Power Electronics For Renewable Energy Systems PDF

S.K.P.
Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VIII SEM
SKP Engineering College

Tiruvannamalai – 606611
A Course Material
on
Power Electronics For Renewable Energy Systems
By
S.Vijaya
Associate Professor
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Department
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department 1 Power Electr. for Ren. Energy Sys.
S.K.P. Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VIII SEM
Quality Certificate
This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material
Subject Code: EE6009
Subject Name: POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
Year/Sem: IV / VIII
Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University

curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: S.Vijaya
Designation: Associate Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mrs.S.Vijaya is of the
adequate quality. She has referred more than five books and one among them is from
abroad author.
Signature of HD Signature of the Principal
Name: Mrs.R.Sridevi Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi
Seal: Seal:
EE6009 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS LT P C

3003
OBJECTIVES:
 To Provide knowledge about the grid stand alone and connected renewable
energy systems.
 To equip with required skills to derive the criteria for the design of power
converters for renewable energy applications.
 To analyse and comprehend the various operating modes of wind electrical
generators and solar energy systems.
 To design different power converters namely AC to DC, DC to DC and AC to AC
converters for renewable energy systems.
 To develop maximum power point tracking algorithms.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Environmental aspects of electric energy conversion: impacts of renewable energy
generation on environment (cost-GHG Emission) - Qualitative study of different
renewable energy resources: Solar, wind, ocean, Biomass, Fuel cell, Hydrogen energy
systems and hybrid renewable energy.
UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION 9

Reference theory fundamentals-principle of operation and analysis: IG, PMSG, SCIG
and DFIG.
UNIT III POWER CONVERTERS 9

Solar: Block diagram of solar photo voltaic system -Principle of operation: line
commutated converters (inversion-mode) - Boost and buck-boost converters- selection
of inverter, battery sizing, array sizing Wind: Three phase AC voltage controllers- AC-
DC-AC converters: uncontrolled rectifiers, PWM Inverters, Grid Interactive Inverters-
matrix converters.
UNIT IV ANALYSIS OF WIND AND PV SYSTEMS 9

Stand alone operation of fixed and variable speed wind energy conversion systems and
solar system-Grid connection Issues -Grid integrated PMSG, SCIG Based WECS, grid
Integrated solar system
UNIT V HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 9

Need for Hybrid Systems- Range and type of Hybrid systems- Case studies of Wind-PV
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 Ability to understand the operation of various renewable energy resources based

power generation.
 Ability to understand the operation of electrical machines for renewable energy
systems
 Ability to analyse the operation of power converters used for stability, control and
protection of grid connected and standalone energy systems.
 Ability to handle the engineering aspects of electrical energy generation and
utilization of grid connected and standalone energy conversion systems.
 Ability develop algorithms for control of photovoltaic and wind energy systems.
TEXT BOOK:
1. S. N. Bhadra, D.Kastha, S.Banerjee, “Wind Electrical Systems”, Oxford University

Press, 2005.
2. B.H.Khan Non-conventional Energy sources Tata McGraw-hill Publishing Company,
New Delhi,2009.
REFERENCES:
1. Rashid .M. H “power electronics Hand book”, Academic press, 2001.

2. Ion Boldea, “Variable speed generators”, Taylor & Francis group, 2006.
3. Rai. G.D, “Non conventional energy sources”, Khanna publishes, 1993.
4. Gray, L. Johnson, “Wind energy system”, prentice hall linc, 1995.
5. Andrzej M. Trzynnadlowski, ‘Introduction to Modern Power Electronics’, Second
edition, wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2012.
CONTENTS
S.No Particulars Page
1 Unit – I 6
2 Unit – II 34
3 Unit – III 70
4 Unit – IV 110
5 Unit – V 139
Unit – I
INTRODUCTION
Part – A
1.Give any two environmental aspects of electric energy conservation. [CO1 – L1]
Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean

environment to the human beings. But with the passage of time , the quality of
the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is degrading. Every step must
be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy demand.
A trade off between the energy and environment is a must. To create public
awareness June 5th is observed as World Environment Day.
During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-

product.The various pollutants and its harmful effects is an important
environmental aspects of electric energy conservation. Particulate matter
,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects are change in
climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardio-
vascular diseases, corrosion of architectural buildings etc.
2. Discuss about GHG Emission? List the factors influencing the amount of GHG
emissions. [CO1 – L1]
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases
(GHG) .The greenhouse is a n enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping
the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is an enclosure present around the
globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause the global
warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur
hexafluoride,water vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO 2
leads to 82% of total GHG emission.The main factors which influence the
GHG emission is –
(i) Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
(ii) Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
(iii) Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.
GHG :
(i) Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal,
natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a
result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement).
(ii) Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory
problems
(iii) SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant,
waste disposal
(iv) Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural
gas, and oil.
(v) Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well
as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
(vi) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur
hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse
gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
3.List various renewable energy resources. [CO1-L2]
Solar energy
Wind energy
Biomass
Geothermal energy
Ocean Tidal Power
Ocean Wave Power
Ocean Thermal energy conversion
4.List the significance of renewable energy resources. [CO1-L2]
 The conventional energy resources such as fossil fuel, hydro,nuclear etc

are fast depleting and lead to climate change and global warming.
 The reneable energy resources are pollution free inexhaustible,available
in abundance.
 Reliability, Stability are two significant factors which lead to hybrid
systems.
 The cost of harnessing the energy is high. Diffuculty in transportation.
 Accessibility - Coal, natural gas and oil reserves are finite and hidden.
5. Discriminate spring and neap tides? [C01-L3]
The difference between spring and neap tides is that spring tides are much
higher than normal and neap tides are lower than normal. Spring tides occur
because of the combined effects of the sun and moon, whereas neap tides
happen when the sun and the moon are at right angles.
6. Explain the principle of power generation using tides? [CO1-H1]
Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to
the attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential
energy which is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean
sea level, it is called flood tide. When water level is below the mean level it is
called ebb tide.
7. List the limitations of Tidal energy. [CO1-L2]
 Variations in tidal range cause the output to not uniformed throughout the day.
 Because of the variation of headwater throughout the day, the plants
effectiveness is slightly compromised.
 Maintenance of machinery is difficult when preformed underwater or at sea.
 Construction of a solid tidal dam is difficult with tide changes.
 The corrosives nature of seawater is proven to corrode untreated modern
machinery.
 Tidal fences in order to mitigate fish migration would be difficult to construct and
maintain.
 Generation posts are usually far away from collection stations, leading to high
cost of transmission lines.
 Tidal is a time-specific base load, meaning it cannot conform to peak demands.
8. Compose various ocean tidal energy conversion schemes available.

[CO1-L2]
 Tidal energy – from gravitational fields of sun and moon
 Thermal energy (OTEC) – from solar radiation
 Marine current – by thermal and salinity differences in addition to tidal
effects.
 Ocean waves – by winds blowing over the ocean surface.
 Salinity gradient
9. Discuss about anaerobic digestion? And its advantages. [CO1-L1]
Anaerobic digestion is the natural breakdown of organic materials into methane

and carbon dioxide gas and fertiliser. This takes place naturally, or in an
anaerobic digester.
The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to

produce fuels. Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and
drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion.
Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion
1. It is a net energy producing process which produces renewable energy in the

form of biogas.
2. It produces a liquid and a fibrous fertilizer.
3. It sanitizes the feedstock/ waste which is put through it, as long as the
temperature is held above a required temperature for a pre-defined time period.
4. It reduces odour below unprocessed waste odour levels.
5. It is much less likely to cause environmental pollution than spreading untreated
organic waste on land.
6. The effect of the fertilizer is longer lasting than for untreated organic waste.
10. Discuss how to use hydrogen energy to generate electric power? [CO1-L2]
Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen or used in a

contained cell. It often uses electrochemical cells, or combustion in internal
engines, to power vehicles and electric devices.
Hydrogen gas is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found
in its pure form, H2. In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen
(H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and releases energy.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical
cell, that energy can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it simply is used for
heat, the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.
11. Identify the problems associated with tapping solar energy?[CO1-H1]
Solar energy systems offer significant environmental benefits in comparison to

the conventional energy sources, thus they greatly contribute to the sustainable
development of human activities. At times however, the wide scale deployment of
such systems has to face potential negative environmental implications. These
possible problems may be a strong barrier for further advancement of these
systems in some consumers.
The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power can be

classified according to numerous categories, some of which are land use
impacts, ecological impacts, impacts to water, air and soil, and other impacts
such as socioeconomic ones, and can vary greatly depending on the technology,
which includes two broad categories:
 Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or

 Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP).
12. Summarize the factors influencing solar power extraction? [CO1-L2]

 Cable Thickness
 Temperature
 Shading
 Charge Controller and Solar Cell’s IV Characteristics
 Inverter Efficiency
 Battery Efficiency
13. Identify the limitation of solar power. [CO1-L3]
The chief limitations of solar energy include an inability to generate power at

night, an inability to ramp up power production to meet demand, and the cost of
solar panels. Transferring the electricity from areas where solar is more efficient
to other areas of the planet is also a problem.
14. Explain about NOCT and STC of a solar cell. [CO1-H1]
Standard Test Conditions are the laboratory conditions under which all PV
modules are tested. It can be said that STC is a benchmark for comparing
different types of PV modules, even if they are not from the same provider. STC
means:
 An irradiance of 1000 watts per square meter, which simulates peak sunshine on
a surface directly facing the sun in a day without clouds.
 A surface temperature of 25°C
 A light spectrum that closely simulates sunlight: AM 1.5 G
However, these are idealized conditions which don't reflect the real site
conditions under which a PV module will operate. The conditions at Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature aim to simulate reality more closely:
 The irradiance is 800 watts per square meter, which takes into account the fact
that PV modules don't always face the sun. It also considers atmospheric or
geographic conditions what might diminish sunshine.
 Solar panels heat up considerably during operation, so the temperature
considered is 45 (+/- 3) °C.
 The light spectrum is the same as for STC.
 A windspeed of 1 m/s is considered, with air at 20°C
This means that solar panels will always have higher ratings at STC compared
with NOTC.
15. Discuss about fuel cell and mention its specification. [CO1-H1]
Basically, a fuel cell is a device that converts directly the chemical energy
stored in gaseous molecules of fuel and oxidant into electrical energy. When the
fuel is hydrogen the only by-products are pure water and heat. The overall
process is the reverse of water electrolysis. In electrolysis, an electric current
applied to water produces hydrogen and oxygen; by reversing the process,
hydrogen and oxygen are combined to produce electricity and water (and heat).
Fuel cells rely on an electrochemical reaction involving the fuel, and not on
its combustion. A Carnot cycle involving the transformation of heat into
mechanical and electrical energy is involved in conventional methods for
generating electricity.
16. Show fuel cell characterization [CO1-H2]
Overall performance (i-V curve, power density)

Kinetic properties
Ohmic properties
Mass transport properties
reactant/product homogeneity
Parasitic losses
Electrode structure
Catalyst structure
Flow structure
Heat generation/heat balance;
Lifetime issues (lifetime testing, degradation, cycling,
startup/shutdown, failure, corrosion, fatigue).
17. Classify the types of fuel cell. [CO1-L2]
 PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

 DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
 PAFC, Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
 AFC, Alkaline Fuel Cell
 MCFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
 SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
18. Explain how to assess the wind energy pattern for a particular location.
[CO1- H1]
Level of wind power penetration; Grid size; and Generation mix of electricity in
the system.
19. Point out the impact of wind power penetration in power grid. [CO1-L2]

Voltage variations in Steady state voltage under continuous production of
power
 Voltage fluctuations
Flicker during operation
Flicker due to switching
 Harmonics
20. Name the domestic application of wind energy. [CO1-L2]
 Generating Power at Remote Sites

 Low-Power Applications - Electric fence charging, Cathodic protection.
 Village Electrification AND Interconnecting with the Utility
21. List the types of wind turbine and differentiate it. [CO1-L2]
Sl.No HAWT (Horizontal axis turbine) VAWT (Vertical axis turbine)
1 It is used for low power It can accept wind from any

application and use yaw control. direction eliminating the need
It is more widely used one. for yaw control.
2 Hawt capture more power than The inspection and
VAWT for the same tower height maintainance is easy and
and wind speed. cheap.
3 More costly than VAWT. The gear and generator are
located at ground level which
simplify the design of tower and
installation cost.
4 It is less noisy than VAWT It is noisy .
22. What is green power?

The green power is used to describe the sources of energy which are
environmental friendly,non-polluting , and hving a remedy to effects of pollution and
global warming. These sources are called renewable energy sources such as
sun,wind, water, biomass,and waste.
23. What is Hydrogen energy?

The hydrogen alone or mixed with natural gas is used in a combustion based
power generation such as gas turbine for stationary power generation in
standalone power plants or in a fuel cell based generation unit. Hydrogen is an
optimum choice for fuel cell, which are efficient energy conversion devicesThe
HFI (HYDROGEN FUE CELL) is a cost effective project to produce fuel cell
vehicles at low cost developed by George Bush in 2003 in US.
Part – B
1.Explain the impact of renewable energy generation on environment.
[CO1-L1] (or)
2. Discuss the influence of renewable energy sources with special reference to

global warming and climatic change context. [CO1-H2]
Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean

environment to the human beings. But with the passage of time , the quality of
the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is degrading. Every step must
be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy demand.
A trade off between the energy and environment is a must. To create public
awareness June 5th is observed as World Environment Day.
During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-

product.The various pollutants and its harmful effects is an important
environmental aspects of electric energy conservation. Particulate matter
,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects are change in
climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardio-
vascular diseases, corrosion of architectural buildings etc.
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases
(GHG) .The greenhouse is a n enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping
the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is an enclosure present around the
globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause the global
warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur
hexafluoride,water vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO 2
leads to 82% of total GHG emission.The main factors which influence the
GHG emission is –
(iv) Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
(v) Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
(vi) Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.
GHG :
(vii) Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal,
natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a
result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement).
(viii) Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory
problems
(ix) SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant,
waste disposal
(x) Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural
gas, and oil.
(xi) Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well
as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
(xii) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur
hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse
gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
Factors affecting the GHG:

Transportation:
Burning gasoline and diesel fuels produces CO2, CH4, and N2O
Transportation produces 28% of U.S. GHG emissions (fastest growing sector)
Health care facilities rely heavily on transportation systems
GHG reduction has ancillary health benefits
Reduce fleet emissions
Help commuters reduce emissions
Choose suppliers with fuel efficiency/alternate fuel standards
Prefer local suppliers
Purchase for energy efficient shipping
Energy – Operations:
Burning fossil fuels to heat, cool, and power buildings produces CO2, CH4,N2O
and SF6
Energy conservation and efficiency help facilities lower GHG emissions, reduce
other pollutants and save money
Make building operations more energy efficient
Install on-site renewable energy or CHP
Purchase energy efficient products
Reduce “standby” energy use
Buy green power
Energy – The Built Environment:
Green building and smart landscape design reduce emissions
Proper site location lessens auto dependence
Environmentally preferable material purchasing reduces GHGs
Incorporate green building principles
Consider transportation impacts of facility site selection

Use native vegetation and plant trees
Use local and regional building materials
Offset emissions from construction
Purchase only Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)-certified lumber products
Food Service:
Livestock production produces 18% of global GHG emissions
The U.S. food system relies heavily on fossil fuel inputs
Food is the 2nd largest part of the health care waste stream
Hospitals have important green purchasing power
Reduce the amount of meat protein on menus
Buy local and seasonal food
Procure organic food when possible
Prevent waste in food services
Compost food waste
Eliminate bottled water
THE COST OF GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION:

Global Warming
• Increasing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions may cause considerable global
and regional climate change leading to significant economic, environmental,
and ecological costs over the next century.
• Global Warming Potentials (over 100 years):
– CO2 1
– CH4 23
– N2O 296
World GHG Emissions by Sectors:
Sector CO2 Emissions (GtC) Share growth rate† rate trend
Buildings 1.73 31% +1.8% decelerating
Transport 1.22 22% +2.5% steady
Industry 2.34 43% +1.5% decelerating
Agriculture 0.22 4%‡ +3.1% decelerating
Total Emissions 5.5 100% +1.8% decelerating
(Total energy emissions accounted for 5.5 GtC emissions in 1995).

Energy usage does not include other emissions such as cement production,
landfill emissions, and land-use changes such as forest management, etc.
The agriculture sector accounts for 20% of CO2 equivalents because of methane
emissions.
The signs of worldwide climate change are
(i) Average temperature has climed from 0.8°C to 1.4 F, as said by
NASA goddard institute of space studies.
(ii) The Artic has the most severe effect.The temperature has
increased to twice the global average as per the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC) report .
(iii) Artic ice is disappearing.Polar bear are suffering the ice loss.
(iv) Glaciers and mountain snow are melting. The Montanna glacier
park has only 27 glaciers versus 150 in 1910.
(v) Spring comes earlier and freezing comes a week later in winter .
(vi) Heat waves , wildfire,strong tropical storms,aalso are the signs
of sudden upsurge in climate change.
Costing Methodologies for GHG

Top-down approach
– Uses integrated macro-economic models to estimate the cost of GHG
reduction activities.
– Good for examining the effectiveness of overall mitigation policies.
– Bottom-up approach
– Estimates the cost of GHG reduction from a given technology or mitigation
activity.
– Must compare to some baseline emissions from current or expected
technology portfolio.
Tools for Measuring GHGs:
Calculating GHG emissions reduced via hospital program costs can help make
the business case for climate action.The Energy Impact Calculator (EIC):
(vii) Calculates GHGs and other pollutants produced from facility
energy use
(viii) Quantifies health impacts, and costs of these impacts
Worldwide Energy Trends:

• The average annual growth rate of global energy consumption was 2.4% from
1971-1990, but dropped to 1.3% from 1990-1998.The average annual growth
rate of global energy-related CO2 emissions dropped from 2.1% to 1.4% in the
same periods.
• Why?
– Improved energy efficiencies
– Increased fuel switching to less carbon-intensive sources
– Adoption of renewable energy sources
– Dramatic decrease in countries with economies in transition (EIT) as a
result of economic changes
– Why aren’t emissions dropping then?
– Countervailing trends of population growth, economic growth, increased
energy usage per capita, and development of the Third World.
3. Compare the power extraction aspects of solar PV system with wind

energy system. (Refer Unit III Part B)
4. (i) Describe the consequences of green house effect.

