POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE

PHILIPPINES

APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

IN THE FIELD OF POWER PRODUCTION

Submitted by:
NILO, DAN ABEL L.
BSEE 5-1

Submitted to: Engr. Librado Gesalta

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENS 2

CHAPTER I: Nuclear Power Plant 3

CHAPTER II: Electrical Grid and Reliability and Interface with Nuclear Power 8

 2.1. Background
 2.2. Objective
 2.3. Scope
 2.4. Structure

CHAPTER III: Electrical Production by Type 13

CHAPTER IV: Reactor Fuel Assemblies 23

 4.1. High Temperature Gas Cooled

CHAPTER V: Nuclear Power for Electrical Generation 29

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 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Electrical power can be generated by means of nuclear power. In nuclear power station,
electrical power is generated by nuclear reaction.

Here, heavy radioactive elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are
subjected to nuclear fission. This fission is done in a special apparatus called as reactor.

Before going to details of nuclear power station, let’s try to understand what is fission?

In fission process, the nuclei of heavy radioactive atoms are broken into two nearly equal
parts. During this breaking of nuclei, huge quantity of energy is released. This release of energy is
due to mass defect. That means, the total mass of initial product would be reduced during fission.
This loss of mass during fission is converted into heat energy as per famous equation E = mc2,
established by Albert Einstein.

The basic principle of nuclear power station is same as steam power station. Only
difference is that, instead of using heat generated due to coal combustion, here in nuclear power
plant, heat generated due to nuclear fission is used to produce steam from water in the boiler. This
steam is used to drive a steam turbine. This turbine is the prime mover of the alternator. This
alternator generates electrical energy. Although, the availability of nuclear fuel is not much but
very less amount of nuclear fuel can generate huge amount of electrical energy. This is the unique
feature of a nuclear power plant. One kg of uranium is equivalent to 4500 metric tons of high grade
coal. That means complete fission of 1 kg uranium can produce as much heat as can be produced
by complete combustion of 4500 metric tons high grade coal. This is why, although nuclear fuel
is much costlier, but nuclear fuel cost per unit electrical energy is still lower than that cost of energy
generated by means of other fuel like coal and diesel. To meet up conventional fuel crisis in present
era, nuclear power station can be the most suitable alternatives.

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

 As we said, the fuel consumption in this power station is quite low and hence, cost for
generating single unit of energy is quite less than other conventional power generation
method. Amount of nuclear fuel required is also less.

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  A nuclear power station occupies much smaller space compared to other conventional
power station of same capacity.
 This station does not require plenty of water, hence it is not essential to construct plant near
natural source of water. This also does not required huge quantity of fuel; hence it is also
not essential to construct the plant near coal mine, or the place where good transport
facilities are available. Because of this, the nuclear power station can be established very
near to the load centre.  There are large deposits of nuclear fuel globally therefore such
plants can ensure continued supply of electrical energy for coming thousands years.

DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

 The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.

 Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
 Erection and commissioning of this plant is much complicated and sophisticated than other
conventional power station.
 The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high radioactive pollution.
 The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear power plant
is quite higher since specialist trained people are required.
 Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
 As the by products of nuclear reaction is high radioactive, it is very big problem for disposal
of this by products. It can only be disposed deep inside ground or in a sea away from sea
shore. Figure 1. Nuclear Power Station Conceptual Model

DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

A nuclear power station has mainly four components.

