SCHEME OF EVALUATION

IV/IV B.Tech (Supplementary) Degree Examinations-October (2018)

Department of E.C.E
Subject: Microwave Engineering
Subject code: EC413
Faculty: G.Mahesh

Head of the Department

Department of E.C.E
1. Each question carry one mark

2. a) Explanation—3M and scattering matrix—3M

b) Explanation—3M and scattering matrix—3M

3. a) problem-6M

b) Faraday rotation principle-2M and Explanation-4M

4. a) TED‟s-2M and Explanation—4M

b) Diagram-2M, Graph-2M, Explanation-2M

5. a) Diagram-2M, Graph-2M, Explanation-2M

b) Symbol-2M, Graph-2M, Explanation-2M

6. a) Definition-1M and Magnetron explanation—5M

b) Derivation—6M

7. a) Definition-2M and Explanation—4M

b) Diagram—2m and Explanation—4M

8. a) Diagram—2m and Explanation—4M

b) Graph—2M and Explanation—4M

9. a) Problem—6M

b) Diagram—2M and Explanation-4M

1.

a) Skin effect is a tendency for alternating current (AC) to flow mostly near the outer surface of an
electrical conductor, such as metal wire. The effect becomes more and more apparent as the
frequency increases.

b) Microwave resonator or cavity resonator is a waveguide that is shorted at both ends, which ca n

hold an electromagnetic oscillations.

c) when the electrons pass through a pair of narrowly spaced grids, their velocity is modulated by a
sinusoidal RF signal. The variation of electron velocity in drift space is called velocity modulation.

d) The time required for the electron to travel from cathode to anode plate is called a transit time.

e) scattering matrix of shunt Tee is

s=[1/2 -1/2 1/√2, -1/2 1/2 1/√2, 1/√2 1/√2 0]

f) Change of direction of guides are often required in microwave applications. For changing the
direction through an angle, waveguide corners are used. Those are E-plane and H-plane corners.

g) Components of Microwave bench

 Reflex Klystron

 Isolator

 Frequency meter

 Slotted section

 VSWR meter

h) Applications of PIN diode

 It is used as a limiter

 As a modulator

 Used as a switch

i) Disadvantages of Gunn diode

 High turn on voltage

 low efficiency

 Higher device operating current and hence more power dissipation.

j) A magnetron when operated under pi (π) mode gives maximum output power and desired
frequency. Since the magnetron has eight coupled cavity resonators, several different modes of
oscillation is possible. The oscillating frequency corresponding to the different modes are not the
same. Some are quite close to one another, so that a π-mode oscillation which is normal for
magnetron becomes (3/4)π mode oscillation. This is called as mode jumping.

k) IMPATT, TRAPATT, BARITT

l) Microwaves are a form of Electromagnetic waves with wavelength ranging from 300mHz to
300GHz.

UNIT-I

2.

a) The simplest type of power divider is a T-junction. A magic tee is a combination of E-plane
Tee and H-plane Tee. The magic tee has following characteristics.

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.

2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm), it will be divided equally between port 1 and port
2 of the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (E arm).

3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm), it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. Output at port 4 is zero i.e S43 = S34 = 0.

4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in
the other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm causes a phase delay
while the H arm causes the phase advance.

i.e S12 = S21 = 0.

For the purpose of double the power at one port and by taking the input power from the
two transmitters situated at two other ports, the property 1 is used.

The S-matrix for magic Tee is given by

[S] =

Due to E-plane Tee: S13 = -S23

Due to H-plane Tee: S14 = S24

Due to geometry, port 3 and port 4 are isolated

S34 = S43 = 0

From the Magic Property:

S12 = S21 = 0

If the port 3 and port 4 are matched to the junction

S33 = S44 = 0

From the Symmetry Property, Sij = Sji

S13 = S31; S14 = S41

S23 = S32; S24 = S42;

The S-matrix by substituting above results are:

[S] =

From the unitary Property, [S] [S]* = [U]

* =

R1C1: |S11|2 + |S23|2 + |S14|2 = 1 eqn (1)

R2C2: |S22|2 + |S23|2 + |S14|2 = 1 eqn(2)

R3C3: |S23|2 + |S23|2 = 1 eqn (3)