(ii)Describe the prospects of ocean energy
(i) Ocean Tidal Energy :

The ocean tidal energy is a form of hydro power that converts the energy from the
ocean tides to electricity. The tidal power has more potential than wind and solar.
(ii) Ocean Wave Energy :
The wave power refer to the energy from the ocean surface waves which is captured to
do useful work.The worlds first ocean wave energy plant is in Portugal of 2250MW.
(iii) Ocean thermal power conversion: (OTEC) is still in infant stages.
The tidal power plants exploit the rise and fall of tides to convert this potential
energy to produce the mechanical power .Its operation is similar to that of Hydro electric
plant.
The tidal plant are generally classified on the basis of the number of basins used
for the power generation. They are further subdivided as one-way or two-way system
as per the cycle of operation for power generation.
The classification is represented with the help of a line diagram as

given below
Working of Different Tidal Power Plants:

Single basin-One-way cycle :
This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system, a basin is allowed to
get filled during flood tide and during the ebb tide. The water flows from the basin to the
sea passing through the turbine and generates power. The power is available for a
short duration during ebb tide.
Fig 1. Single basin Tidal Power Plant
Fig1 .shows a single tide basin before the construction of dam and Fig.2 shows the
diagrammatic representation of a dam at the mouth of the basin and power generation
during the falling tide.
Single-basin two-way cycle :
In this arrangement power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb tide
also. The power generation is also intermittent but generation period is increased
compared with one-way cycle. However the peak power obtained is less than the one-
way cycle. The arrangement of the basin and the power cycle is shown in Fig .3.
Fig 3
The main difficulty with this arrangement, the same turbine must be used as Prime
mover as ebb and tide flows pass through the turbine in opposite directions. Variable
pitch turbine and dual rotation generator are used for such schemes.
Single-basin two-way cycle with pump storage :
The Rance tidal power plant in France uses this type of arrangement. In this
system, power is generated both during flood and ebb tides. Complex machines
capable of generation Power and Pumping the water in either directions are used. A
part of the energy produced is used for introducing the difference in the water levels
between the basin and the sea at any time of the
tide and this is done by pumping water into the basin up or down. The period of power
production with this system is much longer than the other two described earlier. The
cycle of operation is shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4
Double basin type :
In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the two basins as shown in Fig
5.one basin is intermittently filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently drained by
the ebb tide. Therefore a small capacity but continuos power is made available with this
system as shown in Fig5. The main disadvantage of this system is that 50% of the
Potential energy is sacrificed in introducing the variation in the water levels of the two
basins.
Fig 5
Double basin with Pumping :
In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected
transmission system is used either to pump the water up the high basin. Net energy
gain is possible with such a system if the pumping head is lower than the basin-to-basin
turbine generating head.
Advantages and disadvantages of Tidal Power Plants:
Advantages:
1. Exploitation of tidal energy will in no case make demand for large area of
valuable land because they are on bays.
2. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.

3. It is much superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain
which always fluctuates year to year. Therefore, there is certainty of
power supply a the tide cycle is very definite.
4. As in every form of water power, this will also not produce any unhealthy
waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse which entails heavy removal costs.
5. Tidal Power is superior to conventional hydro power as the hydro plants are know for
their large seasonal and yearly fluctuations in the output of
energy because they are entirely dependent upon the nature’s cycle of
rainfall, which is not the case with tidal as monthly certain power is
assured. The tides are totally independent on nature’s cycle of rainfall.
6. Another notable advantage of tidal power is that it has a unique capacity to
meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in combinatiion with thermal
or hydroelectric system.
7. It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers, in
addition to the possibility of fish forming in the tidal basins.
Disadvantages :
1. These Power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.
2. As the sites are available on the bay which will be always far away from the load
centers. The power generated must be transported to long
distances. This increases the transportation cost.
3. The supply of power is not continuous as it depends upon the timing of tides.
Therefore some arrangements (double basin or double basin with pump storage)
must be made to supply the continuous power. This also
further increases the capital cost of the plant.
4. The capital cost of the plant (Rs.5000/kw) is considerably large compared
with conventional-power plants (hydro, thermal)
5. Sedimentation and siltration of the basins are some of the added problems
with tidal power plants.
6. The navigation is obstructed.
7. It is interesting to note that the output of power from tidal power plant
varies with lunar cycle, because the moon largely influences the tidal
rhythm, where as our daily power requirement is directly related to solar
cycle.
In addition to all the above mentioned (imitations of tidal power, the

utilization of tidal energy on small scale has not yet proved economical.
Components of Tidal Power plants

There are three main Components of a tidal Power plant. i.e,
(i) The Power house
(ii) The dam or barrage
(iii) Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.
The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main
equipments of a power house. The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea
and the basin or between one basin and the other in case of multiple basins.
The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the
basin during the low tide, as per operational requirement. These are gate controlled
devices.
It is generally convenient to have the power house as well as the sluice-ways in

alignment with the dam.
The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in
either direction. If reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be
taken over at any time by the same machine. The modern tubular turbines are so
versatile that they can be used either as turbines or as pumps in either direction of flow.
In addition, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice-ways by locking the
machine in to a stand still. As compared to conventional plants, this, however, imposes
a great number of operations in tidal power plants. For instance, the periodic opening
and closing of the sluice-way of a tidal plant are about 730 times in a year.
Dam (Barrage):
Dam and barrage are synonymous terms. Barrage has been suggested as a more
accurate term for tidal power scheme, because it has only to with stand heads a fraction
of the structure’s height, and stability problems are far more modest. However, the
literature does not always make the distinction, even though heads are small with tidal
power cutoffs.
Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where
pressure changes sides continuously. The barrage needs to provide channels for the
turbines in reinforced concrete. To build these channels a temporary coffer dam in
necessary, but it is now possible to built them on land, float them to the site, and sink
them into place.
Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficiently high tidal range to give a
good head of water – the minimum useful range is around three meters. The best sites
are bays and estuaries, but water, can also be impounded behind bounded reservoir
built between two points on the same shore line.
The location of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related to
the size of trapped basin and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is built to
the mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the smaller the tidal range. A balance must
also be struck between increased out put and increased material requirements and
construction costs.
Gates and Locks:
Tidal power basins have to be filled and emptied. Gates are opened regularly and
frequently but heads very in height and on the side where they occur, which is not the
case with conventional river projects. The gates must be opened and closed rapidly and
this operation should use a minimum of power. Leakage, is tolerable for gates and
barrages. Since we are dealing with seawater, corrosion problems are actuate, they
have been very successfully solved by the catholic protection and where not possible by
paint. Gate structures can be floated as modular units into place.
Though, in existing plants, vertical lift gates have been used. The technology is
about ready to substitute a series of flap gates that operates by water pressure. Flap
gates are gates that are positioned so as to allow water in to the holding basin and
require no mechanical means of operation. The flap gates allow only in the direction of
the sea to basin. Hence, the basin
level rises well above to sea level as ebb flow area is far less than flood flow area.
:
Power house:
Because small heads only are available, large size turbines are needed; hence, the
power house is also a large structure. Both the French and Soviet operating plants use
the bulb type of turbine of the propeller type, with revisable blades, bulbs have
horizontal shafts coupled to a single generator. The cost per installed kilowatt drops
with turbine size, and perhaps larger turbines might be installed in a future major tidal
power plant.
Fig 6 Schematic Lay out of Tidal Power House
5.(i)Discuss GHG emissions from the various energy sources. [CO1-L1]

(ii)Explain the design principle and operation of fuel cell and fossil fuel cell.
(or)
6.List the different types of fuel cell. Explain them with neat diagrams. [CO1-H1]
A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen

to produce electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. It may also be defined as
an electrochemical device for the continuous conversion of the portion of the free
energy change in a chemical reaction to electrical energy.
Types of Fuel Cell :
 PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

 DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
 PAFC, Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
 AFC, Alkaline Fuel Cell
 MCFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

 SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Working of Fuel Cell
The fuel cell represents one of the successful ways by passing the heacycle and
converting the chemical energy of fuels directly into electricity. It is distinguished from a
battery in that it operates with continuous replenishment of the fuel and oxidant at active
electrode areas and does not require recharging.
The working of the fuel cell is explained here with reference to the Hydrogen-Oxygen
fuel cell using aqueous electrolyte. The fuelcell consists of an anode, a cathode and an
electrolyte Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anodeside of the cell. Positive H ions move
from the anode-side and enter the electrolyte through porous cell walls. The anode is
left with a negativecharge. Air is fed into the cathode side. O2 ions enter the
electrolyte leaving the cathode side with a positive charge. Excess anode electrons
flow to the cathode creating a current flow H2 and O ions combine in the electrolyte to
from water which leaves the cell as steam.
The reaction taking place at the electrodes are given below

(1) Hydrogen electrode (anode)
2H2 4H
4H + 4OH 4H2O + 4e
(2) Oxygen electrode (cathode)
O2 20
2 O + 2H2O+ 4e 4 OH
(3) Overall cell reaction
2H2+ O2 2H2 O
Fig .Fuel Cell
The above reactions indicate H2 molecules break up into H Atoms at the anode
and they combine with OH ion to form water and free electron at anode. The formed
free electrons travel to the cathode through the external circuit as shown in fig. At the
cathode, O2 molecules break up into two O2 atoms and these atoms combine with the
four electrons arriving by the external circuit and two molecules of water (out of 4
molecules produced at the anode to from 4OH oins. The OH ions migrate towards the
anode and are consumed there. The electrolyte remains invariant. It is prime
requirement that the composition of electrolyte should not change as the cell operates.
The major difficulty experienced in the design of fuel cell is to obtain sufficient fuel-
electrode-electrolyte reaction sites in a given volume. There are many other types of
cells as ion exchange membrane cell, direct and indirect oxidation fuel cells, molten
carbonate fuel cells and many others.
ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS:
1) The fuel cell converts its fuel directly to electric power. Pollutant levels range from
1/10 to1/50,000 of those produced by a fossil fuel power plant as there it no combustion
2) No cooling water is needed so it can be located at any desired place.
3) As it does not make noise. It can be readily accepted in residential areas.
4) The fuel cell takes little time to go into operation.
5) It would be an ideal reserve power source with in large conventional power plants to
handle peak or emergency loads.
6) There is no efficiency penalty for part load operation. Efficiency remains constant
from 100% to 25 % of rated load.
7) There is no maximum or minimum size for a fuel cell power plant. Individual fuel cells
are joined to from stacks. The stacks are joined to form power modules. The number
of modules can be tailored to power plant requirements.
8) The land requirement is considerably less compared with conventional power plants.
9) Possibly the greatest advantage of the fuel cell is its high operating efficiency.
Present-day fuel cell efficiency is 38% and it is expected to reach to 60% before the end
of this century.
10) Fuel cell power plants may further cut generation costs by eliminating or reducing
line losses. Fuel cell power plant in rural areas or highly congested residential areas
would eliminate the need for long lines to bring in power from remote generating
stations.
11) A wide variety of fuels can be used with the fuel cell. Although presently limited to
using substances that produce pure H rich gas, the cell may one day be able to operate
on fuels derived from low grade shale oils or highly sulfur coals.
12) The maintenance charges are low as there are no moving parts and outages are
also less.
13) Fuel cells have an overload capacity of 50 to 100% for a short duration.
14) The weight and volume of the fuel cell is considerably low compared to other
energy sources.
15) In H2-O cell, the reaction product is water which is portable.
PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE (PEM):
 This is the leading cell type for passenger car application

 Uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
 Operates at a relatively low temperature, about 175 degrees
 Has a high power density, can vary its output quickly and is suited for
applications where quick startup is required making it popular for
automobiles
 Sensitive to fuel impurities
DIRECT METHANOL (A SUBSET OF PEM):
 Expected efficiencies of 40% plus low operating temperatures between

120-190 degrees
 Also uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
 Different from PEM because the anode catalyst is able to draw hydrogen
from methanol without a reformer
 Used more for small portable power applications, possibly cell phones and
laptops
PHOSPHORIC ACID:
 This is the most commercially developed fuel cell

 It generates electricity at more than 40% efficiency
 Nearly 85% of the steam produced can be used for cogeneration
 Uses liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operates at about 450
degrees F
 One main advantage is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel
MOLTEN CARBONATE:
 Promises high fuel-to-electricity efficiency and the ability to utilize coal

based fuels
 Uses an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture
 Require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode

 Operates at extremely high temperatures 1200 degrees
 Primarily targeted for use as electric utility applications
 Have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas,
propane, landfill gas, marine diesel and simulated coal gasification
products
 Because of the extreme high temperatures, non-precious metals can be
used as catalysts at the anode and cathode which helps reduces cost
 Disadvantage is durability
 The high temperature required and the corrosive electrolyte accelerate
breakdown and corrosion inside the fuel cell
ALKALINE:

 Used mainly by military and space programs
 Can reach 70% power generating efficiency, but considered to costly for
transportation applications
 Used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide electricity and drinking water
 Uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and
operates at 75 -160 degrees
 Can use a variety of non-precious metals as catalyst at the anode and
cathode
Requires pure hydrogen and oxygen because it is very susceptible to

carbon contamination
 Purification process of the hydrogen and oxygen is costly
 Susceptibility to poisoning affects cell’s lifetime which also affects the cost
Regenerative Fuel Cells:
 Currently researched by NASA

 This type of fuel cell involves a closed loop form of power generation
 Uses solar energy to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen
 Hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell generating electricity, heat
and water
 The water byproduct is then recirculated back to the solar-powered
electrolyser beginning the process again
 Fuel Cells require highly purified hydrogen as a fuel
 Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce
hydrogen economically from a variety of resources in environmentally
friendly ways
 Hydrogen is a secondary energy resource, meaning it must be made from
another fuel
 Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of energy resources including:
 Fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal
 Nuclear energy
 Renewable resources, such as solar,water, wind and biomass

 The biggest challenge regarding hydrogen production is the cost
 Reducing the cost of hydrogen production so as to compete in the transportation
sector with conventional fuels on a per-mile basis is a significant hurdle to Fuel
Cell’s success in the commercial marketplace
Applications of Fuel Cell Technology
 Transportation
 Stationary Power Stations
 Telecommunications
 Micro Power
Unit – II
ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION

Part – A
1. What is the application of reference theory? [CO2-L3]

 Reference frame theory is used to eliminate Rotor Position Dependence
Inductances and Capacitances
 Transforms Nonlinear Systems to Linear Systems for Certain Cases
 Fundamental Tool For Rigorous Development of Equivalent Circuits
 Can Be Used to Make AC Quantities Become DC Quantities
 Used as a Framework for Most Controllers
2. Explain the principle of operation of induction generators? [CO2- L1]

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC
electrical generator that uses the principle of induction motors to produce power.
Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor in generator
mode, giving negative slip. In most cases, a regular AC asynchronous motor is
used as a generator, without any internal modifications .
3. Distinguish between induction generator and synchronous generator.

[C01- L2]
Sl.no. Synchronous generator Induction generator
1. In a synchronous generator, the In case of inductions generators, the
waveform of generated voltage output voltage frequency is regulated
is synchronized with (directly by the power system to which the
corresponds to) the rotor speed. induction generator is connected. If
The frequency of output can be induction generator is supplying a
given as f = N * P / 120 Hz. standalone load, the output
where N is speed of the rotor in frequency will be slightly lower (by 2
rpm and P is number of poles. or 3%) that calculated from the
formula f = N * P / 120.
2. Separate DC excitation system Induction generator takes reactive
is required in an alternator power from the power system for
(synchronous generator). field excitation. If an induction
generator is meant to supply a
standalone load, a capacitor bank
needs to be connected to supply

reactive power.
3. Brushes are required in Construction of induction generator
synchronous generator to is less complicated as it does not
supply DC voltage to the rotor require brushes and slip ring
for excitation arrangement
The difference between the IG and
SG can be understood from the
Fig.1
Fig.1
4. Show the merits of DFIG over SCIG for wind energy conversion? [CO2-L2]
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC

electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce
power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor in
generator mode, giving negative slip. It is of two types :
1. SCIG (Squirrel cage IG) 2. DFIG (Doubly fed IG)
The DFIG consists of a stator connected directly to grid and a rotor via slip rings
is connected to grid through four- quadrant ac-to-dc converter based on insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) . The merits of this system are :
(i) Reduced inverter cost, because inverter rating is typically 30% of total system
power.
(ii) Improved system efficiency.
(iii) Power-factor control can be implemented at lower cost.
(iv) It has a complete control of active and reactive power
5. Define Clarke transformation. [CO2-L1]
The inverse transformation from the dq0 frame to the natural abc frame:
Is called the Clarke Transform, it is interesting to note that the 0-component

above is the same as the zero sequence component in the symmetrical
components transform. For example, for voltages Ua, Ub and Uc, the zero
sequence component for both the dq0 and symmetrical components transforms
is .
6. Define Park transformation. [CO2- L1]
The dq0 transform (often called the Park transform) is a space vector
transformation of three-phase time-domain signals from a stationary phase
coordinate system (ABC) to a rotating coordinate system (dq0).
The transform applied to time-domain voltages in the natural frame (i.e. ua, ub
and uc) is as follows:
where is the angle between the rotating and fixed coordinate

system at each time t and is an initial phase shift of the voltage.
7. Why are induction generators preferred over dc generators in WECS. [ CO2-

H1]
The system reliability will increase by elimination of the gear boxes and the
power electronic convertersby using an IG.
Also the system efficiency will increase because the losses in the gear box and
power electronic converters are eliminated.
8. Compare the PMSG and IG used in WECS? [CO2-L2]
For a sudden blow of wind the torque to the generator is increased ,this
wind leads to large stresses on the wind turbine’s drive train.
However IG allows a small change of speed with the change of torque
going to the generator and lower stresses/tear and wear of the drive train.
As the IG and the PMSG machine have similar Stator, the cost difference
is mainly due to the rotor.
PMSG generators have higher efficiency so the higher material cost may
be somewhat compensated for the extra electricity generated. But the inductive
power factor of the induction generators require capacitors for power factor
correction and may increases the overall cost of the IG.
Hence the advantage of IG and PMSG depends on the application and
differ from case to case.
9. Label slip-torque characteristics of induction generator. [CO2- L1]
10. Show the merits of PMSG for WECS? [CO2-L3]