 Nuclear reactor,
 Heat exchanger,
 Steam turbine,
 Alternator. 3 Nuclear Reactor In nuclear reactor, Uranium 235 is subjected to nuclear
fission. It controls the chain reaction that starts when the fission is done. The chain reaction
must be controlled otherwise rate of energy release will be fast, there may be a high chance

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of explosion. In nuclear fission, the nuclei of nuclear fuel, such as U235 are bombarded by
slow flow of neutrons. Due to this bombarding, the nuclei of Uranium is broken, which
causes release of huge heat energy and during breaking of nuclei, number of neutrons are
also emitted. These emitted neutrons are called fission neutrons. These fission neutrons
cause further fission. Further fission creates more fission neutrons which again accelerate
the speed of fission. This is cumulative process. If the process is not controlled, in very
short time the rate of fission becomes so high, it will release so huge amount of energy,
there may be dangerous explosion. This cumulative reaction is called chain reaction. This
chain reaction can only be controlled by removing fission neutrons from nuclear reactor.
The speed of the fission can be controlled by changing the rate of removing fission neutrons
from reactors. A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical shaped stunt pressure vessel. The fuel rods
are made of nuclear fuel i.e. Uranium moderates, which is generally made of graphite cover
the fuel rods. The moderates slow down the neutrons before collision with uranium nuclei.
The controls rods are made of cadmium because cadmium is a strong absorber of neutrons.
The control rods are inserted in the fission chamber. These cadmium controls rods can be
pushed down and pull up as per requirement. When these rods are pushed down enough,
most of the fission neutrons are absorbed by these rods, hence the chain reaction stops.
Again, while the controls rods are pulled up, the availability of fission neutrons becomes
more which increases the rates of chain reaction. Hence, it is clear that by adjusting the
position of the control rods, the rate of nuclear reaction can be controlled and consequently
the generation of electrical power can be controlled as per load demand. In actual practice,
the pushing and pulling of control rods are controlled by automatic feedback system as per
requirement of the load. It is not controlled manually. The heat released during nuclear
reaction, are carried to the heat exchanger by means of coolant consist of sodium metal.
Heat Exchanger In heat exchanger, the heat carried by sodium metal, is dissipated in water
and water is converted to high pressure steam here. After releasing heat in water the sodium
metal coolant comes back to the reactor by means of coolant circulating pump. Steam
Turbine In nuclear power plant, the steam turbine plays the same role as coal power plant.
The steam drives the turbine in same way. After doing its job, the exhaust steam comes
into steam condenser where it is condensed to provide space to the steam behind it. 4
Alternator An alternator, coupled with turbine, rotates and generates electrical power, for

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 utilization. The output from alternator is delivered to the bus-bars through transformer,
circuit breakers and isolators.

SITE SELECTION OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

 Availability of Water : Although very large quantity of water is not regulated as hydro-
electric power plant, but still sufficient supply of neutral water is obvious for cooling
purposes in nuclear power station. That is why it is always preferable to locate this plant
near a river or sea side.
 Disposal of Water : The by products or wastes of nuclear power station are radioactive and
may cause severe health hazards. Because of this, special care to be taken during disposal
of wastes of nuclear power plant. The wastes must be buried in sufficient deep from earth
level or these must be disposed off in sea quite away from the sea share. Hence, during
selecting the location of nuclear plant, these factors must be taken into consideration.
 Distance from Populated Area : As there is always a probability of radioactivity, it is always
preferable to locate a nuclear station sufficiently away from populated area.
 Transportation Facilities : During commissioning period, heavy equipment’s to be erected,
which to be transported from manufacturer site. So good railways and road ways
availabilities are required. For availability of skilled manpower good public transport
should also be present at the site.

INTERFACING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS WITH THE

ELECTRIC GRID

THE NEED FOR RELIABILITY AMID COMPLEXITY

For a country that does not yet use nuclear power, the introduction and development of
nuclear power is a major undertaking. It requires the country to build the necessary infrastructure
so it can construct and operate a nuclear power plant (NPP) profitably in a safe, secure and
technically sound manner. A major part of the necessary infrastructure is the electric grid to which
the NPP will connect. While most countries already have an electric grid system, it may require
significant development to be suitable for the connection of an NPP. The efficient, safe, secure
and reliable operation of the NPP requires that the grid to which it connects is also efficient, safe,