R4C4: |S14|2 + |S14|2 = 1 eqn (4)

From the above equations, we get

 S23 = and S14 =

S13 = - S23 =

Then S14 = S24 =

Substituting S23, S14 in above equations 1&2 gives S11 = S22 = 0

The final S-matirx will be shown below by substiting above values

[S] =

[S]=

b) Waveguide Corners:

Change of direction of guides are often required in microwave applications. For changing the
direction through an angle, waveguide corners, bends and twists are used. Use of corner and bends
will create discontinuities in the guide therefore standing wave ratio will be increased because of
reflections.
3.

a) C = -10 log P1/ P4;

C‟s coupling factor Or -10 = 10 log P1/ P4 or 10-1 = P1/ P4 = | S412 |

S41 = √0.1 = 0.3162

S41 = S14 = 0.3162

Directivity D = 10 log P4/P3

30 = 10 log | S41 2 |/| S31 2 |

103 = | S412 |/| S312 |

| S312| = (0.3162)2 /103

| S312 | = √10 -4 = 0.01

| S312 | = | S132 | = 0.01

S11 = VSWR-1/VSWR+1 = 0

S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0

b)

Faraday rotation: When a DC or static magnetic field B0 is applied along the z-direction. A plane
TEM wave that is already linearly polarized along x-axis at t=0 is made to propagate through the
ferrite placed in the z-direction. The plane of polarization of this wave will rotate with distance.
This phenomenon is called Faraday rotation.
Any linearly polarized wave can be regarded as the vector sum of two oppositely rotating
circularly polarized waves (E0/2 vectors in above figure). The ferrite material offers
different characteristics to these waves with the result that the phase change in one wave
is larger than the other wave resulting in rotation „θ‟ of linearly polarized wave at z=l.

The angle of rotation „θ‟ is given by

l= length of the ferrite rod, β+= phase shift of the right polarized wave, β-= phase shift of
left polarized wave.

The Faraday rotation principle is shown by the ferrite materials those exhibits the
property if magnetic anisotropy, non reciprocal property, insulator nature. These ferrite
devices are used in designing the non reciprocal devices like Gyrator, Isolator, and
circulator.

Isolator:
An isolator is a two-port device which provides negligible attenuation for transmission of
signal from port-1 to port-2 but provides high attenuation for transmission from port-2 to
port-1.

Construction:

The Cut away view of Faraday rotation isolator is shown above. It consists of circular
waveguide carrying dominant mode i.e. TE11 mode, with transitions to a standard
rectangular waveguide with dominant mode TE10 at both ends but the output end
 transition is twisted by 450. A thin circular ferrite is placed inside the circular guide,
supposed by poly foam, and the waveguide is surrounded by a permanent magnet which
generates DC magnetic field in the axial direction of ferrite rod. The input resistive
attenuator/ card placed along larger dimension of rectangular guide and the output
resistive attenuator/ card are displaced by 450. The function of resistive attenuator is to
absorb any wave whose plane of polarization is parallel to the plane of resistive
attenuator.

Principle of Operation:

An input TE10 dominant mode is incident on port 1 of the isolator. As the wave is
perpendicular to the resistive card, it passes through the ferrite rod without any
attenuation and the wave is rotated 450 clockwise due to Faraday rotation. As a result of
rotation, the wave arrives at output port i.e. port 2 without attenuation.

If a wave tries to propagate from port 2 to port 1, it passes through resistive card placed at
port 2 as electric field is perpendicular to the plane of card and the wave is rotated 45 0
clockwise direction(looking from port 1) due to Faraday rotation by the ferrite rod. Since
the wave coming towards port 1 is parallel to the resistive card, the wave is absorbed by
it.

Thus any reflected wave from output port will not reach input port.

The typical performance of these isolators is about 1-dB insertion loss in forward
transmission and about 20-30 dB isolation in reverse direction.