IG and PMSG generators are both intended for fixed speed operations.
When the PMSG generator is connected to the grid, the speed is determined by
the grid frequency and is constant.So, if the torque to the generator is
increased (sudden blow of wind), the generator will produce electromagnetic
force to resist an increase in speed. So, a blow of wind leads to large stresses
on the wind turbine’s drive train. However IG allows a small change of speed
with the change of torque going to the generator and lower stresses/tear and
wear of the drive train.
As the IG and the PMSG machine have similar Stator, the cost difference is
mainly due to the rotor. The PM’s cost is always going to be more than that of
aluminum and one can see that the cost of the induction generator is expected to
be much lower than the PMSG generators for the same power rating. But PMSG
generators have higher efficiency so the higher material cost may be
somewhat compensated for the extra electricity generated. Also, inductive
power factor of the induction generators require capacitors for power factor
correction and may increases the overall cost of the IG. So, a trade-off analysis is
needed for case by case basis before declaring any machine as best.
11. Differentiate between synchronous generator and PMSG. [CO2-L2]
A synchronous generator is essentially the same machine as a synchronous

motor. The magnetic field of the rotor is supplied by direct current or permanent
magnets. If it is supplied by permanent magnet it is called PM SG. If the field is
supplied by a dc supply it is called a synchronous generator. Brushes are

required in synchronous generator to supply DC voltage to the rotor( field) for
excitation.
In both cases it is a synchronous generator because the waveform of generated
voltage is synchronized with (directly corresponds to) the rotor speed. The
frequency of output can be given as f = N * P / 120 Hz. where N is speed of the
rotor in rpm and P is number of poles.
12. Compose the characteristics of SCIG? [CO2-L1]
13. What is the principle of DFIG. [CO2-L1]

Currently DFIG are increasingly used in large wind farms. A typical DFIG
system is shown in the below figure. The AC/DC/AC converter consists of two
components:the rotor side converter Crotor and Grid side converter Cgrid. These
converters are voltage source converters that use forced commutation power
electronic devices (IGBTS) to synthesize AC voltage from DC voltage source. A
capacitor connected on DC side acts as a DC voltage source. The generator slip
rings are connected to the rotor side converter, which shares a DC link with the
grid side converter in a so called back -to-back configuration. The wind power
captured by the turbine is converted into electric power by the IG and is
transferred togrid by stator and rotor windings. The control system gives the pitch
angle command andthe voltage commands for Crotor and Cgrid to control the
power of the wind turbine, DC bus voltage and reactive power or voltage at grid
terminals.
When the rotor speed is greater than the rotating magnetic field from
stator, the stator induces a strong current in the rotor. The faster the rotor rotates,
the more power will be transferred as an electromagnetic force to the stator, and
in turn converted to electricity which is fed to the electric grid. The speed of
asynchronous generator will vary with the rotational force applied to it.Its
difference from synchronous speed in percent is called generator‘s slip. With
rotor winding short circuited, the generator at full load is only a few percent.
With the DFIG, slip control is provided by the rotor and grid side
converters. At high rotor speeds, the slip power is recovered and delivered to the
grid, resulting in high overall system efficiency. If the rotor speed range is limited,
the ratings of the frequency converters will be small compared with the generator
rating, which helps in reducing converter losses and the system cost.
14. Differentiate between SCIG and DFIG. [C02-H1]
(SCIGs) ( DFIGs)
1. Stator converter controlled induction The doubly fed induction
generator (SCIG ) are those which generators (DFIGs) or
have a Full power bidirectional (four- double output induction
quadrant AC–AC) PWM static generators (DOIGs) are
converters as a soft interface between also called wound rotor
squirrel cage rotor induction induction generators
generatorand the power grid. (WRIGs) . They are
provided with three
phase windings on the
rotor and on the stator.
They may be supplied
with energy at both
rotor and stator

terminals.
2. Four-quadrant PWM static converters They provides constant

may be of cascaded (indirect) type or (or controlled) voltage Vs
of direct (matrix) type allow variable and frequency f1 power
speed operation of the SCIG through the
stator, while the rotor is
supplied through a static
power converter at
variable voltage Vr and
frequency f.
WRIG is adequate in
applications with limited
speed control.
3. The cascaded AC–AC PWM converter For operation at the
provides for smooth motor starting and power grid,
then motoring or synchronization is
generating to the power grid. The required. The whole
standard synchronization sequence synchronization process
is fully eliminated. IS CONTROLLED
Safe and soft connection and by the static power
disconnection to the power system are converter without any
inherently available. special intervention by
the prime mover’s
governor.
4. Up to ±100% reactive power exchange The WRIG was proven
with the power grid is available, which to be reliable for
eliminates the delivering power at
external capacitor bank variable speed with
very fast decoupled
active and reactive
control in industry up
to 400 MW/unit
5. The configuration of SCIG is shown in The configuration of
Fig.(a) with cascaded ac-ac pwm DFIG is shown in Fig.(b)
converter.
15. List the different methods of generating synchronous electrical power .

[ CO2-L1]
Systems 1,2, and 3 are all constant speed systems, which differ only in
pitch control and gearbox details. A variable pitch turbine is able to operate at a
good coefficient of performance over a range of wind speeds when turbine
angular velocity is fixed. Systems 4 through 8 of Table are all variable speed
systems and accomplish fixed frequency output by one of five methods.
Part – B
1. Explain the principle and operation of Induction Generator used for Wind
Energy Conversion System. [CO2-H1]
Almost all electrical power is generated by three-phase ac generators which are

synchronized with the utility grid. Engine driven single-phase generators are used
sometimes, primarily for emergency purposes in sizes up to about 50 kW. Single-phase
generators would be used for wind turbines only when power requirements are small
(less than perhaps 20 kW) and when utility service is only single-phase. A three-phase
machine would normally be used whenever the wind turbine is adjacent to a three-
phase transmission or distribution line. Three-phase machines tend to be smaller, less
expensive, and more efficient than single-phase machines of the same power rating,
which explains their use whenever possible.
A construction diagram of a three-phase ac generator is shown in Fig. a. There is a
rotor which is supplied a direct current If through slip rings. The current If produces a
flux. This flux couples into three identical coils, marked aa0, bb0, and cc0, spaced 120o
apart, and produces three voltage waveforms of the same magnitude but 120 electrical
degrees apart.
The equivalent circuit for one phase of this ac generator is shown in Fig. b. It is
shown in
electrical machinery texts that the magnitude of the generated rms electromotive force
(emf) E is given by where f is the electrical radian frequency, is the flux

per pole, and k1 is a constant which includes the number of poles and the number of
turns in each winding. The reactance Xs is the synchronous reactance of the generator
in ohms/phase. The generator reactance changes from steady-state to transient
operation, and Xs is the steady-state value. The resistance Rs represents the

resistance of the conductors in the generator windings. It is normally much smaller than
Xs, so is normally neglected except in efficiency calculations. The synchronous
impedance of the winding is given the symbol Zs = Rs + jXs. The voltage E is the open
circuit voltage and is sometimes called the voltage behind synchronous reactance. The
three coils of the generator can be connected together in either wye or delta, although
the wye connection shown in is much more common. When connected in wye, E is the
line to neutral voltage and one has to multiply it by √ 3 to get the magnitude of the line-
to-line voltage.
where p is the number of poles and n is the rotational speed in r/min. The speed
required to produce 60 Hz is 3600 r/min for a two pole machine, 1800 r/min for a four
pole machine, 1200 r/min for a six pole machine, and so on. It is possible to build
generators with large numbers of poles where slow speed operation is desired. A
hydroelectric plant might use a 72 pole generator, for example, which would rotate at
100 r/min to produce 60 Hz power.A slow speed generator could be connected directly
to a wind turbine, eliminating the need for an intermediate gearbox. The propellers of
the larger wind turbines turn at 40 r/min or less, so a rather large number of poles would
be required in the generator for a gearbox to be completely eliminated. Both cost and
size of the generator increase with the number of poles, so the system cost with a very
low speed generator and no gearbox may be greater than the cost for a higher speed
generator and a gearbox.When the generator is connected to a utility grid, both the grid
or terminal voltage V and the frequency f are fixed. The machine emf E may differ from
V in both magnitude and phase, so there exists a difference voltage.
. This difference voltage will yield a line current I (defined
positive away from the machine) . The relationship among E, V , and I is

shown in the phasor diagram of Fig.c. E is proportional to the rotor flux φ which in turn
is proportional to the field current flowing in the rotor. When the field current is relatively
small, E will be less than V . This is called the
underexcitation case. The case where E is greater than V is called overexcitation. E will
lead V by an angle δ while I will lag or lead V by an angle θ.
Phasors in the first quadrant have positive angles while phasors in the fourth quadrant have
negative angles. Therefore, both θ and δare positive in the overexcited case, while δ is positive and θis
negative in the underexcited case. The expressions for real and reactive power supplied by each phase is
given below as P and Q.
A plot of P versus δ is shown in Fig. d. This illustrates two important points about
the use of an ac enerator. One is that as the input mechanical power increases, the
output electrical power will increase, reaching a maximum at δ= 90 o. This maximum
electrical power, occurring at sin δ = 1, is called the pullout power. If the input
mechanical power is increased still more, the output power will begin to decrease,
causing a rapid increase inδand a loss of synchronism. If a turbine is operating near
rated power, and a sharp gust of wind causes the input power to exceed the pullout
power from the generator, the rotor will accelerate above rated speed. Large generator
currents will flow and the generator will have to be switched off the power line. Then the
rotor will have to be slowed down and the generator resynchronized with the grid. Rapid
pitch control of the rotor can prevent this, but the control system will have to be well
designed.
If the power becomes negative for negative δ. This means the generator is now
acting as a motor. Power is being taken from the electric utility to operate a giant fan
and speed up the air passing through the turbine. This is not the purpose of the system,
so when the wind speed drops below some critical value the generator must be disconnected
from the utility line to prevent motoring.

Figure d: Power flow from an ac generator as a function of power angle
2. Explain DFIG based wind power generation system.Illustrate the independent

dq control strategy adopted for dq control. [CO2-H3]
(or)
3. Explain with neat diagram the principle of operation of DFIG used for
renewable energy conversion. [CO2-H1]
DFIG : The wound rotor induction generators (WRIGs) are provided with three phase
windings on the rotor and on the stator. They may be supplied with energy at both rotor
and stator terminals. This is why they are called doubly fed induction generators
(DFIGs) or double output induction generators (DOIGs). Both motoring and generating
operation modes are feasible, provided the power electronics converter that supplies
the rotor circuits via slip-rings and brushes is capable of handling power in both
directions.
As a generator, the WRIG provides constant (or controlled) voltage Vs and
frequency f1 power through the stator, while the rotor is supplied through a static power
converter at variable voltage Vr and frequency f2.The rotor circuit may absorb or deliver
electric power. As the number of poles of both stator and rotor windings is the same, at
steady state, according to the frequency theorem, the speed ωm is product of number
of pole pairs and the mechanical rotor speed.
The sign of ωm is positive (+) when the phase sequence in the rotor is the same
as in the stator and ωm < ω1, that is, subsynchronous operation. The negative (−) sign
in corresponds to an inverse phase sequence in the rotor when ωm > ω1, that is,
supersynchronous operation. For constant frequency output, the rotor frequency ω2 has
to be modified in step with the speed variation. This way, variable speed at constant
frequency (and voltage) may be maintained by controlling the voltage, frequency, and
phase sequence in the rotor circuit. It may be argued that the WRIG works as a
synchronous generator (SG) with three-phase alternating current (AC) excitation at slip
(rotor) frequency ω2 = ω1 − ωm. However, as ω1 ≠ ωm, the stator induces voltages in
the rotor circuits even at steady state, which is not the case in conventional SGs.
Additional power components thus occur. The main operational modes of WRIG
are depicted in Figure a through Figure d (basic configuration
shown in Figure a). The first two modes (Figure b and Figure c) refer to the already
defined subsynchronous and supersynchronous generations. For motoring, the reverse
is true for the rotor circuit; also, the stator absorbs active power for motoring. The slip S
is defined as follows:
FIGURE 1 : Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) main operation modes: (a) basic
configuration, (b) subsynchronous generating (ωr < ω1), (c) supersynchronous
generating (ωr > ω1), and (d) rotor output WRIG (brushless exciter).
The DFIG topology contains the following main parts:

• Stator laminated core with Ns uniformly distributed slots
• Rotor laminated core with Nr uniformly distributed slots
• Stator three-phase winding placed in insulated slots
• Rotor shaft
• Stator frame with bearings
• Rotor copper slip-rings and stator (placed) brushes to transfer power to (from) rotor
windings.
•Cooling system
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF DFIG:
Fig. 1.8. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF DFIG:
•The resistance R1m that represents the core losses depends slightly on slip frequency
ω2 = Sω1, as non-negligible core losses also occur in the rotor core for Sf1 > 5 Hz.
The input electrical powers Ps and Pr and the losses represents the mechanical power
Pm:
(1.36)
where Pelm is the electromagnetic (through airgap) power.
(1.37)
Where Te is the electromagnetic torque. The sign of mechanical power for given motion
direction is used to discriminate between motoring and generating. The positive sign (+)
of Pm is considered here for motoring (see the association of directions for in Figure
1.8). The motor/generator operation mode is determined (Equation 1.36) by two factors:
the sign of slip S and the sign and relative value of the active power input (or extracted)
electrically from the rotor Pr (Table 1.1). So, the WRIG may operate as a generator or a
motor both subsynchronously (ωr < ω1) and r 1 . If all the losses are neglected, from
Equation 1.36 and Equation 1.37:
The higher the slip, the larger the electric power absorption or delivery through
the rotor. Also, itshould be noted that in supersynchronous operation, both stator and
rotor electric powers add up to convert the mechanical power. This way, up to a point,
oversizing, in terms of torque capability, is not required when operation at S = −Smax
occurs with the machine delivering Ps(1 + |Smax|) total electric power.Reactive power
flow is similar.
From the equivalent circuit,
So, the reactive power required to magnetize the machine may be delivered by
the rotor or by the stator or by both. The presence of S in Equation 1.40 is justified by
the fact that machine magnetization is perceived in the stator at stator frequency ω1.
As the static power converter rating depends on its rated apparent power rather than
active power, it seems to be practical to magnetize the machine from the stator. In this
case, however, the WRIG absorbs reactive power through the stator from the power
grids or from a capacitive-resistive load.
In stand-alone operation mode, however, the WRIG has to provide for the
reactive power required by the load up to the rated lagging power factor conditions. If
the stator operates at unity power factor, the rotor-side static power converter has to
deliver reactive power extracted either from inside itself (from the capacitor in
the DC link) or from the power grid that supplies it. As magnetization is achieved with
lowest kVAR in DC, when active power is not needed, the machine may
be operated at synchronism (ω r = ω1) to fully contribute to the voltage stability and
control in the power system. To further understand the active and reactive power flows
in the WRIG, phasor diagrams are used.
STEADY-STATE EQUATIONS :
The stator and rotor equations for steady-state/phase may be written in complex
numbers at frequency ω1 in the stator and ω2 in the rotor:
4. With the neat diagram, show the principle and working of PMSG and analyse in
detail. [ CO2- H1]
(or)
5.(i)Draw the circuit model of PMSG and explain the methods used for the steady
state analysis. [CO2-H1]
(ii)Also discuss the characteristics and issues briefly. [CO2-H2]
PMSG :
A PMSG’s output voltage amplitude and frequency are proportional to speed. In

constant speed primemover applications, PMSGs might perform voltage self-regulation
by proper design; that is, inset or interior PM pole rotors. Small speed variation (10 to
15%) may be acceptable for diode rectified loads with series capacitors and voltage
self-regulation. However, most applications require operation at variable speed, and, in
this case, constant output voltage vs. load, be it direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC), requires full static power conversion and close-loop control.
Versatile mobile generator sets (gensets) use variable speed for fuel savings,
and PMSGs with full power electronics control can provide high torque density, low
losses, and multiple outputs (DC and AC at 50 [60] Hz or 400 Hz, single phase or three
phase).A high efficiency, high active power to peak kilovoltampere (kVA) ratio allows for
reasonable power converter costs that offset the additional costs of PMs in contrast to
switched reluctance generators (SRGs) or induction generators (IGs) for the same
speed.
For automotive applications, and when motoring is not necessary, PM generators
may provide controlled DC output for a 10 to 1 speed range through a diode rectifier
and a one insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) step-up DC–DC converter for powers
above 2 to 3 kW. A series hybrid vehicle is a typical application here. Gas turbines run
at super high speeds; 3.0 megawatt (MW) at 18 krpm to 150 Kw at 80 krpm. Direct-
driven super-high-speed PM generators, with their high efficiency and high power factor,
seem to be the solution for such applications. With start-up facilities for bidirectional
power flow,
static converters allow for four-quadrant control at variable speed, with •}100% active
and reactive power capabilities. Distributed power systems of the future should take
advantage of this technology of high efficiency, reasonable cost, and high flexibility in
energy conversion and in power quality. Flywheel batteries with high kilowatts per
kilogram (kW/kg), good kilowatthours per kilogram (kWh/kg), and long life, also make
use of super-high-speed PMSGs with four-quadrant P and Q control. They are
proposed for energy storage on vehicles and spacecraft and for power systems backup.
Diverse as they may seem, these applications are accommodated by only a few
practical PMSGs classified as follows:
• With radial airgap (cylindrical rotor)

• With axial airgap (disk rotor)
• With distributed stator windings (q > 1)
• With concentrated windings (q ≤ 1)
• With surface PM rotors
• With interior or inset PM rotors
• With rectangular current control
• With sinusoidal current control
In terms of loads, they are classified as follows:
• With passive AC load
• With DC load
• With controlled AC voltage and frequency at variable speed reversal machines (FRMs)
conceived for low speed.
The super-high-speed PM generators differ in rotor construction, which needs a
mechanical shell against centrifugal forces and a copper shield (damper) to reduce rotor
losses. Also, at high fundamental frequency (above 1 kHz), stator skin effect and control
imply special solutions to reduce machine and static converter losses and overall costs.
As in most PMSG surfaces PM rotors are used, the latter will be given the most
attention. An IPM rotor case will be covered in a single paragraph, when voltage self-
regulation is acceptable due to almost constant speed operation. Basic configurations
for stator and rotor will be introduced and characterized. A comprehensive analytical
field model is introduced and checked through finite element method (FEM)
field and torque production analysis. Loss models for generator steady-state circuit
modeling are introduced for rectangular and for sinusoidal current control. Design
issues and a methodology by example are treated in some detail.
Circuit Model of PMSG with Shunt Capacitor and AC Load
Circuit Model of PMSG with Diode Rectifier Load

Diode rectifiers are used in many PMSG applications both for DC loads with or
without battery backup or as a first stage in dual-stage AC–AC pulse-width modulated
(PWM) converters with constant frequency and voltage output, for variable speed.
As the d–q circuit model of the PMSG with shunt capacitors was developed in a
previous section, here we will add the diode rectifier filter DC load equations.
The input and output relationships for lossless diode rectifier based on the
existence function model [10] is as follows:
The commutation angle μ increases with the rectified current Idc and with increasing
machine commutation inductance. In the absence of a damper cage on the rotor,
So, from the point of view of lowering the voltage drop along the diode rectifier due to
machine inductances, it is beneficial to place a strong damper cage on the PM rotor.
The maximum ideal value of μ should be less than (60°).