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secure and reliable. This paper explains the characteristics of the electric grid, its relationship with
the NPP, and the reasons why a reliable grid is so important to the NPP. 5 The grid is the electrical
highway through which all electricity traffic passes as it moves energy from the supplier
(‘generation’) to the customer (‘load’). Interconnected electric grids can encompass several
countries and are probably the largest machines in the world. They consist of hundreds of power
suppliers, thousands of kilometers of transmission and distribution lines and millions of different
electrical loads. Rapid economic development in the 20th century made the electric grid system a
critical part of the economic infrastructure in industrialized countries and a permanent feature of
the landscape. NPPs are unique and powerful generators compared to other electricity generating
plants. Moreover, they are both electricity generators and customers. They thus maintain a
symbiotic relationship with the electric grid at all times. NPPs supply large amounts of energy to
the grid as well as relying on it to receive power for crucial safety operations, especially during
emergency conditions. The safe startup, operation and shutdown of NPPs require a reliable and
stable power supply from the electric grid, referred to generally as ‘off-site power’. The grid’s
principal function is to transport electricity from the power plant to customers. But it does much
more than that. A reliable, balanced and well maintained electric grid is crucial for bringing new
nuclear power plants online and operating them costeffectively and safely. In particular, the grid
plays an important safety role by providing a reliable source of electricity to power the plant’s
cooling system to keep nuclear fuel cool after a reactor has been shut down (although NPPs also
have on-site back-up power available for emergency situations). The fewer instabilities and
interruptions there are in NPP–grid interactions, the more productively and consistently the NPP
can supply full power to consumers. Siting decisions must therefore take into account the local
grid conditions and usage, and, because of the grid’s role in plant safety as well as plant economics,
integration of NPPs into an electric grid poses a complex set of regulatory as well as engineering
challenges. Countries expanding or introducing nuclear power programmes are advised to consider
their electric grids as part of their planning process, particularly as the grid impacts the size and
type of reactor that can be deployed. Specific issues that should be considered in the early phases
of a nuclear power programme include grid capacity and future growth, historical stability and
reliability, and the potential for local and regional interconnections. Assessment of the current grid
and plans for improving the grid should therefore be developed to be consistent with plans for
nuclear power.

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ELECTRICAL GRID AND RELIABILITY AND INTERFACE
WITH NUCLEAR POWER

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Note: This figure provides only an example. Various possible arrangements of buses, loads,
generators and interconnections would meet the requirements of SSR-2/1 (Rev. 1) [1].
Furthermore, many elements of the plant system, such as buses that are not important to
safety and direct current power systems, are not shown. This figure is intended only to
represent the relationship between the elements of the plant power systems that are within
the safety classification and the preferred power supply. The elements of the preferred power
supply that are not within the bounds of the important to safety power supply are outside the
scope of the plant safety classification. The system elements included in the important to
safety power supplies will differ according to plant design and the classification methods
applied in different States. Some plant designs may not require safety standby power sources.
All nuclear power plants are expected to have safety direct current power supplies. AC —
alternating current.

FIG. 2. Relationship of electrical power supplies important to safety, safety power supplies and
the preferred power supply for a nuclear power plant.

between the off-site power supplies and the on-site power supplies will be a plant specific decision.

1.7. It might not be practicable to apply all the recommendations of this Safety Guide to nuclear
power plants that are already in operation or under construction. For the safety analysis of such
designs, it is expected that a comparison will be made with current standards, for example as part
of the periodic safety review for the plant, to determine whether the safe operation of the plant
could be further enhanced by means of practicable safety improvements.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this Safety Guide is to provide recommendations and guidance on meeting the
requirements for the design of electrical power systems established in Requirements 41 and 68,
paras 6.48–6.55 and in the general requirements of Sections 2–5 of SSR-2/1 (Rev. 1) [1]. It is
intended for the use by all those, including designers, reviewers, safety assessors, regulatory bodies,
operating organizations and operators, involved in the design, operation, maintenance,
modification, assessment and licensing of nuclear power plants. The Safety Guide does not provide

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guidance on details of implementation processes, methods to be used or technology, except by way
of explanation.