UNIT-II

4.

a) Transferred Electron devices are one of the important microwave devices. They are bulk devices
that have no junction or gates as compared with microwave transistors. Which operate with either
junction or gates. Transferred electron devices are fabricated with compound semiconductor
materials (Eg. GaAs, CdTe and InP ). They have two energy regions or valleys in the conduction
band. The TEDs show a transferred electron effect in which transfer of electrons takes place from
lower valley to upper valley in the conduction band. Most of the electrons will be in lower valley at
low electric fields. When the electric field strength is increased to higher values, most of the
electrons will be transferred into high energy bands. In the higher energy bands, the effective mass
of electrons is larger than in lower energy band. Hence conductivity decreases with an increase in
electric field strength. Thus the current decreases with an increase in voltage showing negative
resistance. Gunn diode is an example of TED‟s

A few differences between microwave transistors and TED‟s are as follows

 TED‟s do not have junctions or gates as in the case of transistors

 TED‟s with smaller physical dimensions have a limited power output. In order to get a
reasonable power output , the physical dimensions are to be made large as compared with a
microwave transistor.

 TED‟s are made of compound semiconductors from group III-IV and II-VI elements such as
gallium arsenide(GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), and cadmium telluride(CdTe). Where as
the majority of transistors are made from elements such as Ge or Si.

GUNN DIODE

Gunn diode symbol for circuit diagrams

The Gunn diode symbol used in circuit diagrams varies. Often a standard diode is seen in the
diagram, however this form of Gunn diode symbol does not indicate the fact that the Gunn
diode is not a PN junction. Instead another symbol showing two filled in triangles with points
touching is used as shown below.

Gunn diode symbol

Gunn diode construction

Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type semiconductor. The most common
materials are gallium Arsenide, GaAs and Indium Phosphide, InP. However other materials
including Ge, CdTe, InAs, InSb, ZnSe and others have been used. The device is simply an n-
type bar with n+ contacts. It is necessary to use n-type material because the transferred
electron effect is only applicable to electrons and not holes found in a p-type material.
Within the device there are three main areas, which can be roughly termed the top, middle
and bottom areas.
 A discrete Gunn diode with the active layer mounted
onto a heatsink for efficient heat transfer
The most common method of manufacturing a Gunn diode is to grow and epitaxial layer on a
degenerate n+ substrate. The active region is between a few microns and a few hundred
micron thick. This active layer has a doping level between 1014cm-3 and 1016cm-3 - this is
considerably less than that used for the top and bottom areas of the device. The thickness will
vary according to the frequency required.
The top n+ layer can be deposited epitaxially or doped using ion implantation. Both top and
bottom areas of the device are heavily doped to give n+ material. This provides the required
high conductivity areas that are needed for the connections to the device.
Devices are normally mounted on a conducting base to which a wire connection is made. The
base also acts as a heat sink which is critical for the removal of heat. The connection to the
other terminal of the diode is made via a gold connection deposited onto the top surface. Gold
is required because of its relative stability and high conductivity.
During manufacture there are a number of mandatory requirements for the devices to be
successful - the material must be defect free and it must also have a very uniform level of
doping.
b) IMPATT Diode:

IMPATT DIODE is abbreviated as impact ionization avalanche transit time diode. It is an active
solid state device that operates by a reverse bias to cause avalanche breakdown. This is a high
power diode and a very powerful microwave source that is used in high frequency electronic and
microwave devices.

VI characteristics :
5.

a) TRAPATT DIODE:

The full form of TRAPATT diode is Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit
diode. A microwave generator which operates between hundreds of MHz to GHz. These are
high peak power diodes usually n+- p-p+ or p+-n-n+structures with n-type depletion region,
width varying from 2.5 to 1.25 µm. The following figure depicts this.
The electrons and holes trapped in low field region behind the zone are made to fill the
depletion region in the diode. This is done by a high field avalanche region which propagates
through the diode.

The following figure shows a graph in which AB shows charging, BC shows plasma
formation, DE shows plasma extraction, EF shows residual extraction, and FG shows
charging.

Let us see what happens at each of the points.

A: The voltage at point A is not sufficient for the avalanche breakdown to occur. At A,
charge carriers due to thermal generation results in charging of the diode like a linear
capacitance.

A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient number
of carriers are generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region
causing the voltage to decrease from B to C.

C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and holes is
created. The field is further depressed so as not to let the electrons or holes out of the
depletion layer, and traps the remaining plasma.

D: The voltage decreases at point D. A long time is required to clear the plasma as the total
plasma charge is large compared to the charge per unit time in the external current.

E: At point E, the plasma is removed. Residual charges of holes and electrons remain each
at one end of the deflection layer.