Approximately, the rectified DC voltage Vdc is related to machine line voltage [20],
under steady state:
As the load was replaced by the diode rectifier, the shunt capacitor equations in d–q
coordinates become
The DC filter and load equations are added:
Under steady state, s = 0; thus, all time derivatives are zero. With the voltage
drop in the diode rectifier neglected, the load resistance RLdc may be seen as a star-
connected phase AC resistance in parallel with the shunt capacitors at PMSG terminals
as follows:
Due to diode commutation of machine commutation inductances (Lc), the DC load

voltage decreases notably with load , especially if (no damper cage) when the speed
(frequency) is large, as in automotive applications.
With a more complete representation of a diode rectifier, the generator actual output
voltage and current waveforms may be obtained [19] (Figure 10.30a ,Figure 10.30b).
The presence of shunt capacitors may generate a kind of resonance phenomena with
quasi-periodic oscillations with bounded dynamics in the generator line voltage and
current, especially for light load.
FIGURE(a) Simulated and (b) measured generator phase current and line voltage with
shunt capacitor, diode rectifier, and direct current (DC) load: RL = 22 Ω, n = 1350 rpm.
These oscillations are visible as amplitude variations in generator line voltage and
phase current and in the DC load voltage .
6.Explain the principle of operation and constructional feature of SCIG in

detail.Also analyse the merits and demerits of the above. [H3]
SCIGs may be read as stator converter induction generators or cage rotor

induction generators. There are two basic schemes:
• With AC–AC cascaded pulse-width modulator (PWM) converter (Figure 5.1a)
• With direct AC–AC PWM converter (Figure 5.1b) [1,2]
The configurations with thyristor DC current link AC–AC converter and, respectively,
with thyristor cycloconverter seem to be merely of historical interest, as their reactive
power drainage and current harmonics content are no longer acceptable in terms of
power quality standards. While the matrix converter is still in advanced laboratory
status, the cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is available off the shelf for powers up to 1
MW and more, with up to ±100% reactive power capability.
The so-called high-voltage direct current (HVDC) light technology uses, in fact, IGBTs in
multilevel AC–AC cascaded power converters [3], but for higher DC link voltage levels
(tens of kilovolts) for DC.
current (AC)–AC pulse-width modulator (PWM) converter, and (b) with direct (matrix) converter.
MACHINE SIDE PWM CONVERTER CONTROL :

To let the control system open for motoring and generating, let us consider that only
torque vs. speed is performed. In essence, a functional generator produces the desired
torque vs. speed curve desired from the IG (Figure 5.2a through Figure 5.2c). For motor
starting, the torque vs. speed may decrease notably with speed (Figure 5.2a).
In essence, by an a priori applied optimization process involving the prime-mover
characteristics and IG capability, the optimum torque/speed curves are calculated. From
now on, positive or negative torque control is performed with the various torque speed
curves stored in tables and called upon according to the operation mode.
For generating, the reference power P* is set, but then its value is translated into
the torque/speed The direct torque and flux control (DTFC) seems to be inherent to the
application once torque control is required. Stator flux ( ) control is added, and thus, the
control system becomes robust and presents fast response. The stator flux functional
may also be expressed in terms of flux vs. torque, to minimize the losses in the IG over
the whole speed and power range. The space-vector modulation (SVM) is added to
further reduce the IG current harmonics, converter losses, and noise.
FIGURE : Typical desired torque/speed curves: (a) for motor starting and operation, (b)
for wind turbines stall regulated, and (c) for uncontrolled micro hydro turbine.
FIGURE :The direct torque and flux control (DTFC) of machine-side converter
The two main components of DTFC for SCIGs are the state observers and the
DTFC–SVM strategy.Vector control strategies perform similarly but apparently with
slightly larger online computation efforts and higher sensitivity to machine parameter
variation.
GRID SIDE CONVERTER CONTROL :
Grid-side converter control is, in general, standard vector control, where DC link
voltage control provides for active power from (to) DC link voltage to (from the power
grid, while reactive power control provides for reactive power exchange with the power
grid). The reactive power exchange with the power grid is, in fact, provided by the
oversized DC link capacitor, which also “covers” the IG magnetization.The active power
exchange is controlled through the machine-side converter from (to) the IG. Adequate
voltage and capacitance oversizing of the DC link may provide for up to }100% reactive
power exchange , which is so useful in the local power grid voltage control and
stabilization. may be commanded by the grid voltage error with respect to a desired
value. The DC link reference voltage is generally kept constant under normal operation
circumstances, but it may be reduced in relation to reactive power requirements. When
an inductance-capacitance inductance (LCL) filter is introduced between the grid-side
converter and the grid, speed decoupling of filter inductance L along the q axis current
control is added. The measured frequency of power grid voltage is required for
decoupling, to speed up the response in the presence of the power filter.
FIGURE : Testing stator converter controlled induction generator (SCIG) to the power
grid.
The standard synchronous generator solutions require speed governing in the

microhydroturbine for constant speed, to provide constant frequency. Also, the
acceleration and the synchronization take time, as they are done by the turbine and are
not protected from severe transients. The SCIG, on the other hand, may start with the
IG in motoring by fixing a positive torque reference to the machine-side converter to
complement the unregulated torque contribution of the turbine, after the water gate is
opened. The acceleration is fast, and the “synchronization” sequence is eliminated. All
that is needed is to set a negative reference torque (or power ) to control the system
and a positive (or negative) reactive reference to the grid-side converter. If pumping is
required, the positive torque (power) reference is maintained and tailored to speed to
best exploit the pump induction motor system up to 20 to 50% above base (rated)
speed . For better pumping, the turbine pump needs more speed than that needed for
good turbining. Experiments were performed on a laboratory system using two 10 kW
cage rotor IMs, one playing the role of the turbine and the other the role of the SCIG
(Figure 5.12). The 25 kVA four-quadrant cascaded PWM AC–AC converter was an off-
the-shelf device intended for variable speed drives with fast regenerative braking of
large inertia loads. The turbine was emulated by a variable speed drive in speed control
mode. Starting can be performed either by the “turbine” up to a preset speed or
simultaneously by the turbine and the SCIG in the motoring mode.
Steady-state operations at the power grid in generating for 0 and 50% reactive power
delivery are The power grid current evolution when, for −100% reference torque
(generator) at the IG side converter, control input is maintained, and the speed is
ramped down by “turbine” control from 1500 Rather smooth generating to motoring
transients were obtained. Grid current vs. voltage waveforms during motoring
acceleration (for pumping ) at zero reactive power exchange with the power grid are
It goes without saying that “synchronization” has become an irrelevant concept, as it
can be done at variable speed. Also the disconnection from the power grid can be done
smoothly via the grid-side and machine-side converters.
The two converters provide flexibility and opportunities for various actions, should power
grid faults occur.
The full rating of a four-quadrant AC–AC cascaded PWM converter turns out to be a
performance asset, as it controls the whole power exchanged with the grid: active and
reactive. All of this comes at higher costs than in WRIGs, where the rating of the four-
quadrant cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is 25 to 30% of the rated power. The latter,
however, has tight control only on •}25% of the power. It should be noted that the
commercial four-quadrant PWM IGBT converter used in our experiments and built for
drives requires additional LCL filtering between the grid-side converter section and the
power grid to improve the current waveforms in order to fully comply with the
contemporary strict power quality standards. Load rejection of SCIG at the power grid
with controlled turbine tends to lead to overspeeding, unless a ballast (alternative) load
is provided in the DC voltage link.
7. Draw the circuit model of self-excited induction generator and explain the
methods used for steady state analysis. What is the characteristics of SEIG used
for renewable energy conversion. Explain it. [CO2-H1]
The Cage Rotor Induction Machine Construction and Principle

The cage rotor induction machine is the most built and most used electric
machine, mainly as a motor, but, recently, as a generator, too. The cage rotor induction
machine contains cylindrical stator and rotor cores with uniform slots separated by a
small airgap (0.3 to 2 mm in general).The stator slots host a three-phase or a two-phase
AC winding meant to produce a traveling magnetomotive force (mmf ).
The cage rotor contains aluminum (or copper, or brass) bars in slots. They are short-
circuited by endrings with resistances that are smaller than those of bars .The angular
speed of the traveling fields is obtained for the following:
Figure : The cage rotor.
The speed n1 (in revolutions per second r/sec) is the so-called ideal no-load or
synchronous speed and is proportional to stator frequency and inversely proportional to
the number of pole pairsp1.The traveling field in the airgap induces electromagnetic
fields (emfs) in the rotor that rotate at speed n, at frequency f2:
As expected, the emfs induced in the short-circuited rotor bars produce in them AC
currents at slip frequencyf2=Sf1.Let us now assume that the symmetric rotor cage,
which has the property to adapt to almost anynumber of pole pairs in the stator, may be
replaced by an equivalent (fictitious) three-phase symmetric three-phase winding (as in
WRIGs) that is short-circuited. The traveling airgap field produces symmetric emfs in the
fictitious three-phase rotor with frequency that is Sf1 and with amplitude that is also
proportional to slipS:
whereLm is the magnetization inductance. E1 is the stator phase self-induced emf,

generally produced by both stator and rotor currents, or by the so-called magnetization
current Im( ). The rotor phases may be represented by a leakage inductance L2 and a
resistance R2. Consequently, the rotor current I2 is as follows:
The rotor currents interact with the airgap field to produce tangential forces — torque. In
Equation 4.6 and Equation 4.7, the rotor winding is reduced to the stator winding based
on energy (and loss) equivalence.
Noticing that the stator phases are also characterized by a resistance R1 and a leakage
inductance L1 , the stator and rotor equations may be written, for steady state, in
complex numbers, as for a transformer but with different frequencies in the primary and
secondary. Let us consider the generator association of signs for the stator:
This way, in fact, the frequency of rotor variables becomes w1, and it refers to a
machine at standstill, but with an additional (fictitious) rotor resistance R2(1-S)/S . The
power dissipated in this resistance equals the mechanical power in the real machine
(minus the mechanical losses):
P elm is the so-called electromagnetic power: the total active power that crosses the
airgap. Equation 4.8 and Equation 4.9 lead to the standard equivalent circuit of the
induction machine (IM) with cage rotor as shown in Figure. The electromagnetic power
P elm is positive (motoring) for S>0 and negative (generating) forS<0.From Figure : the
equivalent (total) reactance of the IM is always inductive, irrespective of slip sign (motor
or generator), while the equivalent resistance changes sign for generating. So, the IM
takes the reactive power to get magnetized either from the power grid to which it is
connected or from a fixed (or controlled) capacitor at terminals. Note that when a full
power static converter is placed between the IG and the load (or power grid), the IG is
again self-excited by the capacitors in the converter’s DC link or from the power grid (if
a direct AC–AC converter is used). As the operation of an IM at the power grid is
straightforward ( S< 0, w r> w1 ) the capacitor-excited induction generator will be
treated here.
Capacitor-Excited Induction Generator : Self-Excitation: A Qualitative View
The IG with capacitor excitation is driven by a prime mover with the main power
switch open. As the speed increases, due to prime-mover torque, eventually, the no-
load terminal voltage increases and settles to a certain value, depending on machine
speed, capacitance, and machine parameters.
The equivalent circuit further simplified by neglecting the stator resistance and leakage
inductance and by considering zero slip (S=0: open rotor circuit) for no-load conditions .
FIGURE : Self-excitation on self-excited induction generator (SEIG): (a) the general

scheme, (b) oversimplified equivalent circuit, and (c) quasi-steady-state self-excitation
characteristics.
Unit – III
POWER CONVERTERS
Part – A
1.Draw and label the block diagram of solar photovoltaic system. [ CO3- L1]
Generally there are two types of solar photovoltaic system :

(1) Autonomous solar photovoltaic system
(or) Standalone solar photovoltaic system
(2) Grid connected photovoltaic system (a) with battery (b)without battery
2. Discuss line commutated converters. Draw the schematic diagram. [CO3-

L1 ]
The line commutated converter is a power conditioner . It is the key link between
the PV array and mains in the grid-connected PV system. It acts as an interface that
converts dc current produced by the solar cells into utility-grade ac current. The PV
system behavior relies heavily on the power-conditioning unit. They must produce
good-quality sine-wave output, must follow the frequency and voltage of the grid, and
must extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of a maximum-
powerpoint tracker. The input stage varies the input voltage until the maximum power
point on the I V curve is found. They must monitor all the phases of the grid, and output
must be controlled in terms of voltage and frequency variation using PWM Technique.
The basic diagram for a converter used for power flow control in a photovoltaic system
is shown below:
3. Explain inversion mode of operation of line commutated inverter. [CO3- L2 ]

Line-commutated inverters are generally used for electric-motor applications. The
power stage is equipped with thyristors. A maximum-power tracking control is required
in the control algorithm for solar application. A typical grid-connected inverter may
use a pulse-width modulation (PWM) scheme and operate in the range of 2 kHz up
to 20 kHz.The driver circuit has to be changed to shift the firing angle from
rectifier operation (0 < α < 90°) to inversion mode of operation (90 < α < 180°). Six-
pulse or 12-pulse inverters are used for grid interfacing, but 12-pulse inverters produce
fewer harmo nics. Thyrsistor-type inverters require a low-impedance grid interface
connection for commutation purposes. If the maximum power available from the grid
connection is less than twice the rated PV inverter power, then the line-commutated
inverter should not be used .
The line-commutated inverters are cheaper but can lead to poor power quality.
The harmonics injected into the grid can be large unless taken care of by employing
adequate filters. These line-commutated inverters also have poor power factors that
require additional control to improve them. Transformers can be used to provide
electrical isolation. To suppress the harmonics generated by these inverters, tuned
filters are employed and reactive power compensation is required to improve the
lagging power factor.
4. Summarize the role of capacitor and the minimum value required for the
boost converter. [CO3-L1]
The boost converter shown in Fig (a) output voltage Vo is always greater than
the input voltage Vs as given in the voltage gain function
Vo= Vs / [1- D] where D is the duty cycle.
The current supplied to the output of the boost converter circuit is discontinuous.
Hence a larger filter capacitor C is required in comparison to that in the buck-derived
converters to limit the output voltage ripple. The function of the capacitor C is to
provide the output dc current to the load when the diode D is off. The minimum
value of this filter capacitance that results in the voltage ripple Vr is given by
At D = 0.5, Vr/Vo .= 1%, R .= 10 ohms, and f = 100 kHz, the minimum capacitance
for the boost converter is Cmin = 50 microFarad.
5. Generalize the significance of buck boost converter? [ CO3-L3]

 The buck –boost converter operates on the principle of PWM technique uses a
transformerless topology to obtain the output voltage greater i.e Boost (when D>
0.5 ) (or) lesser than the input voltage i.e Buck (or) (when D< 0.5 ) or equal to
the input ( at D =0.5).
 The output voltage is negative with respect to the ground.
 The current supplied to the output is discontinuous. Hence a larger filter
capacitor C is used to limit the output voltage ripple.The minimum value of C is
 It act as a power conditioner in utility grid-related application by acting as

an interfaces between ac networks and dc renewableenergy sources such as
fuel cells and photovoltaic arrays.
6. Give the schematic diagram of buck boost converter. [CO3-L1]
7.What is battery sizing? [CO3-L1]

(or)
Write about the aspects of battery sizing. [CO3-L1]
The battery sizing require 2 specifications :

1. The full capacity in Ah unit.
2. The usable depth of discharge recommended for that type of battery. eg.Lead
acid battery should not be cycled over their full capacity or else its life will be
shortened.
3. The size of battery depend on the total usable capacity needed in Ah.The below
formula is based on a nominal calculation of 12V battery.
When the batteries are connected in series the voltage gets added but the total usable
capacity in Ah remains the same.
8. Define array sizing. [CO3-L1]

Sizing is about calculating the no.of solar modules and battery needed to run the
required no. of appliances.
The first step in sizing is to calculate the daily requirement of electricity of each
appliance.
The second step is to determine how much electricity can be produced by one module.
The third step in sizing is to reduce the daily requirement by deciding carefully which
appliance need to be run on solar electricity and for how long the y need to be used per
day.
9. Show the weakness involved in sizing the solar arrays. [ CO3 – L2 ]
The sizing of a solar photovoltaic system is complicated because the electricity

generated each day depend on the rating of the solar module and on the amount of
sunlight reaching the module through the day.
(a) For calculating the daily output of the solar module we use peak hour per
day.The peak hour are equivalent to the no. of hours of sunlight at an irradiance
of 1000W/m2.
The weakness in determining the average output of a module using maps of
daily insolation is that the map gives an approximate information based on daily
insolation as an average over a 3 month period.There is no indication of how long
the el.output can be got for one month period.
Also , Setting the tilt angle of the module at same angle as the latitude of the
site is not optimum.
(b) The no. of cells in the module depend on the type of charge regulation to be used
and the local temperature. The table below shows the selection of solar module
based on open circuit voltage under standard test conditions (or) the no. of cells
in the module.
10. Identify the factors to be considered for the selection of inverter and batteries
for solar energy conversion. [ CO3- L3]
The factors to be considered for the selection of batteries for solar energy
conversion are :
i. Nominal Capacity in Ah
ii. Cost
iii. % Usable Cycle depth
iv. Life cycle of Battey (Cycles)
v. Relative value of money (or) cost of battery
vi. Usable Capacity in Ah
vii. Type of Rechargeable Battery : Low or high Antimony (or) Antimony free
% of self discharge
There are two approaches to balance the cost of installation and maintainance :
(i) To minimize the installation cost , aim for high value of usable capacity in
Ah.However the battery may have short life.
(ii) To minimize the maintainance cost , aim for high value of total usable
capacity over cycle life in Ah.
The factors to be considered for the selection of inverter for solar energy
conversion are
i. Type of operating voltage

ii. The maximum power point transfer (MPPT) voltage range.
iii. The solar PV string should be sized such that the inverter can operate
within this range.
iv. The max. dc voltage of the solar PV string with no-load must not exceed
an inverter maximum DC voltage.
v. If 120/240 V single phase is used in residential application then the

inverter would connect to 240V ac.
vi. Type of distribution used in case of 3phase.
vii. Type of configuration (star / delta) of load in case of commercial and
industrial buildings.
11. Identify advantages and limitations of AC voltage controller. [CO3-L3]

 The ac voltage controllers are used increasingly for soft-starting of induction
motors, as they have a number of advantages over the conventional starters,
such as smooth acceleration and deceleration, ease in implementation of
current control, simple protection against single-phasing or unbalanced
operation, reduced maintenance and losses, absence of current inrush, and
so forth.
 Even for the fixedspeed industrial applications, the voltage controllers can be
used to provide a reduced stator voltage to an induction motor to improve its
efficiency at light load and result in energy saving.
 Operation at an optimum voltage reduces the motor flux, which, in turn, reduces
the core loss and the magnetizing component of the stator copper loss.
 Considerable savings in energy can be obtained in applications where a motor
operates at no load for a significant time, such as in drills, machine tools,
woodworking machines, reciprocating air-compressors, and so forth.
The limitations of ac voltage controller is that it operates at variable voltage
under constant frequency.
12. What is a matrix converter? Compose its merits. [CO3-L2]