SCOPE
This Safety Guide makes recommendations and provides guidance on the provisions for electrical
power systems that are necessary for both new and operating nuclear power plants. It applies to all
electrical power systems important to safety in nuclear power plants and to the preferred power
supply.

The Safety Guide applies to nuclear power plants of all types. The extent of the electrical power
systems important to safety and of safety power systems, as given by classification of the electrical
power systems, differs in accordance with the design. The minimum recommended design
requirements for electrical power systems necessary at different voltage levels for maintaining
defence in depth and diversity are outlined in this Safety Guide. In all cases, this Safety Guide
should be used together with the plant’s safety analysis report in order to determine the safety
significance and importance of different power supplies. For example, in plants with passive
engineered safety features, the classification
of the electrical power systems may be substantially different from that shown in Fig. 2.

1.11. Additional recommendations applicable to electronic devices used in the control and
protection of the plant’s electrical power systems are provided in IAEA Safety Standards Series
No. SSG-39, Design of Instrumentation and Control Systems for Nuclear Power Plants [2].

1.12. Figures 1–3 show examples of the electrical power systems of nuclear power plants to
illustrate the scope of this Safety Guide and terminology used. Further explanation is provided in
the list of definitions.

1.13. This Safety Guide is focused on electrical power systems. Guidance on the specification of
loads is outside its scope, but it is necessary that such specifications are in accordance with the
design guidelines for electrical power systems.

1.14. Electrical power for security systems (e.g. fences, surveillance systems and entrance access
control) is outside the scope of this Safety Guide.

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1.15. This Safety Guide should be used in conjunction with the other relevant safety standards in
the IAEA Safety Standards Series.

1.16. Additional guidance on the design and development of electrical power systems and
electrical equipment is available from States and from organizations that establish standards. Such
publications provide much greater detail than is appropriate for IAEA safety standards. It is
expected that this Safety Guide will be used in conjunction with detailed industrial standards.

1.17. While designing electrical power systems, potential interfaces between nuclear security and
safety should be analysed and managed. IAEA Nuclear Security Series No. 13, Nuclear Security
Recommendations on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Nuclear Facilities
(INFCIRC/225/Revision 5) [3], provides guidance on security for nuclear facilities.
STRUCTURE
Section 2 introduces the main systems of a typical electrical power system for a nuclear power
plant and recommends the fundamental goals to be met by each system.

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 ELECTRICAL PRODUCTION BY TYPE

Commercial nuclear power plants generate approximately 22% of the electricity produced in the
United States. The total generation is approximately 3,800 thousand gigawatt-hours. For
comparison purposes, nuclear generation accounts for the following of the total electrical
production in some other countries: 75% in France, 46% in Sweden, 43% in Ukraine, 39% in south
Korea, 30% in Germany, and 30% in Japan.
The electricity produced in the United States from nuclear power is equivalent to 31% of the
world’s total nuclear generated electrical power. This compares with 16% for France, 13% for
Japan, 7% forGermany, 5% for Russia, and 4% for South Korea and United Kingdom.

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There are currently 104 licensed commercial nuclear power plants in the United States. Of the 104
plants, 48 were built by Westinghouse, 35 by General Electric, 14 by Combustion Engineering,
and 7 by Babcock & Wilcox. The illustration above shows the breakdown of the plants, by vendor,
assigned to the four NRC Regions.