E to F: The voltage increases as the residual charge is removed.

F: At point F, all the charge generated internally is removed.

 F to G: The diode charges like a capacitor.

G: At point G, the diode current comes to zero for half a period. The voltage remains
constant as shown in the graph above. This state continues until the current comes back on
and the cycle repeats.

Applications
There are many applications of this diode.

 Low power Doppler radars

 Local oscillator for radars
 Microwave beacon landing system
 Radio altimeter
Phased array radar, etc.
b) VARACTOR DIODE:

The varactor diode was named because of the variable reactor or variable reactance or
variable capacitor or variable capacitance property of these diodes. A varactor diode is
considered as a special type of diode that is widely used in the electronics industry and is
used in various electronics applications. Varactor diode is also a semiconductor microwave
solid-state device, it is frequently used in applications where variable capacitance is desired
which can be achieved by controlling voltage.

Varactor Diode Symbol:

The symbol of varactor diode is shown in the figure. The varactor diode symbol consists of
the capacitor symbol at one end of the diode that represents the variable capacitor
characteristics of the varactor diodes.

Varactor Diode Symbol

In general, it looks like a normal PN- junction diode in which one terminal is termed as the
cathode and the other terminal is termed as anode. Here, varactor diode consists of two lines
at one end (cathode end of normal diode) that indicates the capacitor symbol.
 Characteristics of Varactor Diode

The characteristics of Varactor diode have the following:

 These diodes significantly generate less noise compared to other diodes.

 The cost of these diodes is available at lower and more reliable also.
 These diodes are very small in size and very light weight.
 There is no useful when it is operated in forward bias.

Applications

The applications of Varactor Diode mainly involve within the RF design arena

UNIT-III

6.

a) Cross field devices:

It is a device in which electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.

Ex: Magnetron

The Magnetron is called as Cavity Magnetron because the anode is made into resonant

cavities and a permanent magnet is used to produce a strong magnetic field, where the action

of both of these make the device work.

Construction of Cavity Magnetron

A thick cylindrical cathode is present at the center and a cylindrical block of copper, is fixed

axially, which acts as an anode. This anode block is made of a number of slots that acts as

resonant anode cavities.

The space present between the anode and cathode is called as Interaction space. The

electric field is present radially while the magnetic field is present axially in the cavity

magnetron. This magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet, which is placed such

that the magnetic lines are parallel to cathode and perpendicular to the electric field present

between the anode and the cathode.

The following figures show the constructional details of a cavity magnetron and the

magnetic lines of flux present.

Operation of Cavity Magnetron

When the Cavity Klystron is under operation, we have different cases to consider. Let us go

through them in detail.

Case 1

If the magnetic field is absent, i.e. B = 0, then the behavior of electrons can be observed in

the following figure. Considering an example, where electron adirectly goes to anode under

radial electric force.

Case 2

If there is an increase in the magnetic field, a lateral force acts on the electrons. This can be

observed in the following figure, considering electron bwhich takes a curved path, while

both forces are acting on it.

Radius of this path is calculated as

R=mv/eB

It varies proportionally with the velocity of the electron and it is inversely proportional to

the magnetic field strength.

Case 3

If the magnetic field B is further increased, the electron follows a path such as the electron c,

just grazing the anode surface and making the anode current zero. This is called as "Critical

magnetic field" (Bc), which is the cut-off magnetic field. Refer the following figure for

better understanding.

Case 4

If the magnetic field is made greater than the critical field,

B>Bc

Then the electrons follow a path as electron d, where the electron jumps back to the cathode,

without going to the anode. This causes "back heating" of the cathode. Refer the following

figure.
This is achieved by cutting off the electric supply once the oscillation begins. If this is

continued, the emitting efficiency of the cathode gets affected.

Operation of Cavity Magnetron with Active RF Field

We have discussed so far the operation of cavity magnetron where the RF field is absent in

the cavities of the magnetron (static case). Let us now discuss its operation when we have an

active RF field.

As in TWT, let us assume that initial RF oscillations are present, due to some noise

transient. The oscillations are sustained by the operation of the device. There are three kinds

of electrons emitted in this process, whose actions are understood as electrons a, b and c, in

three different cases.