The matrix converter (MC) is a development of the forcecommutated
cycloconverter (FCC) based on bidirectional fully controlled switches,
incorporating PWM voltage Control .
The merits of matrix converter are :
 It provides a good alternative to the double-sided PWM voltagesource rectifier-
inverters having the advantages of being a single-stage converter with only nine
switches for threephase to three-phase conversion
 It has inherent bidirectional power flow capability, sinusoidal input and output
waveforms with moderate switching frequency, the possibility of compact design
due to the absence of dc link reactive components .
 It has controllable input power factor independent of the output load current.
13. What are the limitations in the matrix converter? [CO3-L3]

The main disadvantages of the matrix converters developed so far are
(i) complexity in the circuit.
(ii) the inherent restriction of the voltage transfer ratio (0.866),
(iii) complex control and protection strategy, and
(iv) above all the nonavailability of a fully controlled bidirectional high-frequency
switch integrated in a silicon chip.
(v) An ac filter is required to eliminate the ripples generated in the inverter when
the load is inductive.
14. What are the applications of AC voltage controller or ac chopper?[ CO3-L3]

i. Soft starting of induction motors
ii. Controls rms value of v or i in lighting control.
iii. Domestic and industrial heating
iv. Speed cotrol of fans,pumps, hoists.
v. Temperature control,
vi. Capacitor switching in var compensation
Part – B
1. Draw the block diagram of the solar PV system and describe the principle
of operation in detail. [CO3-H1]
The solar Photovoltaic power systems can be classified as follows:

(i) Stand-alone Photovoltaic power systems
(ii) Grid connected Photovoltaic power systems with and without battery
Stand-alone PV systems, shown in Fig.a, are used in remote areas with no access to a
utility grid. It consist of PV module , PV charge controller, Battery connected to dc
Load / AC load connected through Inverter.
A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires battery for storage to meet

the energy demand during periods of low solar irradiation and nighttime. Several types
of batteries are available, such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium, zinc bromide, zinc
chloride, sodium–sulfur, nickel–hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries. The provision
of cost-effective electrical energy storage remains one of the major challenges for the
development of improved PV power systems. Typically, lead-acid batteries are used to
guarantee several hours to a few days of energy storage. Their reasonable cost and
general availability has resulted in the widespread application of lead-acid batteries for
remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime compared to other system
components.
PV Charge Controllers : Blocking diodes in series with PV modules are used to

prevent the batteries from being discharged through the PV cells at night when there is
no sun available to generate energy. These blocking diodes also protect the battery
from short circuits. In a solar power system consisting of more than one string
connected in parallel, if a short-circuit occurs in one of the strings, the blocking diode
prevents the other PV strings from discharging through the short-circuited string.
Charge controllers regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from being
excessively charged and discharged.
Three types of charge controllers are commonly used:

 Series charge regulators
 Shunt charge regulators
 Dc–dc Converters
In the series charge controller as shown in Fig.d, the switch S1 disconnects

the PV generator when a predefined battery voltage is achieved. When the voltage falls
below the discharge limit, the load is disconnected from the battery to avoid deep
discharge beyond the limit. The main problem associated with this type of controller is
the losses associated with the switches (mosfet, bipolar transistor).
In the shunt charge controller as illustrated in Fig. e, when the battery is fully
charged the PV generator is short-circuited using an electronic switch (S1). Unlike
series controllers, this method works more efficiently even when the battery is
completely discharged, as the shortcircuit switch need not be activated until the battery
is fully discharged . The blocking diode prevents short-circuiting of the battery. Shunt
charge regulators are used for small PV applications (less than 20 A). Deep-discharge
protection is used to protect the battery against deep discharge. When the battery
voltage reaches below the minimum set point for the deep-discharge limit, switch S2
disconnects the load. Simple series and shunt regulators allow only relatively coarse
adjustment of the current flow and seldom meet the exact requirements of PV systems.
Dc–dc Converter Type Charge Regulators are Switch mode dc-to-dc

converters are used to match the output of a PV generator to a variable load. There are
various types of dc– dc converters:
 Buck (step-down) converter
 Boost (step-up) converter
 Buck-boost (step-down/up) converter
By varying the duty cycle ‘D’, the voltage and frequency is varied is varied to match
the load.
A controller that tracks the maximum-power-point locus of the PV array is

known as an MPPT. Because of the high cost of solar cells, it is necessary to
operatethe PV array at its maximum power point. For overall optimal operation of the
system, the load line must match the PV array’s maximum-power-point locus.
Referring to Fig f. , the load characteristics can be either curve OA or curve OB,
depending on the nature of the load and its current and voltage requirements. If load OA
is considered and the load is directly coupled to the solar array, the array will operate at
point A1, delivering onlypower P1. The maximum array power available at the given
insolation is P2. In order to use PV array power P2, a power conditioner coupled
between the array and the load is needed.
To operate the PV array at the maximum power point, perturb and adjust
methods can be used in which the current drawn is sampled every few seconds and the
resulting power output of the solar cells is monitored at regular intervals. When an
increased current results in a higher power, it is further increased until the power output
starts to decrease. But if the increased PV current results in a lesser amount of power
than in the previous sample, then the current is reduced until the maximum power point
is reached.
There are two types of load : ac and dc loads.The dc loads are directly
connected to the MPPT or charge controller , while the AC loads are connected through
battery and inverter .
In grid-connected PV systems PV panels are connected to a grid through

inverters without battery storage as shown in Fig.c These systems can be classified as
small systems such as residential rooftop systems. There are no batteries to store the
excess power generated. When the system is generating electricity , power needs are
provided by the PV system(up to its capacity) reducing or eliminating the power you
have to draw from the utility grid at that time. When there is excess power generated by
the PV system it is fed to the utility grid .Thus the electricity company buys the power
from you at retail rate. When there is shortage of power from the PV system your site
draw energy from the power grid during cloudy conditions and at night.
In certain large grid-connected systems , PV panels are connected to a grid

through inverters with battery as shown in Fig.b . The grid interactive inverters must be
synchronized with the grid in terms of voltage and frequency.The inverter serve dual
function .They supply the utility grid with any excess power produced bt the PV system ,
plus they work with the battery bank (through thencharge controller) to provide AC
power to the back-up circuits when the grid is down.The charge controller manage the
battery voltage keep it fully charged when the grid is live and prevent them from being
depleted when the system is drawing power from them
2. Draw and compose the converter topologies used for solar power generation.
[CO3- H1]
Dc – Dc Converters connect the battery source to the dc load by PWM voltage control.
Refer Buck-Boost Converter in Qn.no.4.
DC-AC converters (inverter) connect the battery source to the ac load by PWM
voltage and frequency control. Refer Line commutated Inverter In Qn.No. 3.
3.Describe the operation of line commutated converter under inversion mode with
the help of a neat circuit diagram and necessary waveforms. [CO3- H1]
LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTER
4. Draw the schematic diagram of Buck-Boost converter and explain the

operation in detail. [CO3-H1]
(OR)
Analyse the principle of working of buck-boost converter with time ratio and
current limit control. Draw the circuit and necessary waveforms. [CO3-H2]
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
 The buck –boost converter operates on the principle of PWM technique uses a
transformerless topology to obtain the output voltage greater i.e Boost (when D>
0.5 ) (or) lesser than the input voltage i.e Buck (or) (when D< 0.5 ) or equal to
the input ( at D =0.5).
 The output voltage is negative with respect to the ground.
 The current supplied to the output is discontinuous. Hence a larger filter
capacitor C is used to limit the output voltage ripple.The minimum value of C is
 The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching
transistor.
 One possible drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a
terminal at ground; this complicates the driving circuitry.
 Also, the polarity of the output voltage is opposite the input voltage. Neither
drawback is of any consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load
circuit (if, for example, the supply is a battery) as the supply and diode polarity
can simply be reversed. The switch can be on either the ground side or the
supply side.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The basic schematic diagram of the buck–boost converter as in Fig.A with its
modes of operation is simple as in Fig.B , Fig.C .
Mode 1 : While S in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the
inductor (L). This results in accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor
supplies energy to the output load.
Mode 2 : While S in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and
capacitor, so energy is transferred from L to C and R.
Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the buck–boost
converter are mainly:
 polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;the output
voltage can vary continuously from 0 to (for an ideal converter).
 The output voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter are
respectively 0 to and to .
Continuous Current Mode (CCM):

If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation
cycle, the converter is said to operate in continuous mode. The current and voltage
waveforms in an ideal converter can be seen in Figure D.
Fig D: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in

continuous mode
From to , the converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The
rate of change in the inductor current (IL) is therefore given by
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during
which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is
always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through
the load. If we assume zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for
its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the

amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning
and at the end of a commutation cycle. As the energy in an inductor is given by:
it is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same as
the value of IL at the beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during
the on and the off states must be zero:
Substituting and by their expressions yields:
This can be written as:
This in return yields that:
From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output voltage
is always negative (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value
increases with D, theoretically up to minus infinity as D approaches 1. Apart from the
polarity, this converter is either step-up (as a boost converter) or step-down (as a buck
converter). This is why it is referred to as a buck–boost converter.
Discontinuous Current Mode (DCM):

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the
current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only
difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged
at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure E). Although slight, the
difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as
follows:
Fig E: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in

discontinuous mode.
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum
value (at ) is
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δ.T:
Using the two previous equations, δ is:
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on
figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore,
the output current can be written as:
Replacing and δ by their respective expressions yields:
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:
Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode,
this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the
output voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the
input voltage and the output current.
Limit between continuous and discontinuous modes.
As told at the beginning of this section, the converter operates in discontinuous
mode when low current is drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load
current levels. The limit between discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when
the inductor current falls to zero exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. with the
notations of figure F, this corresponds to -
Fig F: Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the normalized output
current in a buck–boost converter.
In this case, the output current (output current at the limit between
continuous and discontinuous modes) is given by:
Replacing by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section

yields:
As is the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes

of operations, it satisfies the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the
expression of the output voltage in continuous mode, the previous expression can be
written as:
5. Describe the following in detail: [CO3 – H1]

i. AC voltage controller
ii. Voltage control in PWM inverters. [Refer Line comm. Inverter Qn.No.3]
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER :
Operating Principle :
(a) With phase control technique , the switches conduct the load current for a
chosen period of each input cycle of voltage and
(b) With on/off control the switches connect the load either for a few cycles of
input voltage and disconnect it for the next few cycles . This technique is also
called integral cycle control.
(or)
the switches are turned on and off several times within alternate half-cycles of input
voltage to conduct the load current for a chosen period of each input cycle of voltage
Then the controller is called as ac chopper or PWM ac voltage controller.
Case A : PHASE CONTROLLED AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
The principle of operation in each half-cycle is similar to that of the controlled half-
wave rectifier. Figure 5.1a shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the
single-phase bidirectional phase-controlled ac voltage controller of above figure (a) with
resistive load. The output voltage and current waveforms have half-wave symmetry
and thus no dc component. If is the source voltage, then the rms

output voltage with T1 triggered at a can be found from the half-wave symmetry as
Fig.5.1a : Voltage and Current Waveform for single-phase ac full-wave bidirectional ac voltage controller
with R-load
Operation with RL Load. Figure 5.1b shows the voltage and current waveforms for the
controller in Fig. (a) with RL load. Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR
T1 may not fall to zero at ωt=π when the input voltage goes negative and may continue
until ωt=β, the extinction angle, as shown. The conduction angle θ = β - α of the SCR
depends on the firing delay angle α and the load impedance angle γ .The expression for
Io(ωt) using KVL is :
Fig.5.1b : Voltage and Current Waveform for single-phase ac full-wave bidirectional ac voltage controller
with RLload
Case B : SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH INTEGRAL CYCLE

CONTROL.
As an alternative to the phase control, the method of integral cycle control or burst-
firing is used for heating loads. Here, the switch is turned on for time tn with n integral
cycles and turned off for a time tm with m integral cycles (Fig. 5.1 d). As the SCRs or
Triacs used here are turned on at the zero-crossing of the input voltage and turn-off
occurs at zero current, supply harmonics and radio frequency interference are very low.
However, subharmonic frequency components may be generated that are undesirable
as they may set up subharmonic resonance in the power supply system, cause lamp
flicker, and may interfere with the natural frequencies of motor loads causing shaft
oscillations.
PWM AC CHOPPER : The performance of ac voltage controllers can be improved in

terms of harmonics, quality of output current and input power factor by pulsewidth
modulation (PWM) control in PWM ac choppers. The circuit configuration of one such
single-phase unit is shown in Fig. 5.1e. Here, fully controlled switches S1 and S2
connected in antiparallel are turned on and off many times during the positive and
negative half-cycles of the input voltage, respectively; S01and S02 provide the
freewheeling paths for the load current when S1 and S2 are off. An input capacitor filter
may be provided to attenuate the high switching frequency current drawn from the
supply and also to improve the input power factor. Figure 5.1f shows the typical output
voltage and load-current waveform for a single-phase PWM ac chopper. It can be
shown that the control characteristics of an ac chopper depend on the modulation index
M, whichtheoretically varies from zero to unity.
THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER: Three-phase PWM choppers consist

of three single-phase choppers either delta connected or four-wire star connected .
Several possible circuit configurations for 3-phase, phase-controlled ac regulators
withstar or delta-connected loads.
 The configurations in Fig. 1a and b can be realized by three 1-phase ac

regulators operating independently of each other and they are easy to analyze.
 In Fig. 1a, the SCR’s are to be rated to carry line currents and withstand phase
voltages,whereas
 In Fig. 1b they should be capable of carrying phase currents and withstand the
line voltages. Also the line currents are free from triplen harmonics while these
are present in the closed delta. The power factor in Fig. 1b is slightly higher.
 The firing angle control range for both these circuits is 0 to 180° for R-load.
 The circuits in Fig.1c and d are 3-phase 3-wire circuits and are difficult to
analyze.
 In both these circuits, at least two SCRs—one in each phase—must be gated
simultaneously to get the controller started by establishing a current path
between the supply lines. This necessitates 2 firing pulses spaced at 60° apart
per cycle for firing each SCR.
 The operation modes are defined by the number of SCRs conducting in these
modes. The firing control range is 0° to 150°. The triplen harmonics are
absent in both these configurations.
 Another configuration is shown in Fig.1e when the controllers are delta

connected and the load is connected between the supply and the converter.
Here, current can flow between 2 lines even if 1 SCR is conducting, so each
SCR requires 1 firing pulse per cycle. The voltage and current ratings of SCR’s
are nearly the same as those of the circuit in Fig. 1b.
 It is also possible to reduce the number of devices to three SCR’s in delta as

shown in Fig. 1f connecting one source terminal directly to 1 load circuit terminal.
Each SCR is provided with gate pulses in each cycle spaced 120° apart.
 In both Figs.1e and f each end of each phase must be accessible. The number
of devices in Fig.1f is fewer but their current ratings must be higher.
 As in the case of the 1-phase phase-controlled voltage regulator, the total

regulator cost can be reduced by replacing 6 SCR’s by 3 SCR’s and 3 diodes,
resulting in 3-phase half-wave controlled unidirectional ac regulators as shown in
Fig. 1g and h for star- and delta-connected loads. The main drawback of these
circuits is the larg harmonic content in the output voltage, particularly the second
harmonic because of the asymmetry. However, the dc components are absent in
the line. The maximum firing angle in the half-wave controlled regulator is 210°
Unit – IV
ANALYSIS OF WIND AND PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Part – A
1. What is fault ride through capability? [CO4-L3]
In electric power systems, low-voltage ride through (LVRT), (or) fault ride
through (FRT), sometimes under-voltage ride through (UVRT), is the capability of
electric generators to stay connected in short periods of voltage dip. It is needed
at distribution level (wind parks, PV systems, distributed cogeneration, etc.) to avoid that
a short circuit on HV or EHV level which will lead to a widespread loss of generation.
In a wind energy system the Fault ride through capability is the ability of the
system to maintain the grid stability and keep the wind farm connected in the power
system for a defined time period during grid fault.The voltage does not always dip to
zero, it can be just a voltage sag , hence the FRT is sometimes called low voltage ride
-through problem. The main differences in FRTs requirement of different countries are the
depth of voltage drop, the time period and the boundary where Wind Turbines can be tripped
Similar requirements for critical loads such as computer systems[2] and industrial
processes are often handled through the use of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) .
2.Label the basic block diagram of WECS. [CO4-L2]
3. What is the power obtained from the wind? [CO4-L1]

The power extracted from the wind by a wind turbine is
4.Why pitch angle control is used for WECS? Justify. [CO4-H1]
Wind turbines often are subjected to wind speeds that are very low (below cut-in
speed) or high (above rated value) , (typical wind speed limit 4.5 to 26m/s). No pitch
regulation is applied when the wind turbine is operating below rated speed, but pitch
control is required when the machine is operating above rated wind speed to
minimize the stress.
The aims of pitch control of medium- and largescale wind turbines is

(I) to help in startup and shut-down operation,
(II) to protect against overspeed, and
(III) to limit the load on the wind turbine .
The wind turbine must be capable of being started and run up to speed in a safe
and controlled manner. The aerodynamic characteristics of some turbines are such
that they are not self-starting. The required starting torque may be provided by
motoring or by changing the pitch angle of the blade. In the case of grid-connected
wind turbine system, the rotational speed of the generator is locked to the frequency
of the grid. When the generator is directly run by the rotor, the grid acts as an infinite
load. When the grid fails, the load rapidly decreases to zero, causing the turbine rotor
to accelerate quickly. Overspeed protection must be provided by rapid braking of the
turbine. A simple mechanism of blade pitch-control techniques is shown below.
The power output, Pmech, of any turbine depends mainly on the wind speed,
which dictates the rotational speed of the wind turbine rotor. From the wind speed and
the rotational speed of the turbine, the tip speed ratio λ is determined. Based on the λ,
the power coefficient Cp is inferred.
The controller will keep adjusting the blade pitch angle until the desired power
and torque output are achieved. This modified pitch angle and new computed λ
decide the new Cp, resulting in a modified wind generator power and torque
output.
5. Discuss stand-alone operation of fixed speed WECS? State its advantages.