To operate properly, all steam plants, whether nuclear or fossil-fueled, need a circulating water
system to remove excess heat from the steam system in order to condense the steam, and transfer
that heat to the environment. The circulating water system pumps water from the environment

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(river, lake, ocean) through thousands of metal tubes in the plant’s condenser. Steam exiting the
plant’s turbine is very rapidly cooled and condensed into water when it comes in contact with the
much cooler tubes. Since the tubes provide a barrier between the steam and the environment, there
is no physical contact between the plant’s steam and the cooling water. Because a condenser
operates at a vacuum, any tube leakage in this system will produce an “inflow” of water into the
condenser rather than an “outflow” of water to the environment.

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Power plants located on the ocean (or other large bodies of water) will often discharge their
circulating water directly back to the ocean under strict environmental protection regulations.
Water is taken from the ocean, pumped through the thousands of small tubes in the condenser to
remove the excess heat, and is then discharged back into the ocean. The expected temperature
increase from circulating water inlet to outlet is about 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit.

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Most nuclear power plants not located on the ocean need cooling towers to remove the excess heat
from the circulating water system. One type of cooling tower is the forced draft cooling tower. The
circulating water is pumped into the tower, after passing through the condenser, and allowed to
splash downward through the tower, transferring some of its heat to the air. Several large electrical
fans, located at the top of the cooling tower, provide forced air circulation for more efficient
cooling.

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The taller hourglass shaped, natural convection cooling towers do not require fans to transfer the
excess heat from the circulating water system into the air. Rather, the natural tendency of hot air
to rise removes the excess heat as the circulating water splashes down inside the cooling tower.
These towers are typically several hundred feet tall.

The “steam” vented from the top of a cooling tower is really lukewarm water vapor. IT IS NOT
RADIOACTIVE. As the warm, wet air from inside the cooling tower contacts the cooler, dryer air
above the cooling tower, the water vapor which cannot be held by the cooler air forms a visible
cloud. This is because the colder the air is, the lower its ability to hold water. The released cloud
of vapor will only be visible until it is dispersed and absorbed by the air. The graph above shows
air’s ability to holdwater as air temperature increases.

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The major structures at a pressurized water reactor plant are:
• The containment building, which houses the reactor and its high pressure steam generating
equipment;
• The turbine building, which houses the steam turbines, condensers, and the electrical generator;
and
• The auxiliary building, which houses normal and emergency support systems (such as the
residual heat removal (RHR) system, fuel handling and storage

equipment, laboratories, maintenance areas, and the control room). Depending upon the plant
location and environmental regulations, there may or may not be a cooling tower to remove the
excess heat from the facility.
The major structures at a boiling water reactor plant are:

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• The primary containment, which includes the suppression chamber, and houses the reactor and
recirculation pumps;
• The reactor building (secondary containment), which surrounds the primary containment and
serves many of the same functions as a pressurized water reactor’s auxiliary building;and
• The turbine building. Depending upon the plant location, there may or may not be a cooling tower
to remove excess heat from
the facility.

ELECTRICAL GRID RELIABILITY AND INTERFACE WITH NUCLEAR POWER

PLANTS

BACKGROUND

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1.1. This Safety Guide is issued in support of the Specific Safety Requirements publication, IAEA
Safety Standards Series No. SSR-2/1 (Rev. 1), Safety of Nuclear Power Plants: Design , which
establishes design requirements for nuclear power plants.
1.2. This Safety Guide provides recommendations on the necessary characteristics of electrical
power systems for nuclear power plants and of the processes for developing these systems, in order
to meet the safety requirements of SSR-2/1 (Rev. 1). It reflects revisions that have been made to
SSR-2/11 and, in particular, to Requirement 68.
1.3. This publication is a revision of a Safety Guide issued in 2004 as IAEA Safety Standards
Series No. NS-G-1.8, Design of Emergency Power Systems for Nuclear Power Plants2 , and
supersedes it. This revision takes into account developments in the design of emergency power
systems for nuclear power plants and expands the scope to include all electrical power systems
that provide power to systems important to safety (see Figs 1 and 2).
1.4. The superseded NS-G-1.8 also included guidance on non-electrical power systems that
provided emergency power. Guidance for such systems will be provided in a new Safety Guide on
auxiliary systems and supporting systems for nuclear power plants, currently in preparation.
1.5. Electrical power systems that supply power to systems important to safety are essential to the
safety of nuclear power plants. These electrical power systems include both on-site and off-site
power systems. The on-site power systems and off-site power systems work together to provide
necessary power in all plant conditions so that the plant can be maintained in a safe state. Off-site
power systems are not plant equipment. They are, nevertheless, essential to the safety of a nuclear
power plant, and they are important in the defense in depth concept.

1. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Safety of Nuclear Power Plants:

Design, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-2/1, IAEA, Vienna (2012). 2.
2. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Design of Emergency Power
Systems for Nuclear Power Plants, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-1.8, IAEA,
Vienna (2004)

The preferred power supply identified in this Safety Guide is the power supply from the
transmission system, or from the main generator up to the safety classified electrical power

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system. This power supply is composed of the transmission system, the switchyard, the
main generator and the distribution system up to the safety classified electrical power
system. The parts of the preferred power supply that are part of the off-site power system
(e.g. the transmission system) are not plant equipment and are therefore not part of the
safety classification for the plant (see Fig. 2). The location of the boundary.

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 REACTOR FUEL ASSEMBLIES
Both boiling water reactor and pressurized water reactor fuel assemblies consist of the same
major components. These major components are the fuel rods, the spacer grids, and the upper and
lower end fittings. The fuel assembly drawing on page 1-11 shows these major components
(pressurized water reactor fuel assembly). The fuel rods contain the ceramic fuel pellets. The fuel
rods are approximately 12 feet long and contain a space at the top for the collection of any gases
that are produced by the fission process. These rods are arranged in a square matrix ranging from
17 x 17 for pressurized water reactors to 8 x 8 for boiling water reactors. The spacer grids separate
the individual rods with pieces of sprung metal. This provides the rigidity of the assemblies and
allows the coolant to flow freely up through the assemblies and around the fuel rods. Some spacer
grids may have flow mixing vanes that are used to promote mixing of the coolant as it flows around
and though the fuel assembly. The upper and lower end fittings serve as the upper and lower
structural elements of the assemblies. The lower fitting (or bottom nozzle) will direct the coolant
flow to the assembly through several small holes machined into the fitting. There are also holes
drilled in the upper fitting to allow the coolant flow to exit the fuel assembly. The upper end fitting
will also have a connecting point for the refueling equipment to attach for the moving of the fuel
with a crane. For pressurized water reactor fuel, there will also be guide tubes in which the control
rods travel. The guide tubes will be welded to the spacer grids and attached to the upper and lower
end fittings. The guide tubes provide a channel for the movement of the control rods and provide
for support of the rods. The upper end of the control rod will be attached to a drive shaft, which
will be used to position the rod
during operations.

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There are two basic types of reactor plants being used in the United States to produce electricity,
the boiling water reactor (BWR) and the pressurized water reactor (PWR). The boiling water
reactor operates in essentially the same way as a fossil-fueled generating plant. Inside the reactor
vessel, a steam/water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward
through the core absorbing heat. The major difference in the operation of a boiling water reactor
as compared to other nuclear systems is the steam void formation in the core. The steam/water
mixture leaves the top of the core and enters two stages of moisture separation, where water
droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line. The steam line, in turn,
directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine and the attached electrical
generator. The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser where it is condensed into water. The
resulting water (condensate) is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps and back to
the reactor vessel. The recirculation pumps and the jet pumps allow the operator to vary coolant
flow through the core and to change reactor power. Boiling water reactors are manufactured in the
United States by the General Electric Company, San Jose, California. Boiling water reactors
comprise about one-third of the power reactors in the United States.

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The pressurized water reactor (PWR) differs from the boiling water reactor in that steam is
produced in the steam generator rather than in the reactor vessel. The pressurizer keeps the water
that is flowing through the reactor vessel under very high pressure (more than 2,200 pounds per
square inch) to prevent it from boiling, even at operating temperatures of more than 600EF.
Pressurized water reactors make up about two-thirds of the power reactors in the United States.
Pressurized water reactors were manufactured in the United States by Westinghouse Electric
Corporation (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), Babcock and Wilcox Company (Lynchburg, Virginia),
and the Combustion Engineering Company (Windsor, Connecticut).

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High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR)

Another type of reactor uses helium gas instead of water as its media for removing heat from the
core. The only high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) in the United States was the Fort St.
Vrain plant in Colorado. The plant was manufactured by General Atomic Company of La Jolla,
California. High temperature gas-cooled reactors are widely used in other countries.

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28
 NUCLEAR POWER FOR ELECTRICAL GENERATION
The purpose of a nuclear power plant is not to produce or release “Nuclear Power.” The
purpose of a nuclear power plant is to produce electricity. It should not be surprising, then, that a
nuclear power plant has many similarities to other el upectrical generating facilities. It should also
be obvious that nuclear power plants have some significant differences from other plants.
Up
,

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Of the several known methods to produce electricity, by far the most practical for large scale
production and distribution involves the use of an “electrical generator.” In an electrical generator,
a magnet (rotor) revolves inside a coil of wire (stator), creating a flow of electrons inside the wire.
This flow of electrons is called electricity. Some mechanical device (wind turbine, water turbine,
steam turbine, diesel engine, etc.) must be available to provide the motive force for the rotor.

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When a turbine is attached to the electrical generator, the kinetic energy (i.e., motion) of the wind,
falling water, or steam pushes against the fan-type blades of the turbine, causing the turbine, and
therefore, the attached rotor of the electrical generator, to spin and produce electricity.

In a hydroelectric power plant, water, flowing from a higher level to a lower level, travels through
the metal blades of a water turbine, causing the rotor of the electrical generator to spin and produce
electricity.

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In a fossil-fueled power plant, heat, from the burning of coal, oil, or natural gas, converts (boils)
water into steam (A), which is piped to the turbine (B). In the turbine, the steam passes through
the blades, which spins the electrical generator (C), resulting in a flow of electricity. After leaving
the turbine, the steam is converted (condensed) back into water in the condenser (D). The water is
then pumped (E) back to the boiler (F) to be reheated and converted back into steam.

In a nuclear power plant, many of the components are similar to those in a fossil-fueled
plant, except that the steam boiler is replaced by a Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS). The

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NSSS consists of a nuclear reactor and all of the components necessary to produce high pressure
steam which will be used to turn the turbine for the electrical generator.

Like a fossil-fueled plant, a nuclear power plant boils water to produce electricity. Unlike a fossil-
fueled plant, the nuclear plant’s energy does not come from the combustion of fuel, but from the
fissioning(splitting) of fuel atoms.

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The most common fuel for the electrical producing reactor plants in the United States is uranium.
The uranium starts out as ore, and contains a very low percentage (or low enrichment) of the
desired atoms(U-235). The U-235 is a more desirable atom for fuel, because it is easier to cause
the U-235 atoms to fission (split) than the much more abundant U-238 atoms. Therefore, the fuel
fabrication process includes steps to increase the number of U-235 atoms in relation to the number
of U-238 atom(enrichment process).

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Once the fuel has been enriched, it is fabricated into ceramic pellets. The pellets are stacked into
12-foot long, slender metal tubes, generally made of a zirconium alloy. The tube is called the “fuel
cladding.” When a tube is filled with the uranium pellets, it is pressurized with helium gas, and
plugs are installed and welded to seal the tube. The filled rod is called a “fuel rod.” The fuel rods
are bundled together into “fuel assemblies” or “fuel elements.” The completed assemblies are now
ready to be shipped to the plant for installation into the reactor vessel.

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