Case 1

When oscillations are present, an electron a, slows down transferring energy to oscillate.

Such electrons that transfer their energy to the oscillations are called as favored electrons.

These electrons are responsible for bunching effect.

Case 2
In this case, another electron, say b, takes energy from the oscillations and increases its

velocity. As and when this is done,

 It bends more sharply.

 It spends little time in interaction space.

 It returns to the cathode.

These electrons are called as unfavored electrons. They don't participate in the bunching

effect. Also, these electrons are harmful as they cause "back heating".

Case 3

In this case, electron c, which is emitted a little later, moves faster. It tries to catch up with

electron a. The next emitted electron d, tries to step with a. As a result, the favored

electrons a, c and d form electron bunches or electron clouds. It called as "Phase focusing

effect".

This whole process is understood better by taking a look at the following figure.
 Figure A shows the electron movements in different cases while figure B shows the electron

clouds formed. These electron clouds occur while the device is in operation. The charges

present on the internal surface of these anode segments, follow the oscillations in the

cavities. This creates an electric field rotating clockwise, which can be actually seen while

performing a practical experiment.

While the electric field is rotating, the magnetic flux lines are formed in parallel to the

cathode, under whose combined effect, the electron bunches are formed with four spokes,

directed in regular intervals, to the nearest positive anode segment, in spiral trajectories.

b)
The Hull cut off condition is obtained under the condition that there is no RF field, which is in turn
defines anode voltage is a function of magnetic field. The magnetic field tends to prevent the flow
of electrons to the anode. On the other hand, under right circumstances, the electrons leave the hub
after getting interacted with RF wave that is rotating about the cathode , and flow to the anode. It
happens electrons speed is reduced to RF rotation rate. In this process the electrons amplify the
wave and losses the energy.
Force acting on the electron
In the direction of φ, the force component is given by
Where from the
center of the cathode cylinder.
Torque in the direction of ϕ can be given as

Angular momentum = angular velocity X moment of inertia =

Time rate of angular momentum =

Integrate above equation with respect to “t”

For a particular direction, mρϕ can be considered a constant

The value of C can be determined by applying boundary conditions(i.e., at surface of the
cathode ρ=a and

Substitute above C value we get

When ρ=a(i.e. at cathode),

When

Where B= Bc is the cut-off magnetic flux density

We know potential energy of electron = kinetic energy of electron

At anode ρ=b, , substituting these boundary conditions in above equations,

Substituting above equations we get

The Hull cut-off voltage is given by

7.
a) Slow wave structures:
 As the operating frequency is increased, both inductance and capacitance of the
resonant circuit must be decreased in order to maintain resonance at the operating
frequency.

 Since the gain bandwidth product is limited by resonant circuit, the ordinary resonator
cannot generate a large output.

 Several non resonant periodic circuits or slow wave circuits are designed for
producing large gain over a wide bandwidth.

 Slow wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce
the wave velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave
interact.

 The phase velocity of a wave in ordinary waveguides is greater than velocity of light
in vacuum.

 In magnetrons, TWT‟s, the electron beam must be with the microwave signal.

 The electron beam must be accelerated only to velocities about fraction of velocity of
light, a slow wave structure is placed in microwave device so that the phase velocities
of microwave signal is in pace with electron beam for effective interactions.

 The commonly used slow wave structure is a helical coil with a concentric
conducting cylinder.

 The ratio of phase velocity Vp along the pitch to the phase velocity along the coil
  The helical coil may be with in a dielectric filled cylinder. The phase velocity in the
axial direction is expressed as

 If the dielectric constant is too large, the slow wave structure may introduce
considerable losses, there by reducing efficiency

TWT Amplification process

7.

b) Two cavity klystron amplifier:

 The Two cavity Klystron is widely used microwave amplifier operated by the
principle of velocity and current modulation.

 All electrons injected from cathode arrive at first cavity with uniform velocity and
these electrons passes the gap of the first cavity when zero signal voltages.

 Positive half cycles of gap voltage undergo increase in velocity and negative half
cycles of gap voltage undergo decrease in velocity.

 Due to this electron bunching occurs during their travel in drift space. The variation of
electron velocity in drift space is known as velocity modulation.

 The density of electrons in the second cavity gap varies cyclically with time. The
electron beam contains a.c. component and is called current modulation.