[CO4-H1]
In case of a fixed-speed WECS, synchronous or squirrelcage induction

generators are employed and are characterized by stiff power-train dynamics. The
rotational speed of the wind turbine generator in this case is fixed by the grid frequency.
The generator is locked to the grid, thereby permitting only small deviations of the rotor
shaft speed from the nominal value. The speed is very responsive to wind-speed
fluctuations. The normal method to smooth the surges caused by the wind is to
change the turbine aerodynamic characteristics, either passively by stall
regulation or actively by bladepitch regulation.
Wind turbines often are subjected to wind speeds that are very low (below cut-in
speed) or high (above rated value). No pitch regulation is applied when the wind turbine
is operating below rated speed, but pitch control is required when the machine is
perating above rated wind speed to minimize the stress. Figure A shows the effect of
blade pitch angle on the torque speed curve at a given wind speed.
Blade pitch control is a very effective way of controlling wind turbine speed at
high wind speeds, hence limiting the power and torque output of the wind machine.
Some wind-turbine generator include a gearbox for interfacing the turbine rotor
and the generator. The general drive train model for such a system is shown in
Fig.(B). This system also contains the blade-pitch angle control provision. The drive
train converts the input aerodynamic torque on the rotor into torque on the low-speed
shaft. This torque is converted to high-speed shaft torque using the gearbox and fluid
coupling. The speed of the wind turbine here is low and the gearbox is required to
increase the speed so as to drive the generator at the rated rpm, e.g., 1500 rpm. The
fluid coupling works as a velocity-in–torque-out device and transfer the torque . The
actuator regulates the tip angle based on the control system applied. The control
system here is based on a pitch regulation scheme where the blade-pitch angle is
adjusted to obtain the desired output power.
Merit : This type of system will be very helpful in the region where grid supply is
not available. We can establish small wind energy based plant and store the
generated voltage in controlled battery system for longer and further usage.
6. Generalize the limitations of fixed speed induction generator based wind

power conversion. [CO4-L2]
The limitations of fixed speed induction generator based wind power conversion are the
(A) lack of control possibilities of both active and reactive power,
(B) gearbox breakdown due to large mechanical loads (because of power fluctuations
are converted to torque pulsations) and
(C ) the large fluctuations in output power.
Due to these reasons, wind turbine manufacturers are increasingly interested in variable
speed devices.
7. Differentiate between fixed and variable speed wind energy conversion

systems. [CO4-H1]
SL.NO. Fixed speed WECS Variable speed WECS
1 In the fixed speed WECS the In the fixed speed WECS the Wind turbine
Wind turbine rotor speed is rotor speed is variable , hence they cannot
fixed.the speed is determined be directly connected to the grid. They
by the grid frequency. require a power electronic converter
interface.
2 synchronous or squirrelcage Wound-rotor induction generator
induction generators are synchronous or squirrelcage induction
employed with the turbine with generators , DFIG are employed with power
soft starter and capacitor bank electronics device such as ac-dc-ac
and directly connected to the converter .The induction generator are
grid. usually high slip IG or are operated in
tandem to obtain variable speed.
3 Pitch angle and yaw control The wind turbine rotor in this case is
should be used to extract max. permitted to rotate at any wind speed by the
power from the wind turbine power-generating unit.increased energy
rotor. capture by maintaining the ratio of blade-tip
speed to wind speed near the optimum
value. MPPT is necessary for harnessing
highest energy from the wind.
4 Simple robust Costly, less variations in the electrical
construction,cheap,and reliable. power, reduced acoustical noise at low wind
speed.
5 High mechanical stress if pitch Low mechanical stress .
angle control is not used.
8. Summarize the impact of high penetration of wind power in to power grid?

[CO4-H1]
The speed is very responsive to wind-speed fluctuations. The normal method to
smooth the surges caused by the wind is to change the turbine aerodynamic
characteristics, either passively by stall regulation or actively by blade pitch
regulation. Blade pitch control is a very effective way of controlling wind turbine speed
at high wind speeds, hence limiting the power and torque output of the wind machine
The impact of high penetration of wind power , the wind turbine is stopped to reduce
wear and damage. The wind turbine must be capable of being started and run up to
speed in a safe and controlled manner. The aerodynamic characteristics of some
turbines are such that they are not self-starting. The required starting torque may be
provided by motoring or by changing the pitch angle of the blade . In the case of
grid-connected wind turbine system, the rotational speed of the generator is locked to
the frequency of the grid. When the generator is directly run by the rotor, the grid acts
as an infinite load. When the grid fails, the load rapidly decreases to zero, causing the
turbine rotor to accelerate quickly. Overspeed protection must be provided by rapid
braking of the turbine.
.
9. List out grid interconnected issues. [C04-L2]
(OR)
Point out the major problems related with grid interconnections of WECS? [C04-
L3]
The major problems related with grid interconnections

1) Poor grid stability
2) Low-frequency operation
3) Impact of low power factor
4) Power flow
5) Short circuit
6) Power Quality
High penetration of intermittent wind power (greater than 20 percent of generation

meeting load) and may affect the network in the following ways and has to be studied in
detail:
A. Poor grid stability :

For economic exploitation of wind energy, a reliable grid is as important as
availability of strong winds. The loss generation for want of stable grid can be
10% to 20% and this deficiency may perhaps be the main reasons for actual
energy output of WEGs compared to the predicted output in known windy areas
with adequate wind data.
B. Low-frequency operation
Low frequency operation affects the output of WEGs in two ways. Many
WEGs do not get cut-in, when tfrequency is less than 48 Hz (for standard
frequency of Hz) through wind conditions are favorable, with consequent loss in
output [22].This deficiency apart, the outputWEGs at low frequency operation is
considerably reduced, due to reduced speed of the rotor. The loss in output
coulbe about 5 to 10% on the account of low frequency operation.
C. Impact of low power factor
WEGs fitted with induction generators need reactive power for

magnetizing. Normally in conventional energy systems, generators apart from
supplying active power will be supplying a reactive power. But in case of WEGs
fitted with induction generators, instead of supplying reactive power to the grid,
they absorb reactive power from grid, which undoubtedly is a strain on the grid.
Suitable reactive power compensation may be required to reduce the reactive
power burden on the grid.
D. Power flow
It is to be ensured that the interconnecting transmission or distribution

lines will not be over-loaded. This type of analysis is needed to ensure that the
introduction of additional generation will not overload the lines and other
electrical equipment. Both active and reactive power requirements should be
investigated.
E. Short circuit
It is required to determine the impact of additional generation sources to

the short circuit current ratings of existing electrical equipment on the network.
F. Power Quality
Fluctuations in the wind power may have direct impact on the quality of power
supply. As a result, large voltage fluctuations may result in voltage variations
outside the regulation limits, as well as violations on flicker and other power
quality standards.
10. Discuss some of the standards used for grid integration.

The wind is an intermittent source of power.
11. List few grid connection requirement of renewable power system.
12. Label the schematic diagram grid integrated PMSG based WECS.Also
mention its demerits.
13. Point out the issues created in grid integrated PMSG based WECS?
14. Show the schematic diagram of grid integrated SCIG based WECS.
15. Define grid integrated solar system.
16. Point out the problems in grid integrated solar system.
17. What will happen if no load is connected to a solar PV system.
Part – B
1. Describe the power conditioning schemes used in WECS. [CO4-L1]

The wind energy conversion system converts the wind energy into some form of
electrical energy. The power conditioner is an interface between the generated power
and the grid power.It conditions the generated power into the grid quality power.
A variable speed WECS configuration is shown in Fig.a, the synchronous

generator is allowed to run at variable speed, producing power of variable voltage and
frequency. Control may be facilitated by adjusting an externally supplied field current.
The most common type of power conversion uses a bridge rectifier (controlled/
uncontrolled), a dc link, and inverter as shown in Fig.a. The disadvantages of this
configuration include the relatively high cost and maintenance requirements of
synchronous generators and the need for the power conversion system to take the full
power generated.
Wind power is an intermittent source.To extract maximum energy from the wind a
basic layout configuration is shown in Fig.b.The function of the dc–dc converter will
be to adjust the torque on the machine and hence ensure by measurement of
wind speed and shaft speed that the turbine blades are operating so as to extract
optimum power. The purpose of the inverter is to feed the energy gathered by the
rotor and dc– dc converter, in the process of peak power tracking, to the grid
system. The interaction between the two sections would be tightly controlled so as to
minimize or eliminate the need for a battery bank. The control must be fast enough
that the inverter output power set point matches the output of thedc–dc converter. For a
wound rotor induction machine operating over a two-to-one speed range, the maximum
power extracted from the rotor is equal to the power rating of the stator. Thus, the rating
of the generator from a traditional point of view is only half that of the wind turbine.
Since half the power comes from the stator and half from the rotor, the power
electronics of the dc–dc converter and inverter need to handle only half the total
wind-turbine output, and no battery would be required
A wound rotor induction machine has three-phase winding on the rotor,

accessible to the outside via slip rings. The possible methods of accessing the rotor can
have the following configurations:
_ Slip power recovery
_ Use of cycloconverter
_ Rotor resistance chopper control
Slip Power Recovery (Static Kramer System) : The slip power recovery configuration
behaves similarly to a conventional induction generator with very large slip, but in
addition energy is recovered from the rotor. The rotor power is first carried out through
slip rings, and fed to the grid through a power electronic interface. Which consist of
rectifier,a dc link and a line- commutated inverter . The rest of the power comes
directly from the stator as it normally does. A disadvantage with this system is that it can
only allow supersynchronous variable-speed operation.In this scheme (as shown in Fig.
c), the stator is directly connected to the grid. The power converter has been
connected to the rotor of the wound-rotor induction generator to obtain the optimum
power from the variable-speed wind turbine. The diode rectifier is the most commonly
used topology in the power electronics application. For a 3 phase system it consists of 6
diodes as shown in Fig.e It is simple and not possible to control it. The full power
converter for a wind turbine is shown in Fig.e. The machine side converter work as
driver controlling the torque generated using a vector control strategy.The grid side
converter permis the wind transfer into the grid and controls the amount of active and
reactive power delivered to the grid. It also keeps the THD co-efficient as low as
possible, improving the quality of the energy fed to the grid. The objective of the dc link
is to act as storage so that the energy captured from the wind is stored in the capacitor
and may be instantaneously injected to the grid.The main advantage of this scheme
is that the power conditioning unit has to handle only a fraction of the total power
so as to obtain full control of the generator. This is very important when wind turbine
sizes are increasing for grid-connected applications for higher penetration of wind
energy, and a smaller converter can be used in this scheme.
An alternative to the power conditioning system is to use a synchronous

generator instead of the IG and replac the 3 phase converter by the 3phase diode
rectifier and a chopper as shown in Fig.a. Such a choice is based on low cost .When
the speed of the generator alter, the voltage on the dc side of the diode rectifier will
change. A step up chopper as shown in Fig.g is used to adapt the rectified voltage to
the dc link voltage and fed to an inverter. By controlling the inductance current in the
step up chopper the machine torque can be controlled ,speed can be controlled.
The generator / rectifier system can be modelled as an ideal current source and
analysed as shown in Fig.f . The principle of operation of line side converter is to adjust
the phase angle δ between the source voltage U1 and reflected input voltage Vs1 so
that the power flow is controlled. When U1leads Vs1 real power flow from the source to
the converter.If U1lags Vs1 power flow from the converter’s dc side to ac source.The
real power transfer is given by eq.4.1.The ac power factor is adjusted by controlling the
amplitude of the converter voltage Vs1.The per phase equivalent circuit and phase
diagram for lead , lag and unity power factor operation is shown below:
Cycloconverter (Static Scherbius System) : A cycloconverter is a converter that

converts ac voltage of one frequency to another frequency without an intermediate dc
link. When a cycloconverter is connected to the rotor circuit, sub- and
supersynchronous operation variable-speed operation is possible. In supersynchronous
operation, this configuration is similar to slip power recovery. In addition, energy may be
fed into the rotor, thus allowing the machine to generate at subsynchronous speeds. For
that reason, the generator is said to be doubly fed . This system has a limited ability to
control reactive power at the terminals of the generator, although as a whole it is a
net consumer of reactive power. On the other hand, if coupled with capacitor
excitation, this capability could be useful from the utility point of view. Because of
its ability to rapidly adjust phase angle and magnitude of the terminal voltage, the
generator can be resynchronized after a major electrical disturbance without going
through a complete stop/start sequence. With some wind turbines, this could be a useful
feature.
Rotor Resistance Chopper Control : A fairly simple scheme for extracting rotor power
in the form of heat is also used for variable speed WECS.
In addition power conditioning device like ac voltage controller is used for soft
starting of an induction ghenerator in a WECS.When an induction generator is
connected to a load, a large inrush current flows. This is something similar to the direct
on-line starting problem of induction machines . It has been observed that the initial time
constants of an induction machine are higher when it tries to stabilize initially at the
normal operating conditions. There is a need to use some type of soft-starting
equipment to start the large induction generators. A simple scheme to achieve this is
shown in Fig.d. Two thyristors are connected in each phase, back to back.Initially, when
the induction generator is connected, the thyristors are used to control the voltage
applied to the stator and to limit the large inrush current. As soon as the generator is
fully connected, the bypass switch is used to bypass the soft-starter unit.
2. Explain the stand alone operation of : [CO4-L2]

(i)Fixed speed wind energy conversion system.
(ii)Variable speed wind energy conversion system
(iii)Compare fixed speed system over variable speed systems.
2.(i) STANDALONE OPERATION OF FIXED SPEED WECS :
Fixed speed systems are the simplest and most widely used arrangement. They
operate at constant (or nearly constant) speed [also called constant speed constant
frequency (CSCF) mode of operation. This implies that regardless of the prime mover
speed, the angular speed of the rotor is fixed and determined by the frequency of supply
grid and gear ratio This arrangement, in general, has simple and reliable
construction of the electrical part while the mechanical parts are subject to higher
stresses and additional safety factors need to be incorporated in the mechanical
design. This arrangement can use induction generator (IG) and the wound rotor
synchronous generator (SG) as the electric machine. But the squirrel cage induction
generator has been the prevalent choice. The reasons for this popularity are mainly due
to its simplicity, high efficiency, and low maintenance requirements. To compensate for
the reactive power consumption of the induction generator, a capacitor bank
(normally stepwise controlled) is inserted in,parallel with the generator in order to
obtain about unitypower factor.
Further, to reduce the mechanical stress and to reduce the interaction
between supply grid and turbine during connection and start-up of the turbine, a
soft starter is used. The main advantage of this system is that it is a simple and
reliable arrangement. However, capacitors need to be cutin or cutoff regularly to
maintain power factor. This random switching gives rise to undesirable transients in
the line currents and voltages. The fluctuations in prime mover speed are converted
to torque pulsations, which cause mechanical stress. This causes breakdown of
drive train and gear box. The power generated from this arrangement is sensitive to
fluctuations in prime mover speed. To avoid this pitch control of rotor blades is required.
The Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIG) wind turbine is a simple squirrel
cage induction generator, which can be directly coupled to the electricity supply
network. The frequency of the network determines the rotationalspeed of the stator’s
magnetic field, while the generator’s rotor speed changes as its electrical output
changes. However, because of the well known steep torque- Slip characteristic of the
induction machine, the operating range of the generator is very limited.
The wind turbine is therefore effectively fixed speed. FSIGs do not have the
capability of independent control of active and reactive power, which is their main
disadvantage. Their great advantage is their simple and robust construction, which
leads to lower capital cost. In contrast to other generatotopologies, FSIGs offer no
inherent means of torque oscillation damping which places greater burden and cost on
their gearbox.
The Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Wind Turbines is a wound rotor
induction generator whose rotors fed via slip rings by a frequency converter. The stator
is directly coupled to the electrical power supply network. As a result of the use of the
frequency converter, the network frequency is decoupled from the mechanical speed of
the machine and variable speed operation is possible, permittingmaximum absorption of
wind power. Since power ratings are a function of slip, DFIGs operate over a range of
speeds between about 0.75 and 1.25 pu of synchronous frequencywhich requires
converter power ratings of approximately25%. A great advantage of the DFIG wind
turbine is that ihas the capability to independently control active andreactive power.
Moreover, the mechanical stresses on a DFIG wind turbine are reduced in comparison
to a FSIG.
Due to the decoupling between mechanical speed and electrical frequency that
results from DFIG operation, the rotor can act as an energy storage system, absorbing
torque pulsations caused by wind gusts. Other advantages of the DFIG include
reduced flicker and acoustic noise incomparison to FSIGs. The main
disadvantages of DFIG wind turbines in comparison to FSIGs are their increased capital
cost and the need for periodic slip ring maintenance.
 This wind power system operates at a constant rotor speed regardless of the
wind speed variations.
 The rotor speed is controlled according to the grid frequency.
 The electrical machine equipped with such wind turbines is SCIG.
 Sometimes a PMSG can be used.
 Fixed-speed WECSs have advantage of being simple, robust, and reliable with a
low-cost generator and easy control.
 However, such wind power systems also have drawbacks due to limited control
when wind speed changes continuously.
2.(ii) STANDALONE OPERATION OF FULLY VARIABLE SPEED WECS:
With the increase in the size of turbine, the inherent problems of the constant
speed systems become more and more pronounced, especially in areas with relatively
weak grids. To overcome these problems, the trend in modern generator technology is
toward variable-speed concepts. A variable-speed system keeps the generator torque
constant and it is the generator speed which changes. Variations in the incoming power
are absorbed by rotor speed changes.
The variable-speed system therefore incorporates a generator control system
that can operate with variable speed. In this arrangement the variable-voltage variable
frequency (VVVF) power generated by the machine is converter to fixed-frequency fixed
voltage power by the use of back to back power converters. The arrangement can have
either induction generator or synchronous generator as the electric machine. The
machine side converter supplies the lagging excitation to the machine while the line side
converter maintains unity power factor at grid interface and also regulates the dc link
voltage constant. The synchronous machine offers the least possible configuration for a
variable-speed system. It can operate without gear box, with a good multi-pole design.
This is an important objective since gear box is a component that has a tendency to fail.
The advantages of this scheme are that mechanical oscillations in the drive train are
absent as it is in fixed speed systems.
The torque is under control if Direct Torque Control or Field Oriented Control
techniques are used. Thisdoes not allow the generator to be overloaded. Gear box is
not required with a multi-pole synchronous machine. However, converters have to
manage entire generated power. Therefore they have to be rated equal to machine
rating. Inverter output filters and EMI output filters are rated for 1 p.u ( with respect to
output power) making filter design difficult and expensive. Converter efficiency plays an
important factor in total system efficiency over the entire operating range. It cannot be
operated above synchronous speed with full torque.
STANDALONE OPERATION OF LIMITED VARIABLE-SPEED WECS:
Compared to the squirrel-cage induction generator, the main difference that the
doubly- fed induction generator configuration provides is the access to the rotor
windings, thereby giving the possibility of impressing the rotor voltage. With this
arrangement, power can be extracted from or fed to the rotor circuit and the generator
can be magnetized from either the stator circuit or the rotor circuit. Basically two
methods of speed control can be applied to the induction generator, namely rotor
resistance control and back to back converter control. The effective scheme for limited
variable speed system is back to back converter used doubly-fed configuration. Fig. 4
shows this topology, the stator is directly connected to the grid, while the rotor is
connected via slip rings to the converter. The gear ratio is set so that the nominal speed
of the induction generator corresponds to the middle value of the rotor-speed range of
the turbine. This is done to minimize the size of the inverter, which will vary with rotor-
speed range. A step up transformer is required between the line side converter and
utility, to match the voltage ratio between the stator and rotor in the machine. This [38]
configuration with two converters offers many advantages. The main features of this
configuration are listed below:
1) Reduced converter cost, as they have to be rated for slip power only (typically
about 0.25 pu).
2) Converter on the rotor side enables both positive and negative slip power
control through control of rotor current in phase magnitude and frequency. This
allows both sub synchronous and super-synchronous operation.
3) DC link capacitor acts as a source of reactive power, which in a way can control
power factor on the stator side.
4) Line side converter has ability to work as active filter, apart from maintaining
unity power factor operation and regulating dc bus voltage.
5) Reduced cost and weight of inverter filter and EMI filters (to about 0.25pu of
total system power). Inverter harmonics represent a fraction of total system
harmonics.
6) System efficiency is better, due to reduced losses in the converters.
2.(iii) Compare fixed and variable speed WECS : (Refer Sol to Qn.No.7 of Part A.)
3.(i) Explain stand alone operation of solar energy conversion system. [CO4-L2]
(ii) Compose short notes on grid integrated solar system and draw the grid
characteristics. [CO4-L2]
3.(i) Stand Alone Operation Of Solar Energy Conversion System :
Stand alone or autonomous systems are not connected to the grid. Some
stand alone systems known as PV-hybrid systems or island system, may also have
another source of power, wind turbine, bio-fuel or diesel generator, etc. Stand-alone PV
systems, shown in Fig. a, are used in remote areas with no access to a utility grid.
Conventional power systems used in remote areas often based on manually controlled
diesel generators operating continuously or for a few hours. Extended operation of
diesel generators at low load levels significantly increases maintenance costs and
reduces their useful life. Renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to
remote area power systems using diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to
provide 24-hour power economically and efficiently. Such systems are called ‘‘hybrid
energy systems.’’ Figure b shows a schematic of a PV– diesel hybrid system.
Battery : A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires storage to meet the

