name implies, controls the amount of charge that the
battery would receive. When the battery has reached its charging limit, the
charge controller will withhold further charging of the battery, sometimes
known as voltage regulating. The absence of this would lead to overcharging of
batteries, consequently damaging batteries and even causing fires.
Calculating the battery size:
In this step the number of days in a week where there is no sun is multiplied
with the total daily load and the battery losses is alsocatered for.

Battery storage capacity Wh

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
=
𝜂 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

The coulomb efficiency η Coulomb is usually taken as 80%.

This battery storage capacity is then divided with the nominal voltage of
theSystem to get the battery size in ampere-hours (Ah).

4.4 PV Module Simulink models

PV cell circuit model and equations

KCL:
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝑆𝐶 − 𝐼𝐷 − − 𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 0
𝑅𝑃
Diode characteristic:
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑉𝑟 −1

KVL:
𝑉𝑃𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑃𝑉

𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑃𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Where,
𝐼𝑆𝐶 : Short-circuit current
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Current at the maximum-power point
𝐼𝐷 : Diode current
𝑉𝑂𝐶 : Open-circuit voltage
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Voltage at the maximum-power point
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Power at the maximum-power point
𝑅𝑠 : Series resistance
𝑅𝑃 : Shunt resistance
𝑁𝑠 : Number of cells in series
A typical I-V characteristic of the solar cell

Fig 4.10a typical current-voltage I-V curve for a solar cell

 For a resistive load, the load characteristic is a straight line with scope
I/V=1/R
If the load R is small, the cell operates in the region M-N of the curve (Fig 4.10),
where the cell behave as a constant current source, almost equal to the short
circuit current.
On the other hand, if the load R is large, the cell operates on the regions P-S of
the curve, the cell behaves more as a constant voltage source, almost equal to the
open-circuit voltage
• Maximum power point is the operating point A (Vmax, Imax) in Fig, at which the
power dissipated in the resistive load is maximum: Pmax = VmaxImax.
• Maximum efficiency is the ratio between the maximum power and the incident
light power.
• Fill factor is the ratio of the maximum power that can be delivered to the load
and he product of Isc and VOC:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶

The fill factor is a measure of the real I-V characteristic. Its valued is higher than
0.7 for good cells. The fill factor diminishes as the cell temperature is increased.

4.5 Simulink Implementation

• Both PV module models are implemented as masked subsystems in Simulink
• Look under Mask (right-click or Edit menu) reveals details of the model
implementation
• Details of the current-input PV module model.
Inside the current-input PV module model
Model Mask: Parameters
• Edit Mask (right-click or Edit menu), click on Parameters
• This is where the masked subsystem model parameters are defined
Model Mask: Initialization
• Edit Mask (right-click or Edit menu), click on Initialization
• The MATLAB code computes model parameters 𝐼𝑂 , 𝑅𝑠 , 𝑅𝑃 based on the model
parameters
(short-circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 , rated voltage 𝑉𝑟 , and rated current 𝐼𝑟 )
Application Example: PV Array
 Output of this application indicate I-V characteristic and P-V
characteristic as shown in figure
Inside the voltage-input PV module
Application Example: PV Module Characteristics

To determine the behavior of photovoltaic panels it is necessary to know the

voltage and current provided by different operating states they can work (I-V and
P-V curves). An accurate knowledge of the characteristic curves is of vital
importance for control and evaluation of solar cell performance. As for example,
the IV and PV characteristic curves are seen in Figures The characteristic curve
is, the relationship between the electric current which provides the cell and the
potential difference between its ends, for a given radiation intensity.

Insolation = 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 W/m2

4.6 Conclusion:

In this chapter we indicate:

 The solar resource: irradiation, concentrators, PV performance calculator,

economics of PV systems
 Applications: standalone residential, grid-connected residential, industrial,
utility
 Technology of photovoltaic: monocrystalline and multicrystalline silicon
wafers, thin film solar cells, models and voltage-current characteristics

Semiconductor material absorbs photons and converts photons having

sufficiently high energy into hole-electron pairs. A standard electrical circuit
model consists of a photogeneration current Io proportional to solar irradiation
in parallel with a diode. The cell short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝑐 is proportional to the
number of absorbed photons. The cell open-circuit voltage Voc depends on the
semiconductor diode characteristic. The maximum output power is obtained
when the cell operates at the peak power point (𝑉𝑝𝑘 , 𝐼𝑝𝑘 ).