 The maximum bunching should occur in the mid way between the second cavity grids
during retarding phase.

 Kinetic energy is transferred from electrons to the field of the second cavity.

 The electrons emerge from second cavity with retarded velocity finally terminate at
collector.
 Characteristics of two cavity klystron amplifier
efficiency:40%
power output : average power (CW power) is up to 500KW and pulsed power is up to
30MW at 10GHz
power gain: about 30dB

 The cavity close to the cathode is known as buncher cavity or input cavity, which
velocity modulates the electron beam.

 The other cavity is called catcher cavity or output cavity. It catches energy from the
bunched electron beam.

 Assumptions made in analysis of two cavity klystron:

1. the electron beam is assumed to have a uniform density in the cross section of the
beam.
2. Space charge effects are negligible.
3. The magnitude of the microwave signal input is assumed to be much smaller than
the dc accelerating voltage.
 UNIT-IV

8.

a) Frequency measurements:

Microwave frequency can be measured by two methods

1) slotted-line method 2) electrical technique

Slotted-line method(Mechanical Technique):-

 In this method, the measurement of wavelength in a waveguide will be made first and
from that frequency is determined.

 A tunable resonator is required for this method, which has a known relation between a
physical dimension and frequency.

 The standing wave pattern appears only when slotted line is terminated by a short
circuit.

 The positions of two adjacent nulls are accurately positioned in two steps (i) moving
the probe along the slotted line (ii) read the position of nulls in the vernier scale. The
two positions are separated by half a guide wavelength λg /2.

The free space wavelength is given by

The guided wavelength in the air filled rectangular waveguide,

The distance two successive voltage minima as shown above figure

Electronic Technique:-

 This method uses frequency heterodyne system. This system compares the unknown
microwave frequency with a harmonic of the known standard frequency. The
unknown frequency f can be calculated as below from the output frequency f0 and
frequency nfc

f = nfc – f0
b) VSWR MEASUREMENTS:
HIGH VSWR MEASUREMENT:
VSWR greater than 10 can be measured by double minimum method. In this method, the
probe is inserted to a depth where the minimum value can be read easily.
 Then the probe should be moved to a point where the power is twice the minimum (
Pmin = 2V2min /RL i.e. Pmin= 2P).
 Let d1 be the position. Then again, the probe is moved to twice the power point on the
other side of the minimum(say d2) as shown in fig below

 For the dominant mode TE10 mode rectangular waveguide, λ0, λg , and λc are related
as below.

λ0 is free space wavelength

λg is guide wavelength
λc is cutt off wavelength
For the TE10 mode λc = 2a where “a” is the broad dimension of the waveguide
9.

a) sol

d2-d1 = 3.5cm

VSWR = λg/π(d2-d1)

λg = 2(d2-d1)

VSWR = 2/π = 0.636

b) POWER MEASUREMENTS:

Measurement of high power can be done by calorimetric watt meters.

fig: Measurement of high power

 It consists of identical temp sensitive resistors or gauges in two arms, an indicating

meter and two load resistors.
 The input load resistor senses the unknown input microwave power and comparison
head is associated with the comparison power .
 The input load power and input temp gauge are placed very closely so that heat
generated in the input load resistor raises the temp of gauge. this results in unbalance
of bridge.
 The signal due to imbalance is amplified and then applied to comparison load resistor
which is close to the comparison gauge.
 hence heat generated in comparison load resistor is transferred to comparison gauge.
 Thus the bridge is balanced. The meter measures the amount of power transferred to
comparison load in order to rebalance bridge.

 Any power between 10W to 50KW considers high power. These are measured by
calorimetric watt meters.
 This meters can be either dry type or flow type.
 A dry type calorimeter normally consists of a co-axial cable which is filled by a
dielectric.
 The flow types uses circulating water, oil or any liquid which is good absorber of
microwaves.
 The fluid after flowing through load experience temp
 The difference between temp before entering T1 and after enter if T2 measures the
power.
 Knowing rate of fluid flow power can be calculated using the equation

P=R*K*p*(T2-T1)/4.18

where P=measured power in watts

R=rate of flow

k=specific heat in cal/g , p=specific gravity in gm/cm3

t=temp change