energy demand during periods of low solar irradiation and nighttime. Several
types of batteries are available, such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium, zinc
bromide, zinc chloride, sodium–sulfur, nickel–hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries.
The provision of cost-effective electrical energystorage remains one of the major
challenges for the development of improved PV power systems. Typically, lead-acid
batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of energy storage. Their
reasonable cost and general availability has resulted in the widespread application of
lead-acid batteries for remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime
compared to other system components.
The following are the factors considered in the selection of batteries for PV
applications :
 Deep discharge (70–80% depth discharge)
 Low charging=discharging current
 Long-duration charge (slow) and discharge (long duty cycle)

 Irregular and varying charge=discharge
 Low self-discharge
 Long lifetime
 Less maintenance requirement
 High energy storage efficiency
 Low cost
Charge controllers : They regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from
being excessively charged and discharged. Three types of charge controllers are
commonly used . They are Series charge regulators , Shunt charge regulators , Dc–dc
Converters.
Series Charge Regulators : The basic circuit for the series regulators is given in Fig.c In
the series charge controller, the switch S1 disconnects the PV generator when a
predefined battery voltage is achieved. When the voltage falls below the discharge limit,
the load is disconnected from the battery to avoid deep discharge beyond the limit. The
main problem associated with this type of controller is the losses associated with the
switches. This extra power loss has to come from the PV power, and this can be quite
significant. Bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, or relays are used as the switches.
Shunt Charge Regulators: In this type, when the battery is fully charged the PV
generator is short-circuited using an electronic switch (S1). Unlike series controllers, this
method works more efficiently discharged through the PV cells at night when there is no
sun available to generate energy. These blocking diodes also protect the battery from
short circuits.
DC-DC converters such as Boost, Buck and Buck – Boost converter are used to
match the output of the PV Generator to the variable load as shown in Fig.g .It consist
of inductor to store energy, flywheel diode , which carry current when the switch is off.
The converter allow the charge current to be reduced continuously in such a way that
battery voltage is maintained constant.
MPPT : The inverter has to extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of
MPPT and the inverter input stage varies the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V
curve is found. To operate the PV array at the maximum power point, perturb and
adjust methods can be used in which the current drawn is sampled every few seconds
and the resulting power output of the solar cells is monitored at regular intervals. When
an increased current results in a higher power, it isfurther increased until the power
output starts to decrease. But if the increased PV current results in a lesser amount of
power than in the previous sample, then the current is reduced until the maximum
power point is reached.
3.(ii) GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS : PV panels are connected to a grid through

inverters.Grid-connected photovoltaic systems are designed to operate in parallel with
the electric utility grid as shown. There are two general types of electrical designs for PV
power systems:
 Systems that interact with the utility power grid as shown in Fig. a and have no
battery backup capability, and
 Systems that interact and include battery backup as well, as shown in Fig. b.
FIGURE : Grid-connected PV system: (a) without battery back-up and (b)

with battery storage.
The latter type of system incorporates energy storage in the form of a battery to
keep “critical load” circuits operating during utility outage. When an outage occurs, the
unit disconnects from the utility and powers specific circuits of the load. If the outage
occurs in daylight, the PV array is able to assist the load in supplying the loads.
The major component in both systems is the DC–AC INVERTER or also called
the power conditioning system (PCS). Figure (c ) shows the block diagram of such a
PWM inverter.
Fig.(c) PWM Inverter
The inverter, used to convert photovoltaic dc energy to ac energy, is the key to the
successful operation of the system, but it is also the most complex hardware. The active
power from the PV panels is accomplished by controlling the phase angle δ between
the converter voltage and the grid voltage. The converter voltage follows the grid
voltage. The same voltage source inverter operated as a current-controlled inverter
(CSI). The objective of this scheme is to control active and reactive components of the
current fed into the grid using pulse-width modulation techniques.
The most important inverter characteristics requirement are: operate over a wide
range of voltages and currents, regulate output voltage and frequency, in addition to
providing ac power with good power quality. The inverters shall produce good quality
sine-wave output. The inverter must follow the frequency and voltage of the grid and the
inverter has to extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of MPPT and
the inverter input stage varies the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V curve is found.
The inverter shall monitor all the phases of the grid. The inverter output shall be
controlled in terms of voltage and frequency variation. A typical grid-connected
inverter may use a PWM scheme and operates in the range of 2–20 kHz. The grid
interactive inverters must be synchronized with the grid in terms of voltage and
frequency.
Power Control through PV Inverters

The system shown in Fig. d shows control of power flow onto the grid. This control can
be analog or a microprocessor system. This control system generates the waveforms
and regulates the waveform amplitude and phase to control the power flow between the
inverter and the grid. The gridinterfaced PV inverters, voltage-controlled (VCI) or current
controlled (CCI), have the potential of bidirectional power flow. They not only can feed
the local load, but also can export the excess active and reactive power to the utility
grid. An appropriate controller is required in order to avoid any error in power export due
to errors in synchronization, which can overload the inverter.
A simple grid–inverter interface with a first-order filter and the phasor diagram is
shown in Fig.e. It has been observed that the inverter rated power export is achieved at
δ=5°. When using a voltage controller for grid connected PV inverter, it has been
observed that a slight error in the phase of synchronising waveform can grossly
overload the inverter whereas a current controller is much less susceptible to voltage
phase shifts . For this reason, the current controllers are better suited for the control of
power export from the PV inverters to the utility grid since they are lesssensitive to
errors in synchronizing sinusoidal voltage waveforms.
The characteristics of the grid-compatible inverters are:

_Response time must be extremely fast and governed by the bandwidth of the ontrol _
_Power factor ,_ Frequency control ,_ Harmonic output
_ Synchronization
_ Fault current contribution

_ Dc current injection
_ Protection
.
The grid-connected system can be classified as:
1) Rooftop application of grid-connected PV system.
2) Utility scale large system.
For small household PV applications, a roof mounted PV array can be the best
option. For roof-integrated applications, the solar arrays can be either mounted on the
roof or directly integrated into the roof. If the roof integration does not allow for an air
channel behindthe PV modules for ventilation purpose, then it can increase the cell
temperature during the operation consequently leading to some energy losses. With a
PV array on the rooftop, the solar generated power can supply residential load. The
rooftop PV systems can help in reducing the peak summer load to the benefit of utility
companies by feeding the household lighting, cooling and other domestic loads. The
battery storage can further improve the reliability of the system at the time of low
insolation level, nighttime, or cloudy days. But the battery storage has some inherent
problems like maintenance and higher cost. . The disadvantage with the rooftop
application is that the PV array orientation is dictated by the roof. In case, when
the roof orientation differs from the optimal orientation required for the cells, then
efficiency of the entire system would be suboptimal.
Grid-connected PV systems must observe the islanding situation, when the
utility supply fails , or fault occurs due to overvoltage , undervoltage , under
frequency , overfrequency. In case of islanding, the PV generators should be
disconnected from mains. PV generators can continue to meet only the local load, if the
PV output matches the load. If the grid is re-connected during islanding, transient
overcurrents can flow through the PV system inverters and the protective equipments
like circuit breakers may be damaged. The islanding control can be achieved through
inverters or via the distribution network. Inverter controls can be designed on the basis
of detection of grid voltage, measurement of impedance, frequency variation, or
increase in harmonics. Protection shall be designed for the islanding, short circuits,
over/under- voltages/currents, grounding, and lightening, etc.
Merits of PV system :
The importance of the power generated by the PV system depends upon the
time of the day specially when the utility is experiencing the peak load. The PV plants
are well suited to summer peaking but it depends upon the climatic condition of
the site. The PV users can defer their load by adopting load management to get the
maximum benefit out of the grid-connected PV plants and feeding more power into the
grid at the time of peak load.With the installation of PV plants, the need of extra
transmission lines, transformers can be delayed or avoided. The distributed PV
plants can also contribute in providing reactive power support to the grid and
reduce burden on VAR compensators.
4.Give a short notes on: (i) Grid integrated PMSG (ii) SCIG based WECS. [CO4-L1]
5. (i)Explain with the aid of a diagram the operation of a grid integrated solar
photo voltaic system. [CO4-L1]
(iii) Explain how the isolation and temperature affects the I-V characteristics of a
solar cell. [CO4-L1]
5.(i) Refer Qn.No. 3 for grid integrated solar pv system.

5.(ii) A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source in
parallel with a diode as shown in Fig. A. A variable resistor is connected to the solar cell
generator as a load. When the terminals are short-circuited, the output voltage and also
the voltage across the diode are both zero. The entire photocurrent (Iph) generated by
the solar radiation then flows to the output. The solar cell current has its maximum
(Isc). If the load resistance is increased, which results in an increasing voltage across
the p-n junction of the diode, a portion of the current flows through the diode and the
output current decreases by the same amount. When the load resistor is open-circuited,
the output current is zero and the entire photocurrent flows through the diode. The
relationship between current and voltage may be determined from the diode
characteristic equation.
where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0 is

the reverse saturation current, Id is diode current, and T is the solar cell operating
temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I -V) of a solar cell is thus equivalent
to an ‘‘inverted’’ diode characteristic curve .
A number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar

cells. The most common types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:
 Monocrystalline Si cells
 Polycrystalline Si cells
 Amorphous Si cells

A solar cell can be operated at any point along its characteristic current–
voltage curve, as shown in Fig. a. Two important points on this curve are the open
circuit voltage(Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc). The open-circuit voltage is the
maximum voltage at zero current, whereas the shortcircuit current is the maximum
current at zero voltage. For a silicon solar cell under standard test conditions, Voc is
typically 0.6–0.7 V, and Isc is typically 20–40mA for every square centimeter of
the cell area.
A plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for this device (Fig.b) shows that there is a
unique point on the I V curve at which the solar cell will generate maximum power. This
is known as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To maximize the power output,
steps are usually taken during fabrication to maximize the three basic cell
parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and fill factor (FF) a term
describing how ‘‘square’’ the I V curve is, given by
FF= (Vmp Imp ) / (Voc Isc)
For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically 0.6–0.8.
Because silicon solar cells typically produce only about 0.5 V, a number of cells are
connected in series in a PV module.
The effect of temperature on the performance of a silicon solar module is

illustrated in Fig. d. Note that Isc slightly increases linearly with temperature, but Voc
and the maximum power Pm decrease with temperature. Figure.e shows the variation
of PV current and voltages at different insolation levels. From Fig.e and d, it can
be seen that the I V characteristics of solar cells at a given insolation and
temperature consist of a constant-voltage segment and a constant-current
segment . The current is limited, as the cell is short-circuited. The maximum power
condition occurs at the knee of the characteristic where the two segments meet.
Unit – V
HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGYSYSTEM

Part – A
1.Define hybrid systems? [CO5-L1]
The combination of renewable energy system such as PV arrays or wind

turbines, with engine-driven generators and battery storage, is widely recognized as a
viable alternative to conventional remote area power supplies (RAPS). These systems
are generally classified as hybrid energy systems (HES).
For eg. A Photovoltaic–diesel hybrid energy systems generate ac electricity

by combining a photovoltaic array with an inverter, which can operate alternately or in
parallel with a conventional engine-driven generator.
2.Summarize the need for hybrid energy systems.[CO5-L2]

NEED FOR HYBRID SYSTEM
 Hybrid Systems are powered by sun and wind or anyother renewanle energy
source to meet the increasing power demand.
 Power electronics controllers manage multiple sources and monitor the status of
the system voltage, power and frequency based on the load requirement.
 During grid failure the alternative resources supply the power demand.
 In remote areas renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to power
systems using diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour
power economically and efficiently. Such systems are called ‘‘hybrid energy
systems.
3. List out some of the hybrid systems used in industries. [CO5-L2]
(i) Solar PV- Diesel Hybrid system

(ii) PV-Diesel Hybrid system
(iii) Wind-PV Hybrid system
(iv) Wind-Diesel Hybrid system
4. Label the schematic diagram of PV-Diesel hybrid system. [CO5-L1]
PV-Diesel hybrid system as gvn below has 3 configurations : series,parallel and

switched
4.List the merits and demerits of PV-Diesel hybrid system. [CO5-L2]
The advantages of parallel configuration over over other system configurations is
 The system load can be met in an optimal way.

 Diesel generator efficiency can be maximized.
 Diesel generator maintenance can be minimized.
 A reduction in the rated capacities of the diesel generator,battery bank, inverter,
and renewable resources is feasible, while also meeting the peak loads.
The disadvantages are:
 Automatic control is essential for the reliable operation of the system.
 The inverter has to be a true sine-wave inverter with the ability to synchronize
with a secondary ac source.
 System operation is less transparent to the untrained user of the system.
The switched configuration remains one of the most common installations today.
despite its operational limitations. The advantages of this system are:
 The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square wave,
depending on the particular application.
 The diesel generator can supply the load directly, therefore improve the system
efficiency and reduce the fuel consumption.

 Power to the load is interrupted momentarily when the ac power sources are
transferred.
 The engine-driven alternator and inverter are typically designed to supply the
peak load, which reduces their efficiency at part-load operation.
6. What is the charge controller used for wind energy conversion system.
[CO5-L1]
Charge controllers is a power conditioning device which regulate the charge transfer
and prevent the battery from being excessively charged and discharged. The charge
controller control the power flow to the utility grid. The real power is controlled by an
outer maximum-power-point tracking (MPPT) algorithm with an inner dc link voltage-
control loop .Three types of charge controllers are commonly used: Series charge
regulators , Shunt charge regulators, Dc–dc onverters.
7. Define MPPT? List out various MPPT algorithms used. [CO5-L1]

MPPT is maximum power point tracking and the device that perform this is called a
maximum power point tracker. A plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for solar array
(Fig.b) shows that there is a unique point on the I V curve at which the solar cell will
generate maximum power. This is known as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To
maximize the power output, steps are usually taken during fabrication to maximize
the three basic cell parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and fill
factor (FF) a term describing how ‘‘square’’ the I V curve is, given by
FF= (Vmp Imp ) / (Voc Isc)
For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically 0.6–0.8.
MPPT is the abiliy to extract the maximum available power from PV module by
making them operate at the most efficient voltage.
MPPT Algorithms
 Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,
 Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and
 Constant Reference Voltage/Current.
 Flux magnitude angle control (FMAC).
 Hill climbing search (HCS).
 Tip speed ratio (TSR) control.
 Mapping power technique in which maps/curves are used to find out the optimum point.
 Anemometer method which uses the predetermined look up table.
 MPPT by maximum efficiency control and a maximum torque control.
 Advance hill climb search (AHCS) technique.
 MPPT algorithm by directly adjusting the DC/DC converter duty cycle.

 MPPT algorithms by changing the speed reference in the desired direction.
 MPPT using two converters and by adjusting the switching frequencies of the two
converters achieve maximum power tracking g and output voltage regulation.
 Using matrix converter in DFIG.
 Using MPPT algorithms with current feedback.
 Sliding mode control using fuzzy for variable speed wind turbine.
 Unity power factor and maximum power point tracking using loop control.
8. What is the need for maximum power point tracking? [Co5-L]
A maximum power point tracking control can prevent the collapse of the solar
array voltage under excessive load demand, particularly when supplying a constant type
of load.For a system without MPPT the voltage will quickly collapse to zero. This
phenomenon is understood from the I-V char of solar array.The flatness of I-V curve on
the left of MPP imply small incremental increase in the current demand lead to large
voltage change. On the I-V curve the operating point correspond to the max. power
point in the knee region.
MPPT's are most effective in Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra
power is needed the most.
 Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT you
are losing most of that. Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun hours
are low and you need the power to recharge batteries the most.
 Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a
MPPT puts into them - another time when the extra power is needed the most. You
can have both of these conditions at the same time.
 Long wire runs - If you are charging a 12 volt battery, and your panels are 100 feet
away, the voltage drop and power loss can be considerable unless you use very large
wire. That can be very expensive. But if you have four 12 volt panels wired in series
for 48 volts, the power loss is much less, and the controller will convert that high
voltage to 12 volts at the battery. That also means that if you have a high voltage
panel setup feeding the controller, you can use much smaller wire.
9. What will happen if no load is connected to a solar PV system? [CO5-L1]
10.Give the applications of solar PV system? [CO5-L1]
 Water Pumping
 Battery Charging
 Grid-Interactive PV Power Generation
 Lightning
 Medical Refrigeration
 Village Power
 Telecommunication and Signaling
11. Discuss the significance of MPPT.
Consider a variable speed WECS, operating the turbine at constant TSR

correspond to MPP at all times generates 20 - 30 % more electricity in a year. The
power Vs speed curve has a well defined peak. If we operate the turbine at this peak
point a small increase or decrease in the turbine speed would result in no change in the
power as the MPP lie in a flat neighbourhood.output. The condition for max power is
given in Fig.a . This principle uses the speed is maintained at a level ΔP/Δω is zero.
This method is insensitive to errorin local wind speed measurement and wind turbine
design.
12. Classify the types of pumps used for solar water pumping applications?
[CO5-L1]
Two types of pumps are commonly used for water-pumping applications:
 Positive displacement
 Centrifugal.
Both centrifugal and positive displacement pumps can be further classified
based on the type of motor used for the pumping application
Surface mounted, and
Submersible ( those that are submerged into the water ).
Displacement pumps have water output directly proportional to the speed of the
pump, but almost independent of head. These pumps are used for solar water
pumping from deep wells or bores. They may be piston-type pumps or use a
diaphragm driven by a cam or rotary screw, or use a progressive cavity system. The
pumping rate of these pumps is directly related to the speed, and hence constant torque
is desired.
Centrifugal pumps are used for low-head applications, especially if they are
directly interfaced with the solar panels. Centrifugal pumps are designed for fixed-head
applications, and the pressure difference generated increases in relation to the speed of
the pump. These pumps are of the rotating impeller type, which throws the water
radially against a casing shaped so that the momentum of the water is converted into
useful pressure for lifting. The centrifugal pumps have relatively high efficiency, but it
decreases at lower speeds, which can be a problem for a solar water-pumping system.
Part – B
1. (i) What is MPPT? Discuss the types of MPPT with its merits and demerits?
(ii)Explain the incremental conduction Algorithm with a neat example. [CO5-H1]
A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that

optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility
grid. The MPPT is a technique is used to maintain the PV array operating point at
maximum power point.
(or)
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is an algorithm that when included in a
charge controller extracts the maximum available power from PV module under certain
conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called
‘maximum power point’ (or peak power voltage). Maximum power output from the PV
array varies with solar irradiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature.
Types of MPPT :
(i) Constant Voltage Method : The CV algorithm is the simplest.The operating

point of PV array is kept at its maximum peak power (MPP) by regulating the
array voltage and matching it with a fixed reference Vpv. The CV does not
require any input. But, the Vpv is required for controlling the duty cycle of the
dc-dc converter block in the MPP tracker as shown in Fig.(b). The main
drawback of this approach is that the current from the photovoltaic array must
be set to zero momentarily to measure the open circuit voltage and then
afterwards set to 76% of the measured voltage. Energy is wasted during the
time time the current is set to zero. The approximation setting the voltage to
76% of the measured voltage is not accurate. The CV is more effective than
P&O or IC method.
(ii) Short Current Pulse Method :The SC method achives MPP by giving
operating the current Iop to the current controlled power converter.The
optimum Iop for maximum power is proportional to the short circuit current Isc
under various irradiance levels. Iop=K.Isc where k is the proportionality
constant. To obtain Isc a static switch is connected in parallel with the PV
array to create a short circuit. Now to generate Iop refer Fig.c.
(iii) Open Voltage Method : The OV method achieves the maximum power point
MPP by assuming that the voltage at this point is always close to the open
ciruit voltage Vov.The temperature and solar insulation level change the MPP
by 2%.Here a static switch is connected in series with PV array to open the

circuit. Now, Ipv=0 and no power is supplied by PV system , total energy
generated is zero. The Vref is generated using two datas as shown in Fig.d.
(iv) Perturb and Observe Method: The P& O technique operate by incrementing
and decrementing the array terminal voltage or current and comparing the PV
output power with the previous perturbation cycle. If the array operating
voltage changes then the MPP changes position as shown in Fig.e. Each time
the array terminal voltage perturbate the output power oscillate around the
maximum, thus resulting in power loss in the PV system. Also the condition
( dP / dV = 0 ) , output power is constant is valid only at constant atmospheric
condition.In Fig.f a perturbation of d V will bring the operating point to B .if the
irradiance increases then the operating point shift to C from the curve P1 to
P2.There is an increase in power output now.
(v) Incremental Conductance Method : The IC algorithm is based on the equation

(1) where Ipv and Vpv are the PV array voltage and current respectively.
When the operating point is to the right of MPP then

and
positive to the left of the MPP as shown in Fig.g.
IC computes the maximum power point by comparison of the incremental
conductance (ΔI/ΔV) to the instantaneous conductance (I/V). When the
incremental conductance is zero, the output voltage is ascertained to be the
MPP voltage and fixed at this voltage until the MPP encounters a change due
to the change in irradiation conditions. Then the process above is repeated
until a new maximum power point is reached
The IC track the MPP even under rapidly changing irradiance levels.. It
has high accuracy and does not oscillate at the MPP. Fig.h shows the flow
chart for IC algorithm .
2.(i) Describe the operating principle of PV Maximum Power Point Tracking in

energy conversion.
(ii) Explain various strategies used for the operation of an MPPT in a WECS.
[CO5-H1]
Wind generation system has been attracting wide attention as a renewable

energy source due to depleting fossil fuel reserves and environmental concerns.
Amount of power output from a WECS depends upon the accuracy with which the peak
power points are tracked by the MPPT controller of the WECS control system
irrespective of the type of generator used.
The maximum power extraction algorithms researched so far can be classified
into three main control methods, namely tip speed ratio (TSR) control, power signal
feedback (PSF) control and hill-climb search (HCS) control.
The tip speed ratio control : The TSR method regulates the rotational speed of the
generator in order to maintain the TSR to an optimum value at which power extracted is
maximum. This method requires both the wind speed and the turbine speed to be
measured or estimated in addition to requiring the knowledge of optimum TSR of the
turbine in order for the system to be able extract maximum possible power. The block
diagram of a WECS with TSR control is given below:
The Power signal feedback control : In PSF control, the maximum power curves need
to be obtained via simulations or off-line experiment on individual wind turbines. In this
method, reference power is generated either using a recorded maximum power curve or
using the mechanical power equation of the wind turbine where wind speed or the rotor
speed is used as the input. The block diagram of a WECS with PSF controller for
maximum power extraction is given below:
The Hill-climb search control : The HCS algorithm continuously searches for the peak
power of the wind turbine. It can overcome some of the common problems normally
associated with the other two methods. The tracking algorithm, depending upon the
location of the operating point and relation between the changes in power and speed,
computes the desired optimum signal in order to drive the system to the point of
maximum power.The principle of HCS control and a WECS with HCS controller for
tracking maximum power points is given below:
3. Discuss and classify the working of MPPT in a solar PV system. [CO5-H1]
(Refer previous Qn.no.1)
4.Discuss with case study how to get maximum power generation in wind
energy conversion system. [CO5-H2]
(or)
5.Explain MPPT techniques for a WECS. [CO5-L1]
A case study how to get maximum power generation in wind energy conversion
system. : An MPPT controller for variable speed WECS proposed.
The method proposed in does not require the knowledge of wind speed, air
density or turbine parameters. The MPPT controller generates at its output the optimum
speed command for speed control loop of rotor flux oriented vector controlled machine
side converter control system using only the instantaneous active power as its input.
The optimum speed commands, which enable the WECS to track peak power points,
are generated in accordance with the variation of the active power output due to the
change in the command speed generated by the controller.The proposed concept was
analyzed in a direct drive variable speed PMSG WECS with back-to-back IGBT
frequency converter. Vector control of the grid side converter was realized in the grid
voltage vector reference frame. The complete WECS control system is shown in Fig. A.
The MPPT controller computes the optimum speed for maximum power point using
information on magnitude and direction of change in power output due to the change in
command speed. The flow chart in Fig.B shows how the proposed MPPT controller is
executed.
The operation of the controller is explained below:
The active power Po(k) is measured, and if the difference between its values at present
and previous sampling instants ΔPo(k) is within a specified lower and upper power limits
PLand PM respectively then, no action is taken;
however, if the difference is outside this range, then certain necessary control action is
taken.
The control action taken depends upon the magnitude and direction of change in the ac
tive power due to the change in command speed.
The magnitude of change, if any, in the command speed in a control cycle is

decided by the product of magnitude of power errorPo(k) and C. The values C are
decided by the speed of the wind. During the maximum power point Tracking control
process the product mentioned above decreases slowly and finally equals to zero at the
peak power point.
6. Show with case study how to get maximum power generation in solar energy
conversion system. [CO5-H2] (Refer any case study paper )
7. (i) With a neat sketch, describe the operation of PV-Diesel hybrid system.
(ii) Draw and describe the operation of Wind-PV hybrid system. [CO5-L1]
Photovoltaic–diesel hybrid energy systems generate ac electricity by combining a

photovoltaic array with an inverter, which can operate alternately or in parallel with a
conventional engine-driven generator. They can be classified according to their
configuration as follows :
1. Series PV-Diesel hybrid energy system
2. Switched PV-Diesel hybrid energy system
3. Parallel PV-Diesel hybrid energy system
The operation of a typical Series PV-Diesel hybrid energy system shown in

Fig.(a) is that a large fraction of the generated energy is passed through the battery
bank, resulting in increased cycling of the battery bank and reduced system
efficiency. Ac power delivered to the load is converted from dc to regulated ac by an
inverter or a motor generator unit. The power generated by the diesel generator is first
rectified and subsequently converted back to ac before being supplied to the load,
which leads to significant conversion losses.
The actual load demand determines the amount of electrical power delivered by
the photovoltaic array, the battery bank, or the diesel generator. The solar controller
prevents overcharging of the battery bank from the PV generator when the PV power
exceeds the load demand and the batteries are fully charged. It may include maximum
power point tracking to improve the utilization of the available photovoltaic energy,
although the energy gain is marginal for a well-sized system. The system can be
operated in manual or automatic mode, with the addition of appropriate battery
voltage sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.
Advantages:
• The engine-driven generator can be sized to be optimally loaded while supplying the
load and charging the battery bank, until a battery SOC of 70–80% is reached.
• No switching of AC power between the different energy sources is required, which
simplifies the electrical output interface.
• The power supplied to the load is not interrupted when the diesel generator is started.
• The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square-wave
depending on the application.
Disadvantages:
• The inverter cannot operate in parallel with the engine driven generator, therefore the
inverter must be sized to supply the peak load of the system.
• The battery bank is cycled frequently, which shortens its lifetime.
• The cycling profile requires a large battery bank to limit the depth-of-discharge (DOD).
• The overall system efficiency is low, since the diesel cannot supply power directly to
the load.
• Inverter failure results in complete loss of power to the load, unless the load can be
supplied directly from the diesel generator for emergency purposes.
The switched configuration shown in Fig.(b) remains one of the most common
installations today. despite its operational limitations.The system can be operated in
manual or automatic mode, with the addition of appropriate battery voltage
sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.
The advantages of this system are:
 The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square wave,
depending on the particular application.
 The diesel generator can supply the load directly, therefore improve the
system efficiency and reduce the fuel consumption. – main advantage
 Power to the load is interrupted momentarily when the ac power sources are
transferred.
 The engine-driven alternator and inverter are typically designed to supply the
peak load, which reduces their efficiency at part-load operation.
The parallel configuration shown in Fig. ( c) allows all energy sources to supply the
load separately at low or medium load demand, as well as supplying peak loads from
combined sources by synchronizing the inverter with the alternator output
waveform. The bidirectional inverter can charge the battery bank (rectifier operation)
when excess energy is available from the engine-driven generator, as well as act as a
dc–ac converter (inverter operation). The bidirectional inverter may provide ‘‘peak
shaving’’ as part of the control strategy when the engine-driven generator is overloaded.
By using the same power electronic devices for both inverter and rectifier
operation, the number of system components is minimized.
The advantages of this system include the following:
 The system load can be met in an optimal way.

 Diesel generator efficiency can be maximized.
 Diesel generator maintenance can be minimized.
 A reduction in the rated capacities of the diesel generator, battery bank,
inverter, and renewable resources is feasible, while also meeting the peak loads.
 Automatic control is essential for the reliable operation of the system.

 The inverter has to be a true sine-wave inverter with the ability to synchronize
with a secondary ac source.
 System operation is less transparent to the untrained user of the system.
Control of PV – Diesel Hybrid System and Modes Of Operation :

The design process of hybrid energy systems requires the selection of the most
suitable combination of energy sources, power-conditioning devices, and energy-
storage system, together with the implementation of an efficient energy dispatch
strategy. The different operating modes for a PV -diesel system using a typical diesel
dispatch strategy:
Mode (I): The base load, which is typically experienced at night and during the early
morning hours, is supplied by energy stored in the batteries. Photovoltaic power is
not available and the diesel generator is not started.
Mode (II): PV power is supplemented by stored energy to meet the medium load
demand.
Mode (III): Excess energy is available from the PV generator, which is stored in the
battery. The medium load demand is supplied from the PV generator.
Mode (IV): The diesel generator is started and operated at its nominal power to
meet the high evening load. Excess energy available from the diesel generator is used
to recharge the batteries.
Mode (V): The diesel generator power is insufficient to meet the peak load demand.
Additional power is supplied from the batteries by synchronizing the inverter ac
output voltage with the alternator waveform.
Mode (VI): The diesel generator power exceeds the load demand, but it is kept
operational until the batteries are recharged to a high state-of-charge level.
In principle, most efficient operation is achieved if the generated power is

supplied directly to the load from all energy sources, which also reduces cycling of
the battery bank.
8. Is wind energy an excellent supplement to the PV? IF so justify with a

suitable case study. [CO5-H1]
Yes.The wind energy can be utilized even during night time. The wind supplements the
solar PV during cloudy and winter days. The switched configuration of a hybrid system
can be used as given below:
In the conventional series hybrid systems shown in Fig.1, all power generators
feed DC power into a battery. Each component has therefore to be equipped with an
individual charge controller and in the case of a diesel generator with a rectifier. To
ensure reliable operation of series hybrid energy systems both the diesel generator and
the inverter have to be sized to meet peak loads. This results in a typical system
operation where a large fraction of the generated energy is passed through battery
bank, therefore resulting in increased cycling of the battery bank and reduced system
efficiency. AC power delivered to the load is converted from DC to regulated AC by an
inverter or a motor generator unit.
The power generated by the diesel generator is first rectified and subsequently
converted back to AC before being supplied to the load, which incurs significant
conversion losses. The actual load demand determines the amount of electrical power
delivered by the PV array, wind generator, the battery bank, or the diesel generator. The
solar and wind charger prevents overcharging of the battery bank from the PV generator
when the PV power exceeds the load demand and the batteries are fully charged. It
may include MPPT to improve the utilization of the available PV energy, although the
energy gain is marginal for a well-sized system. The system can be operated in manual
or automatic mode, with the addition of appropriate battery voltage sensing and
start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.
The parallel hybrid system can be further classified as DC and AC couplings as

shown in Fig.3. In both schemes, a bi-directional inverter is used to link between the
battery and an AC source (typically the output of a diesel generator). The bi-directional
inverter can charge the battery bank (rectifier operation) when excess energy is
available from the diesel generator or by the renewable sources, as well as act as a
DC–AC converter (inverter operation). The bi-directional inverter may also provide
“peak shaving” as part of a control strategy when the diesel engine is overloaded. In
Fig.(a), the renewable energy sources (RES) such as photovoltaic and wind are coupled
on the DC side. DC integration of RES results in “custom” system solutions for the
individual supply cases requiring high costs for engineering, hardware, repair, and
maintenance.
Furthermore, power system expandability for covering needs of growing energy
and power demand is also difficult. A better approach would be to integrate the RES on
the AC side rather than on the DC side as shown in Fig.(b). Parallel hybrid energy
systems are characterized by two significant improvements over the series and
switched system configuration.
The inverter plus the diesel generator capacity rather than their individual
component ratings limit the maximum load that can be supplied. Typically, this will lead
to a doubling of the system capacity. The capability to synchronize the inverter with the
diesel generator allows greater flexibility to optimize the operation of the system. Future
systems should be sized with a reduced peak capacity of the diesel generator, which
results in a higher fraction of directly used energy and hence higher system efficiencies.
Also mention the merits and demerits of each configuration.

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S.K.P.

Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VIII SEM

SKP Engineering College

This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material

Subject Code: EE6009

Subject Name: POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University

Signature of the Author

Designation: Associate Professor

Signature of HD Signature of the Principal

Name: Mrs.R.Sridevi Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi

EE6009 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS LT P C

UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION 9

UNIT III POWER CONVERTERS 9

UNIT IV ANALYSIS OF WIND AND PV SYSTEMS 9

UNIT V HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 9

 Ability to understand the operation of various renewable energy resources based

1. S. N. Bhadra, D.Kastha, S.Banerjee, “Wind Electrical Systems”, Oxford University

1. Rashid .M. H “power electronics Hand book”, Academic press, 2001.

S.No Particulars Page

Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean

During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-

3.List various renewable energy resources. [CO1-L2]

4.List the significance of renewable energy resources. [CO1-L2]

 The conventional energy resources such as fossil fuel, hydro,nuclear etc

5. Discriminate spring and neap tides? [C01-L3]

6. Explain the principle of power generation using tides? [CO1-H1]

7. List the limitations of Tidal energy. [CO1-L2]

8. Compose various ocean tidal energy conversion schemes available.

9. Discuss about anaerobic digestion? And its advantages. [CO1-L1]

Anaerobic digestion is the natural breakdown of organic materials into methane

The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to

Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion

1. It is a net energy producing process which produces renewable energy in the

Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen or used in a

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

11. Identify the problems associated with tapping solar energy?[CO1-H1]

Solar energy systems offer significant environmental benefits in comparison to

The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power can be

 Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or

12. Summarize the factors influencing solar power extraction? [CO1-L2]

13. Identify the limitation of solar power. [CO1-L3]

The chief limitations of solar energy include an inability to generate power at

14. Explain about NOCT and STC of a solar cell. [CO1-H1]

16. Show fuel cell characterization [CO1-H2]

Overall performance (i-V curve, power density)

17. Classify the types of fuel cell. [CO1-L2]

 PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

 Generating Power at Remote Sites

Sl.No HAWT (Horizontal axis turbine) VAWT (Vertical axis turbine)

1 It is used for low power It can accept wind from any

22. What is green power?

23. What is Hydrogen energy?

1.Explain the impact of renewable energy generation on environment.

2. Discuss the influence of renewable energy sources with special reference to

Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean

During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-

Factors affecting the GHG:

Consider transportation impacts of facility site selection

THE COST OF GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION:

(Total energy emissions accounted for 5.5 GtC emissions in 1995).

Costing Methodologies for GHG

Worldwide Energy Trends: