Elective Math

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ELECTIVE MATHEMATICS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
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AKRONG SERIES
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CHAPTER ONE
Sets
1.1 Introduction
If you want to prepare a cake, you need flour, eggs, margarine, baking powder and sugar.
When you buy these ingredients in a shop, you probably do not buy them one at a time. It
is easier and cheaper to buy them in a set. We often use the word ‘set’ to describe a
collection of objects, quantities or numbers. We have a set of living room furniture: what
does it contain? We speak of cutlery set, a math set, the set of students under 14 in your
class and so on. Can you think of anymore?
A set is a collection or list of objects, quantities or
numbers with specified properties.
A set is usually denoted by capital letters such as A, B, P, Q, X and Y. The objects that
make up a set are called members or elements of the set. The elements of a set may be
named in a list or may be given by a description enclosed in braces { }. For instance, the
set of numbers between 1 and 6 may be given as {2,3, 4,5} or as {the numbers between 1
and 6}.
For example, in the set Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, 4 is a member or element of the set Q. In
set operations, the symbol  is used to denote the phrase ‘is a member of’ or ‘is an
element of’ or ‘belongs to’. So the statement ‘4 is a member of Q’ can be written as 4 
Q. Can you name the other elements of the set Q? Similarly the statement ‘5 is not a
member of Q’ may be abbreviated to 5  Q ,  standing for ‘is not an element of’ or
‘does not belong to.’
Example 1.1
If P = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and Q = {3, 5, 7, 9}, complete the following statements by inserting
, , P, Q or elements of the sets P and Q
(a) 4 … P (b) 6  … (c) 2  … (d) 8 … Q (e) …  P
(f) 10 … Q (g) 5  … (h) 7  … (i) 7 … P (j) …  Q.
The following are some few definitions that will enable us to define the elements of sets
in problems.
1. An odd number is a number which when divided by two (2) leaves a remainder of
one (1).
Example: … –5, –3, –1, 1, 3, 5 …
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2. An even number is a number which leaves no remainder when it is divided by two

(2). Example: … –6, –4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6 …
3. An integer x is said to be a factor of another integer y if x can divide y without
leaving any remainder. Example: The set factors of 48 = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48}
4. A prime number is any positive number that is exactly divisible only by itself
and one. Example: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, etc.
5. The prime factors of a number n refer to the factors of n that are prime numbers.
Example: The set of prime factors of 36 = {2, 3}
6. Multiple of a number x refers to any number formed when x is multiplied by any
integer. Example: Multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, etc.
1.1.1 Set-builder notation

We can describe a set by using some of the above definitions or properties. For example
the set P of even numbers between 1 and 20 can be written in the following two ways
(1) P = {even numbers between 1 and 20}
(2) P = {2, 4, 6, …, 18}
The set P can also be described using a notation or symbol such as ‘x’ to represent any
member of the set of even numbers between 1 and 20. Thus we can write P as follows:
P = {x: x is an even number, and 1 < x < 20}
In the above expression for P, the colon ‘:’ means ‘such that’, and is followed by the
property that x is an even number between 1 and 20. The set Q of integers greater than
100 can be written as
Q = {x : x is an integer, and x > 100}
The set R of regions in Ghana can also be written as
R = {x : x is a region in Ghana}
Other letters such as y and z can also be used as notations for representing sets.
Example 1.2
Use set builder notation to describe the following:
(a) The set of odd numbers greater than 30,
(b) The set of prime numbers greater than 2 but less than 24,
(c) The set of triangles,
(d) The set of positive integers less than 100,
(e) The set of rivers in Ghana.
Solution
(a) {x : x is an odd number, and x > 30} (b) {x : x is a prime number, and 2 < x < 24}
(c) {x : x is a triangle} (d) {x : x is a positive integer, x < 100}
(e) {x : x is a river in Ghana}
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Example 1.3
List the elements of the following sets
(a) A = {x: x is a factor of 12}, (b) B = {x: x is a multiple of 4 less than 20}
Solution
(a) A = {x: x is a factor of 12} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
(b) B = {x: x is a multiple of 4 less than 20} = {4, 8, 12, 16}
Example 1.4
P = {x: 2(x – 1)  8} and Q = {x: 2x – 2  3x + 6} are subsets of U = {integers}. List the
elements of P and Q.
Solution
2(x – 1)  8  2x – 2  8  2x  10  x  5
P = {x: 2(x – 1)  8} = {x: x  5} = {…1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2x – 2  3x + 6  2x – 3x  6 + 2  –x  8  x  –8.
Q = {x: 2x – 2  3x + 6} = {x: x  –8} = {–8, –7, –6, –5…}
1.1.2 Subsets
Consider the following example.
Example 1.5
(a) If all Ghanaians are Africans, then {Ghanaians} is a subset of {Africans}.
(b) All prime numbers are whole numbers; therefore {prime numbers} is a subset of
{whole numbers}.
A set P is said to be the subset of the set Q if
all the elements of P belong to the set Q.
The symbol  is used to denote the phrase ‘subset of’. P is a subset of Q is therefore
written as P  Q. For example, If P = {2, 5, 8} and Q = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8}, then P  Q. If
the set A is not a subset of the set B, we write A  B.
It is important not to confuse the symbols  and . The symbol  connects two sets
while  connects a member and its set.
The set of all objects under discussion is called the universe or universal set. We use
the letter u or the symbol  to denote the universal set. In Example 1.5 (a)
u = {Africans}.
A set, which contains no elements, is called an empty (or null) set. It is usually
denoted by { } or .
The complement of a set A is defined as the set of all elements of the universal set u,
which are not elements of A. The complement of A is written as A. For example, if
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 5} are subsets of the universal set u = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} then
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the complements of A and B are A = {2, 4, 7} and B  = {1, 3, 7} respectively. The

complement of the universal set is the empty set.
Example 1.6
Suggest a universal set for each of the following subsets.
(a) {Francophone countries in Africa}, (b) {isosceles triangles},
(c) {students in your class}, (d) {horses}.
1.1.3 Venn diagrams

So far, we have discovered that a set can be described by using words/set builder notation
or listing the members of the set. We also discussed the connection between two sets.
The ideas that we have met so far can be represented very simply by means of a diagram.
Consider: u = {all men}, Q = {people who wear uniform}, P = {policemen}.
If all policemen wear uniform, then {policemen}  {people who wear uniform} or we
write P  Q. We know that P and Q are both subsets of u, that is P, Q  u. This
information can be represented diagrammatically.
Fig. 1.1 shows the relationship between the sets P, Q u
and u. Since Q  u, the circle representing Q is drawn Q
inside the rectangle which represents u. Furthermore,

since P  Q, the circle representing P is inside that of P
Q. A diagram like this is called a Venn diagram, after the
English mathematician John Venn (1834 – 1923). Fig. 1.1
Example 1.7
Draw a Venn diagram of u = {plane geometrical figures}, P = {polygons}, T =
{triangles}.
Solution u
We know that T  P  U. Therefore Fig. 1.2 P
shows the required Venn diagram. Notice that
since T  P, the circle representing T lies entirely T
inside that of P.
Fig. 1.2
1.1.4 Power set

Given a set S, the power set of S is the set that contains all subsets of S. The power set of
S is usually denoted 2S or P(S). If S is a finite set with n(S) = k elements, then the power
set of S contains P( S )  2k elements. Power sets are larger than the sets associated with
them.
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Example 1.8
If S is the set {x, y, z}, then the complete list of subsets of S is as follows:
(i) { } (also denoted , the empty set), (ii) {x}, (iii) {y}, (iv) {z}, (v) {x, y},
(vi) {x, z}, (vii) {y, z}, (viii) {x, y, z}.
Hence the power set of S is P(S) = {{ }, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}}.
The number of elements in P(S), n(P(S)), is 23 = 8.
Definitions
1. When the elements of a set are arranged in increasing order of magnitude, the first
element (the least member) is called the lower limit whilst the last element (the
greatest member) is the upper limit.
Example: If A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then the Lower Limit = 2 and the Upper Limit = 8
2. A set is said to be finite if it has both lower and upper limits. In other words, a set is
finite if the first and the last members can be found. A finite set is also called a
bounded set. For example, the set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} is a finite set.
3. A set without a lower or upper limit or both is called an infinite set. An infinite set is
also called an unbounded set.
For example, the sets N = {1, 2, 3, 4,…}, Z = {…,–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} and
P = {…,7, 9, 13, 15} are infinite sets.
Exercise 1(a)
1. List the elements of the following sets
(i) A = {x: x is a factor of 44} (ii) B = {x: x is a multiple of 3 less than 20}
2. P = {x: 2x + 3  13} and Q = {x: 5x + 4  18 – 2x} are subsets of U = {integers}. List
the elements of P and Q.
3. Write out the following statements in full.
(a) 36  {multiple of 4}, (b) Togo  {state where English is the official language},
(c) A snake  {bird}, (d) Canada  {African countries},
(e) 6  {factor of 48}, (f) A quadrilateral  {polygons},
(g) Lizard  {reptiles}, (h) 7  {prime numbers}.
4. Rewrite the following using set notation.
(a) My cat is not a bird, (b) Ghana is a country in West Africa,
(c) 4 is an even number, (d) Mensah is a student at Methodist High School,
(e) My dog is an animal, (f) June is a month in the year.
5. Rewrite the following in ‘set language’
(a) All Akans are Ghanaians, (b) All rectangles are parallelograms,
(c) All goats eat grass, (d) All students are hardworking,
(e) All my friends are intelligent, (f) Not all prefects play football,
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(g) Not all prime numbers are odd,

(h) Not all Senior High School pupils are well-behaved,
(i) All Senior High School pupils wear uniform,
(j) Not all bullies are strong people.
6. Suggest a universal set for each of the following subsets
(a) {squares}, (b) {the football team of your school},
(c) {three sided figures}, (d) {eagles},
(e) {odd numbers}, (f) {equilateral triangle}.
7. Let u = {1, 2, 3, …, 50}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}, B = {factors of 12}, C =
{factors of 24}, D = {factors of 72}. Rewrite the following in symbols.
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all factors of 72,
(b) All factors of 24 are also factors of 72,
(c) Some factors of the factors of 72 are {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24},
(d) All factors of 12 are included in the list 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24.
8. Use a Venn diagram to illustrate the following statements:
(a) All good Mathematics students are in the science class,
(b) All bullies are strong people,
(c) All university graduates are wise,
(d) All pastors are compassionate, (e) All men use guns,
(f) All students suffering from malaria go to the clinic,
(g) All the good students of Mathematics are in the football team,
(h) All students are hardworking.
9. Consider the following statements
p: All scientists are introverts, q: All introverts are anti-social.
Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the above statements.
10. Look at these statements:
s: All final year students are in the SRC, t: All SRC students are good students
Represent the statements on a Venn diagram.
11. Consider the following statements:
a: All my friends like Coca-cola, b: All who like Coca-cola are very studious.
Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the above statements.
1.2 Operations on sets

1.2.1 Intersection of Sets
The senior housemaster of Pentecost High School invited the school athletic team for a
dinner at his residence. The team is made up of 8 sprinters and 5 hurdlers. He realised
that there were 10 athletes in his residence. He checked and found that all the athletes
were present. But 8 + 5 > 10. Can you explain it? The solution is much easier using a
Venn diagram. We shall use S and H to denote the sets of students who are sprinters
and hurdler respectively.
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The information is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. If u(10)

every member of the athletic team were present at S (8)  N (5)
the dinner, then it follows that 3 members of the   
team who are sprinters must also be hurdlers. The  
 
set of elements which are common to both S and N
 
is called the intersection of S and N.
Fig. 1.3
The intersection of two sets A and B is defined as the
set of all elements that belong to both A and B.
The operation  is used to define the intersection between two sets. Intersection of A
and B is written as A  B. For example, if A ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10},
then A  B = {2, 4, 8}. The shaded regions Fig. 1.4, show the intersection between the
sets A and B.
u A
u
A B B
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4: A  B is shaded vertically
As illustrated in Fig. 1.4(b), if B  A, then A  B = B.
Example 1.9
Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {b, c, f, g}
(a) Draw a Venn diagram of the two sets A and B. Show all the members of each set.
(b) Using this diagram, find the intersection of A and B.
Solution u
A a B
(a) Fig. 1.5 shows the required Venn diagram. b f
(b) From the diagram A  B = {b, c} d c g
Can you see another way of finding this e
intersection, without drawing the diagram?
Fig. 1.5
1.2.2 Union of sets
The union of two sets A and B is defined as the set of all elements that belong to either A
or B or both. The operation  is used to define the union between two sets. The union of
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A and B is written as A  B. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then

A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8}
The union of A and B is shaded in Fig. 1.6.
A B A B A
B
(a) (b) (c )
Fig. 1.6: A  B is shaded
It can be seen from Fig. 1.6(c) that if B  A, then A  B = A. A
The Complement A union of A shaded in Fig. 1.7.
A
Example 1.10 Fig. 1.7

If P and Q are the subsets of a universal set u, shade the sets:
(a) P  (P  Q), (b) P  Q, (c) P   Q, (d) ( P  Q), (e) P   (P  Q).
Solution
(a) P  (P  Q) is shaded (b) P  Q  is shaded (c) P   Q is shaded
P Q P Q P Q
Q
(d) ( P  Q) is shaded (e) P   (P  Q) is shaded

P Q P Q
Fig. 1.8
Example 1.11
Fig. 1.9 shows the results of an interview of Methodist High School C = {students who
like Chemistry} and P = {Students who like Physics}.
(a) How many students were interviewed?
(b) How many students like Chemistry?
(c) How many students like only one subject?
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(d) How many students like Physics only? u

(e) How many students like Physics and Chemistry? C P
(f) How many students like Physics or Chemistry?
(g) How many students like none of the two subjects? 10 15 11
4
Solution
(a) The number of students interviewed = 10 + 15 + 11 + 4 = 40
Fig. 1.9
(b) The number of students who like Chemistry = 10 + 15 = 25
(c) The number of students who like only one subject = 10 + 11 = 21
(d) The number of students who like Physics only = 11
(e) In set operations the word ‘and’ implies intersection ()
 The number of students who like Physics and Chemistry = n(P  C) = 15
(f) In set operations the word ‘or’ implies union ()
 The number of students who like Physics or Chemistry = n(P  C)
= 10 + 15 + 11 = 36
(g) The number of students who like none of the two subjects = 4.
Example 1.12
A survey of the reading habits of 130 students showed that 30 read both Comics and
Novels, 10 read neither Comics nor Novels and twice as many students read Comics as
read Novels.
(a) How many students read Novels? (b) How many read Comics?
(c) How many read only Comics?
Solution C N u (130)
u = {students}, n(u) = 130 x 30 y
C = {those who like Comics} , n(C) = ?
N = {those who like Novels} , n(N) = ? 10
n(C  N )  10
Fig. 1.10
Let x = the number of students who read Comics only
y = the number of students who read Novels only
n(C) = 30 + x and n(N) = 30 + y
Twice as many students read Comics as read Novels  n(C) = 2n(N)
30 + x = 2(30 + y)  30 + x = 60 + 2y
x – 2y = 30 …………………………………………………………………………(1)
Total number of students n(u) = 130. Thus,
30 + 10 + x + y = 130  x + y = 130 – 40
x + y = 90 …….........................................................................................................(2)
(2) – (1)  3y = 60  y = 20
From (2) x + 20 = 90  x = 70
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(a) The number of students who read Novels = y + 30 = 20 + 30 = 50

(b) The number of students who read Comics = x + 30 = 70 + 30 = 100
(c) The number of students who read Comics only = x = 70
1.2.3 Set identities

1. Commutative properties
The union () and the intersection () are both commutative. It follows that, for any
two sets A and B,
(a) A  B = B  A (b) A  B = B  A.
2. Associative properties
The union () and the intersection () are also associative. For any three sets A, B
and C,
(a) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C) (b) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C).
3. Distributive Properties
The intersection () is distributive over the union (). For three sets A, B and C
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
Also the union () is distributive over the intersection (). That is
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
4. If  is an empty set then for every set P  u, then
(i) P  P = P, (ii) P  P = P, (iii) P   = P,
(iv) P  u = P, (v) P  u = u, (vi) P   = ,
(vii) P  P  = u, (viii) P  P  = , (ix) ( A) = A.
(x) U  =  and   = u.
5. Since P  Q  P and P  P  Q, it follows that
(i) P  (P  Q) = P (ii) P  (P  Q) = P
6. De Morgan’s Law
(i) ( P  Q)  P  Q (ii) ( P  Q)  P  Q
Exercise 1(b)
1. P = {multiples of 3} and Q = {factors of 12} are subsets of the universal set
U = {x: 1  x  12}.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the above information.
(b) List the elements of (i) P  Q (ii) P  Q (iii) P  Q
(iv) P  Q (v) ( P  Q) (vi) ( P  Q)
2. In a group of 50 traders, 30 sell gari, and 40 sell rice. Each trader sells at least one of
the two items. How many traders sell both gari and rice?
3. The sets P = {x: x is a prime factor of 42} and Q = {x: x is a factor of 24} are subsets
of the U = {x: x is an integer}. List the elements of (a) P  Q, (b) P  Q.
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4. The sets A = {x: x is an odd number}, B = {x: x is a factor of 60} and C = {x: x is a
prime number} are the subsets of u = {x: x is a natural number and x < 9}. Find
(a) A  B, (b) B   C, (c) A  B  C, (d) B  C.
5. A = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14} and B = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18} are subsets of the universal set
u = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
List the elements of: (a) A  B, (b) ( A  B).
6. P, Q, and R are subsets of the universal set u = {1  x  12: x is an integer} and

P = {x: x is a factor of 12}, Q = {x: x is a multiple of 3} and R = {x: x  4}. Find:
(a) P  Q (b) P  R (c) Q  R (d) ( P  Q) (e) P   Q
7. Given that the universal set u = {x: 5x – 3  47, where x is a natural number} and the
subsets A, B, and C are defined as A = {prime numbers less than 10}, B = {odd
numbers less than 10} and C = {x: 5 < x < 10}, find
(a) A  B, (b) A  C, (c) A  B, (d) ( A  B).
8. P, Q, and R are subsets of u, where u = {x: 4x – 42  58 – 6x, x is a natural

number}, P = {prime factors of 36}, Q = {x: x is a factor of 15} and R = {multiple of
3 }.
(a) find: (i) Q  R, (ii) P  Q, (iii) P  R,
(iv) Q  R, (v) P  Q, (vi) P  R.
(b) Show that (i) P  (Q  R) = (P  Q)  (P  R),
(ii) P  (Q  R) = (P  Q)  (P  R).
9. The universal set u = {x: x is an integer and 0 < x  20} and P, Q and R are subsets of
u such that P = {factors of 48} , Q = {multiples of 3} and R = {x: x is divisible by 4}.
Find: (a) (i) Q  R, (ii) Q  P, (iii) R  P, (iv) (Q  P).
(b) Show that (i) (Q  R)  P = (Q  P)  (R  P),
(ii) (Q  P) = Q  P.
10. The universal set u = {x: x is a non-negative integer and (7x – 5  15 + 5x} and P, Q
and R are subsets of u such that P = {x: x is prime}, Q = {x: x is odd} and R = {x: x
is a factor of 42}. Find: (a) Q  R, (b) Q  P, (c) R  P, (d) Q   P.
11. In a class of 42 students, 26 offer Mathematics and 28 offer Chemistry. If each
student offers at least one of the two subjects, find the number of students who offer
both subjects.
12. In a class of 42 students each student studies either Economics or Accounting or
both. If 12 students study both subjects and the number of students who study
Accounting only is twice that of those who study Economics only, find how many
students study (i) Economics, (ii) Accounting.
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1.3 Three set problems

Fig. 1.11 shows Venn diagrams of three intersecting sets A, B and C.
A B A B A B
C C C
(a) A  C is shaded (b) B  C is shaded (c) A  B  C is shaded
Fig. 1.11
Example 1.13
If A, B and C are subsets of the universal set u, shade the sets:
(a) (A  B)  C, (b) (A  C)  (B  C), (c) ( A  B)  C, (d) A  ( B  C ).
Solution
(a) u u
A B A B
C C
A  B is shaded horizontally (A  B)  C is shaded vertically

C is shaded vertically.
u u
(b) A A
B B
C C
A  C is shaded vertically (A  C)  (B  C) is shaded vertically
B  C is shaded horizontally
(c) u u
A B A B
C C
A  B is shaded horizontally ( A  B)  C  is shaded vertically

C  is shaded vertically
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(d) u u
A B A B
C C
A is shaded horizontally A  (B  C) is shaded horizontally

B  C is shaded vertically
Example 1.14
Describe the shaded regions in the Venn diagrams below using P, Q and R.
(a) P Q (b) P Q (c) P Q
R R R
(d) P Q (e) P Q (f) P Q
R R R
Solution
(a) P  Q (b) (P  Q)  (R  Q) or Q  (P  R)
(c) R  (P  Q) or (R  P )  (R  Q) (d) P  Q   R  or P  (Q  R)
(e) (R  Q)  P  (f) R  Q   P  or R  (Q  P).
Example 1.15
In a certain class, each student offers at least one of the following subjects: Accounting,
Business management (BM) and Commerce. Represent by shading, on a Venn diagram,
the region that represent the number of students who offer the following:
(1) All three subject, (2) Accounting and BM only,
(3) Accounting and BM, (4) Commerce only,
(5) Accounting or BM only, (6) Accounting or BM.
Solution
Let A, B and C denote Accounting, Business management (BM) and Commerce
respectively. The required shaded regions are as shown in the Venn diagrams below.
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(1) A B U (2) A B U (3) A B U
C C C
All three subjects Accounting and BM only Accounting and BM
ABC A  B  C AB
(4) A (5) A (6)
B U B U A B U
C C C
Commerce only Accounting or BM only Accounting or BM
C  A  B or A  B  C AB
C  ( A  B)
Example 1.16
Fig. 1.12, on the next page, shows the result of interviewing some students in a certain
school to ask which channels they watch on television. G = {students who watch GTV),
T = {students who watch TV3} and M = {students who watch Metro TV}
(a) How many students were interviewed? u
(b) How many students watch TV3? G T
(c) How many students watch Metro TV only? 5 6
(d) How many students watch Metro TV and 4
GTV? 10
(e) How many students watch Metro TV and GTV 9 8
only?
(f) How many students watch only one channel? 3
M
(g) How many students watch only two channels?
(h) How many students watch all three channels? Fig. 1.12
(i) How many students watch at least two channels?
(j) How many students watch Metro TV or GTV but not TV3?
(k) How many students watch Metro TV or GTV?
Solution
(a) The number of students interviewed = 5 + 4 + 3 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 45
(b) The number of students who watch TV3 = 6 + 10 + 8 + 4 = 28
(c) The number of students who watch Metro TV only = 3
(d) The number of students who watch Metro TV and GTV = 9 + 10 = 19
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(e) The number of students who watch Metro TV and GTV only = 9
(f) The number of students who watch only one channel = 5 + 4 + 3 = 12
(g) The number of students who watch only two channels = 6 + 8 + 9 = 23
(h) The number of students who watch all three channels = 10
(i) The number of students who watch at least two channels = 6 + 9 + 8 + 10 = 33
(j) The number of students who watch Metro TV or GTV but not TV.3 = 3 + 9 + 5
= 17
(k) The number of students who watch Metro TV or GTV = 5 + 6 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 3
= 41
Example 1.17
There are 40 pupils in a class. 30 of them study Biology, 22 study Physics and 21 study
Chemistry. 15 study Physics and Biology, 10 study Physics and Chemistry, and 13 study
Biology and Chemistry. Each student in the class studies at least one of the three subjects.
(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram.
(b) How many pupils study all three subjects?
(c) If a pupil is selected at random, what is the probability that he studies either Physics
or Chemistry?
Solution U (40)
(a) U = {students in the class}, P(22) C (21)
P = {those who study Physics} 10  x
B = {those who study Biology}, x3
x2
C = {those who study Chemistry}
x
The information is summarised using
set symbols as follows: 15  x 13  x
n(U) = 40, n(B) = 30, n(P) = 22
n(C) = 21, n(P  B) = 15,
x2 B(30)
n(P  C) = 10, n(B  C) = 13.
Number of students who study physics only = 22 – (10 – x + x + 15 – x) = x – 3.
Number of students who study chemistry only = 21 – (10 – x + x + 13 – x) = x – 2.
Number of students who study Biology only = 30 – (15 – x + x + 13 – x) = x + 2.
n(U) = 40
(x – 3) + (x – 2) + (x + 2) + (10 – x) + (13 – x) + (15 – x) + x = 40
x + 35 = 40  x = 40 – 35 = 5.
(b) The number of pupils who study all three subjects = x = 5
(c) The number of students who study either Physics or Chemistry
(10 – x) + (x – 2) + (13 – x) + (x – 3) + (15 – x) + x = 5 + 3 + 8 + 2 + 10 + 5
= 33
Hence the probability that a pupil selected at random studies either Physics or
Chemistry = 3340
.
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Example 1.18
In a class of 60 students, some study at least one of the following subjects: Mathematics,
Economics and Accounting. Eight (8) students study none of them. The following table
gives further details of the subjects studied.
Mathematics only 6, All three subjects 7,
Economics only 1, Mathematics & Accounting 18,
Accounting only 5, Economics & Accounting 17.
(a) Illustrate the above data on a Venn diagram.
(b) Find the number of students who study:
(i) Mathematics or Accounting or both but not Economics, (ii) Economics.
Solution
u = {students in the class}  n(u) = 60 (60)
M E
M = {students who study Mathematics}
E = {students who study Economics} a
6 1
A = {students who study Accounts}
n(A) = 7 + 10 + 5 +11 = 33 7
n(u)= n(A) + 6 + 1 + 8 + a 11 10
60 = 33 + 15 + a
a = 60 – 48 = 12 8 5
A
(b) (i) The number of students who study
Mathematics or Accounting or both
but not Economics = 6 + 11 + 5 = 22
(ii) The number of students who study Economics = 10 + 7 + 1 + a = 18 + 12 = 30.
Example 1.19
In a class of 47 students, 31 offer Geography, 26 offer Literature and 16 offer French. 3
offer all three subjects, 2 offer Literature and French only and 6 offer French only. Each
student offers at least one of the three subjects. Illustrate the information on a Venn
diagram. Find the number of students who offer:
(a) Literature only, (b) only one subject, (c) only two subjects.
Solution
G(31) L(26) u (47)
u = {students in the class}  n(u) = 47
x
G = {those who offer Geography}  n(G) = 31 23  x 21  x
L = {those who offer Literature}  n(L) = 26 3
F = {those who offer French}  n(F) = 16 5 2
Number of students who offer Geography
and French only = 16 – (6 + 2 + 3) = 5 6
Let those who study Geography and Literature F (16)
only = x
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The number of students who offer Geography only = 31 – (5 + 3 + x) = 23 – x

The number of students who offer Literature only = 26 – (3 + 2 + x) = 21 – x
Note: n(F) = 6 + 2 + 3 + 5 = 16
The number of students in the class n(u) = 47
n(F) + (23 – x) + (21 – x) + x = 47
16 + (23 – x) + (21 – x) + x = 47
60 – x = 47  x = 60 – 47 = 13
(i) The number of students who offer Literature only = 21 – x = 21 – 13 = 8
(ii) The number of students who offer only one subject = (23 – x) +(21 – x) + 6
= 10 + 8 + 6 = 24
(iii) The number of students who offer only two subjects = x + 2 + 5 = 13 + 2 + 5 = 20
Example 1.20
In a class of 60 students, 47 study Mathematics, 33 study Mathematics and Physics, 31
study Mathematics and Chemistry, 29 study Physics and Chemistry and 20 study all the
three subjects. If the number of students who study only Physics is equal to that of those
who study only Chemistry, Illustrate the given information on a Venn diagram and find
the number of students who study
(i) Only Physics, (ii) Chemistry, (iii) Only one subject.
Solution
u = {students in the class}  n(u) = 60 M (47)
u (60)
P
M = {those who study Mathematics}  n(M) = 47 13
P = {those who study Physics} 3 x
C = {those who study Chemistry} 20
Let the number of students who study 11 9
Physics only = x
x
 the number of students who study C
Chemistry only = x
Number of students who study Mathematics only = 47 – (13 + 20 + 11) = 3.
Note: n(M) = 13 + 20 + 11 + 3 = 47.
Total number of students in the class n(u) = 60.
n(M) + 9 + x + x = 60
 47 + 9 + 2x = 60
2x = 60 – 56  2x = 4  x = 2.
(a) The number of students who study only Physics = x = 2.
(b) The number of students who study Chemistry = 11 + 20 + 9 + x = 42.
(c) The number of students who study only one subject = 3 + x + x = 7
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Exercise 1(c)
1. In a class of 80 students, 40 study Physics, 48 study Mathematics and 44 study
Chemistry. 20 study Physics and Mathematics, 24 study Physics and Chemistry and
32 study only two of the three subjects. If every student studies at least one of the
three subjects,
find: (a) the number of students who study all the three subjects,
(b) the number of students who study only Mathematics and Chemistry.
2. 56 Teachers in Methodist High School were asked their preference for three FM
stations in Accra; Joy, Peace and Unique. 20 liked Unique, 8 liked Joy and Unique,
and 2 liked Peace and Unique only. 6 liked Peace only, 24 liked Joy only and each
teacher liked at least one of the three stations. If the number of teachers who liked
Unique only was double that of those who preferred all the three stations, illustrate
this information on a Venn diagram. Find the number of teachers who liked:
(a) Joy, (b) Joy and Peace.
3. In a class of 70 students, 45 offer Mathematics, 37 offer Chemistry and 43 offer
Physics. 5 offer all the three subjects, 20 Physics and Chemistry only, 3 offer Physics
only. Each student offers at least one of the three subjects. Illustrate the information
in a Venn diagram. Find the number of students who offer:
(i) Chemistry only, (ii) only one subject, (iii) only two subjects.
4. There are 65 pupils in a class. 29 of them do Arts, 37 do Business and 38 do Science.
All the students do at least one of the three programs. Ten (10) do all the three
programs while 18 do Arts and Business. Seven (7) do Business and Science but not
Arts and 14 do Arts and Science. Represent this information on a Venn diagram
(i) How many pupils do only two subjects
(ii) If a pupil is selected at random, what is the probability that he studies either Arts
or Science?
5. There are 40 players in Presec football team. (22) play defence, five (5) play midfield
and defence, eight(8) play defence and attack, five (5) play midfield and attack and 3
play all the three positions. If the number of students who play only midfield is equal
to that of those who play only attack, represent this information on a Venn diagram.
How many play: (a) only midfield, (b) attack, (c) only one position.
Physics. Four (4) offer all the three subjects, five (5) Physics and Chemistry only, 15
offer Physics only. Each student offers at least one of the three subjects. Illustrate the
information on a Venn diagram. Find the number of students who offer:
7. In an athletic team, there are 16 sprinters, 16 hurdlers and 15 pole-vaulters. Six (6)
are sprinters only, four(4) are hurdlers only, one (1) is a pole-vaulter only and five (5)
are sprinters and pole-vaulters only. Each athlete does at least one of the three. Find:
(a) the number of athletes in the team, (b) the probability of selecting from the team
an athlete who does only one event.
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8. A class of 49 boys were each required to have certain textbooks in English, French
and Mathematics. 28 boys had the English book, 24 had the French book and 26 the
Mathematics book. Ten (10) boys had both English and French books, 11 had French
and Mathematics books 14 had the Mathematics and English books. Illustrate the
information in a Venn diagram.
How many boys in the class possessed:
(i) all the three books, (ii) one book only, (iii) English and French only.
9. In a class of 36 students, 25 study Chemistry, 22 study Mathematics and 25 study
Physics. 17 study Physics and Mathematics, 18 study Physics and Chemistry and 15
study only one of the three subjects. If every student studies at least one of the three
subjects, find:
(a) the number of students who study all the three subjects,
(b) the number of students who study only Mathematics and Chemistry,
(c) the probability that a student selected at random studies only two of the three
subjects.
Physics. Five (5) offer all the three subjects, 15 Physics and Chemistry only, two (2)
information on a Venn diagram. Find the number of students who offer:
11. There are 22 players in a football team. Nine (9) play defence, 10 play midfield and
11 play attack. Five (5) play defence only, four (4) play midfield only and six (6) play
attack only.
(i) Represent this information on a Venn diagram
(ii) How many play all the three positions?
12. In an athletic team, there are 20 sprinters, 12 hurdlers and 10 pole-vaulters. 12 are
sprinters only, four (4) are hurdlers only, five (5) are pole-vaulters only and two (2)
are sprinters and pole-vaulters only. Each athlete does at least one of the three. Find
the number of athletes in the team.
Revision Exercises 1
1. The sets A = {x: x is an odd number}, B = {x: x is a factor of 60} and C = {x: x is a
prime number} are the subsets of U = {x: x is a natural number and x < 9}.
Find (a) A  B, (b) B  C, (c) A  B  C, (d) B  C.
2. A = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14} and B = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18} are subsets of the universal set 
= {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
List the elements of: (a) A  B , (b) ( A  B).
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Physics. Five (5) offer all the three subjects, 20 Physics and Chemistry only, three (3)
information in a Venn diagram. Find the number of students who offer:
(a) Chemistry only, (b) only one subject, (c) only two subjects.
4. There are 65 pupils in a class. 29 of them do Arts, 37 do Business and 38 do Science.
All the students do at least one of the three programs. 10 do all the three programs
while 18 do Arts and Business. Seven (7) do Business and Science but not Arts and
14 do Arts and Science. Represent this information on a Venn diagram
(i) How many pupils do only two subjects
(ii) If a pupil is selected at random, what is the probability that he studies either Arts
or Science?
5. There are 40 players in a football team. 22 play defence, five (5) play midfield and
defence, eight (8) play defence and attack, five (5) play midfield and attack and three
(3) play all the three positions. If the number of students who play only midfield is
equal to that of those who play only attack, represent this information on a Venn
diagram. How many play:
(a) only midfield, (b) attack, (c) only one position.
6. In an athletic team, there are 16 sprinters, 16 hurdlers and 15 pole-vaulters. Six (6) are
sprinters only, four (4) are hurdlers only, one (1) is pole-vaulters only and five (5) are
sprinters and pole-vaulters only. Each athlete does at least one of the three. Find:
(a) the number of athletes in the team,
(b) the probability of selecting from the team an athlete who does only one event.
7. A class of 49 boys were each required to have certain textbooks in English, French
and Mathematics. 28 boys had the English book, 24 had French book and 26 the
Mathematics book. 10 boys had both English and French books, 11 had French and
Mathematics books 14 had the Mathematics and English books. Illustrate the
information in a Venn diagram. How many boys in the class possessed:
(a) all the three books, (b) one book only, (c) English and French only.
8. In a class of 36 students, 25 study Chemistry, 22 study Mathematics and 25 study
Physics. 17 study Physics and Mathematics, 18 study Physics and Chemistry and 15
study only one of the three subjects. If every student study at least one of the three
subjects, find:
(a) the number of students who study all the three subjects,
(b) the number of students who study only Mathematics and Chemistry.
(c) the probability that a student selected at random studies only two of the three
subjects.
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9. In a class, 39 study Physics, 35 study Chemistry and 33 study Biology. 13

study Chemistry and Biology, 12 study Chemistry only, nine (9) study Biology only
and 34 study only one of the three subjects. If 12 students study none of the three
subjects, find:
(a) (i) total number of students in the class
(ii) the number of students who study all the three subjects,
(b) If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that he studies neither all
the three subjects nor none of the three?
10. The universal set U = {x: x is an integer and 0 < x  20} and P, Q and R are subsets
of U such that P = {factors of 48}, Q = {multiples of 3} and R = {x: x is divisible by
4}. Find:
(a) (i) Q  R, (ii) Q  P, (iii) R  P, (iv) (Q  P).
(b) Show that (i) (Q  R)  P = (Q  P)  (R  P), (ii) (Q  P) = Q  P.
11. In a school, 27 students were asked their preference for three brands of soft drinks
Fanta, Coca-Cola, and Sprite. 15 liked Sprite, 16 liked Fanta and five (5) liked all the
three. 12 preferred Coca-Cola and Fanta, six (6) preferred Coca-Cola and Sprite and
six (6) preferred Sprite only. Illustrate the information on a Venn diagram.
(a) Find how many students liked:
(i) Coca-Cola, (ii) Fanta or Sprite but not Coca-Cola, (iii) Fanta and Sprite but
not Coca-Cola, (iv) only one brand, (v) only two brand.
(b) Find the probability that a student selected liked only Fanta.
12. In a group of 59 traders, 26 sell gari, eight (8) sell only rice, and 15 sell only maize.
Ten (10) sell gari and rice, 16 sell rice and maize, and 42 sell maize. Each trader sells
at least one of the three items. Find the number of traders who sell:
(a) gari or maize, (b) gari and maize, (c) only two items.
13. There are 28 pupils in a class. Three (3) do all the three programs while five (5) do
Arts and Business, and seven (7) do Arts and Science. Five (5) do Business only and
all the students do at least one of the three programs. If the number of pupils who do
Business is twice that of those who do Arts and the number of pupils who do
Business is equal to that of those who do Science, represent this information on a
Venn diagram.
(a) Find the number of pupils who do
(i) only two programs (ii) Science
(iii) Arts only (iv) Business and Science only
(b) If a pupil is selected at random, what is the probability that he studies either Arts
or Science?
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14. There are 28 players in the national football team. 14 play midfield and defence, 15
play defence and attack and three (3) play midfield only. The number of players who
play attack only is twice that of those who play defence only, and the number who
play defence is equal to that of those who play attack. If 18 play midfield, represent
this information on a Venn diagram. How many play:
(a) defence, (b) attack and midfield, (c) only one position.
15. In a class of 10 students, four (4) offer Mathematics, and one (1) offers Chemistry
and Mathematics. One (1) offer Physics and Chemistry, and three (3) offer Physics
and Mathematics. Each student offers at least one of the three subjects. If the number
of students who offer Mathematics is equal to that of those who offer Physics only
and n(M) + n(C) = n(P), Illustrate the information in a Venn diagram. Find the
number of students who offer:
(a) Chemistry only, (b) only one subject, (c) only two subjects,
(d) Physics, (e) Chemistry, (f) Chemistry and Physics only.
16. 30 teachers were asked their preference for three newspapers, namely Graphic, Times
and Chronicle. 20 liked Graphic, six (6) liked Graphic and Chronicle, and four (4)
liked Times and Chronicle. Five (5) liked Times only, and four (4) liked Graphic and
Times Only. All teachers liked at least one of the three papers. If the number of
teachers who liked all the three newspapers was three (3) times that of those who
preferred Times and Chronicle only, and the number of teachers who liked Times
exceed those who preferred Chronicle by two (2), illustrate this information on a
Venn diagram.
(a) Find the number of teachers who liked:
(i) Times, (ii) Chronicle, (iii) Chronicle only, (iv) Graphic and Chronicle only.
(b) Find the probability a teacher selected at random liked Graphic or Times but not
Chronicle.
17. In an examination each of the 35 students sat for Biology, Chemistry and Physics. 21
passed Biology, eight (8) passed Chemistry and Physics only, and five (5) passed
Biology and Physics only. Seven (7) passed Biology and Chemistry only and 20
passed Chemistry. The number of students who passed Chemistry is equal to the
number that passed Physics. If all the students passed at least one of the three
subjects, illustrate this information on a Venn diagram.
(a) Find the number of students who passed in
(i) Physics, (ii) Physics and Chemistry, (iii) Physics or Chemistry.
(b) If a student is selected at random what is the probability that he passed in Biology
only.
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CHAPTER TWO
Surds
This chapter introduces operations on irrational numbers. Irrational numbers are generally
seen to be square roots of numbers that are not perfect squares. For example 7 and 18 are
not perfect squares; therefore their square roots, 7 and 18 , are irrational numbers
with non-terminating or non-repeating decimals and are generally called surds.
Note the following

1. The square roots of prime numbers such as 2 , 3, 5 , 7 , 11 , etc. are irrational
numbers.
2. The product of two distinct square roots of prime numbers is an irrational number.
For example: 3  5 = 3 5 = 15 . It therefore follows that 15 is an irrational
number.
3. The mere presence of a root sign does not make a number irrational. For example,
square roots of perfect squares such as 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 , 36 etc. are not irrational
numbers.
4. A rational multiple of an irrational numbers is an irrational number. For
Example, 2 3 , 6 5 , 9 3 are irrational numbers.
2
5. The square of an irrational number is rational. For example, 5  5  5  5 ,
2
2 = 2  2 = 2 are rational numbers.
6. Decimal numbers which neither terminate nor recur are irrational numbers. A well
known irrational number is . The value of  = 3.141 592 265 4…, which has no
repeating pattern. The value of  is sometimes approximated by the rational numbers
22 or the terminating decimal 3.142.
7
2.1 Addition, subtraction and multiplication of surds

2.1.1 Simplifying surds
Consider the square root of the number 6. We know that 2 × 3 is 6 and so 6 can be
written as 2  3. Therefore the square root of 6 can be expressed as the product of the
square roots of 2 and 3. That is 6  2  3. Similarly 12  4  3  4  3  2 3.
In general If k  mn, then k  mn  m  n .
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The square root of a number is the same as the product of the square roots of its
factors.
If n is such that n can be expressed as the product of a perfect square and another
integer, then n is said to be a reducible surd. For example, since 12 can be expressed
as a product of the perfect square 4 and the number 3, 12 is a reducible surd.
Example 2.1
Simplify the following
(a) 20, (b) 45, (c) 18, (d) 32, (e) 63.
Solution
(a) 20 = 45 = 4 5 = 2 5,
(b) 45 = 95 = 9 5 = 3 5,
(c) 18 = 9 2 = 9 2 = 3 2,
(d) 32 = 16  2 = 16  2 = 4 2,
(e) 63 = 97 = 9 7 = 3 7.
Exercise 2(a)
(a) 8, (b) 27, (c) 125, (d) 24, (e) 28, (f) 63,
(g) 72, (h) 90, (i) 80, (j) 96, (k) 160, (l) 48,
(m) 50, (n) 75, (o) 150, (p) 44, (q) 52, (r) 60.
2.1.2 Addition and subtraction of surds

In algebraic expressions two like terms can be combined to form a single term. In the
same way, we can also combine two like surds. Consider, for example, 2 3 and 6 3 .
Just as we combine 3x + 6x to get 9x, we can say 2 3  6 3 is 8 3 . Similarly
8 2  5 2 = 3 2 . However we cannot combine unlike surds, such as 4 3 and 5 2 .
Example 2.2
(a) 5 3  6 3 , (b) 3 11  4 11 , (c) 6 2  7 2  8 2 ,
(d) 4 7  7  2 7 , (e) 80  20  45 , (f) 50  18  32.
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Solution
(a) 5 3  6 3 = 11 3,
(b) 3 11  4 11 =  11,
(c) 6 2  7 2  8 2 = 13 2  8 2 = 5 2,
(d) 4 7  7  2 7 = 3 7  2 7 = 7,
(e) 80  20  45 = 16  5  4  5  9  5 = 4 5  2 5  3 5 = 3 5,
(f) 50  18  32 = 25  2  9  2  16  2 = 5 2  3 2  4 2 = 6 2.
Example 2.3
Simplify the following:
162  32  98
(a) 50  32  162, (b) .
8
Solution
(a) 50  32  162 = 2  25  2 16  2  81 = 5 2  4 2  9 2 = 0.
162  32  281  216  249
(b) 98
  9 2  4 2  7 2  6 2  3.
8 24 2 2 2 2
Example 2.4
(a) 3 8  2 200  2 162 , (b) 2 27  3 75  2 147 .
50  18 2 12  48
Solution
(a) 3 8  2 200  2 162 = 3 42  2 1002  2 812
50  18 252  92
= 6 2  20 2  18 2 = 8 2  1.
5 2 3 2 8 2
(b) 2 27  3 75  2 147 = 2 93  3 253  2 493

2 12  48 2 43  163
= 6 3  15 3  14 3 = 5 3 = 5.
4 3  4 3 8 3 8
Exercise 2(b)
1. Simplify the following
(a) 5 7  2 7 (b) 4 3  3 3 (c) 9 5  4 5
(d) 2  4 2  3 2 (e) 6 7  4 7 3 7 (f) 5 11  8 11  6 11
(g) 7 13  9 13  4 13 (h) 2 8  3 18  50 (i) 12  27  48
(j) 20  80  45 (k) 72  4 8  200 (l) 28  63  175
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2. Simplify the following:

(a) 175  252, (b) 44  99, (c) 468  208,
(d) 45  80  3 20, (e) 50  72  18, (f) 216  150  54,
(g) 27  12  75, (h) 80  20  45 (i) 18  72  288
(j) 343  448  567 (k) 150  1014  486, (l) 44  99  275,
(m) 75  108  147.

8  32  50 75  108  48 125  63
(a) , (b) , (c) ,
2  18 12  147 28  80
200  98  50 48  27  243 75  18
(d) , (e) , (f) ,
128  72 108  192 6  45
28  63  112 44  99 27  96
(g) , (h) , (i) ,
9 7  175 275  2 11 72  12
72  50  98 27  75  147 20  80  125
(j) , (k) , (l) .
18  8 192  108 500  605
2.1.3 Multiplication of surds

As stated earlier in this chapter, the square root of a number is the same as the product of
the square root of its factors. If we reverse the rule, we have 2  3 = 23 = 6
and also 5  7 = 5  7 = 35.
Similarly 3  3  3  3  9  3. = 3 3 = 9 = 3 and also
 2
3
 2  2  2  2  2  2  2 20. = 2  2  2 = 2 2.
Example 2.5
     
3 3 5 3
(a) 2 3 , (b) 5 2 , (c) 14
5
.
7
Solution
 2  3 
3
(a) = 2  3 3 3 = 3 23 = 3 6.
(b)  5   2 
3 5
= 5  5  5  2  2  2  2  2 = 5  2  2 5  2 = 20 10.
(c) 14
3
= 14  14  14
= 14 14
=
14  7  2  = 2 72 .
7
5
77777 77 7 49 7
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Multiplication of surds of the form a  b n

When we multiply two surds in brackets, we apply the rules of expansion we learnt
earlier in core mathematics and use the properties of surds to simplify.
Example 2.6

(a) 2 3  2 ,  (b) 3  
2 3 , 
(c) 3 2 4 2  2 , 
(d)  3 1  
3 1 , (e) 3  2  2  3 2  , 
(f) 3 5  3  2 5 3 3 . 
Solution
(a)  
2 3 2 = 3 2   2 2 = 3 2  2.
(b) 3  2  3  = 3  2   3  = 6  3.
2
(c) 3 2 4 2  2 = 12  2   6 2 = 24  6 2.
2
(d)  3  1 3  1 =  3   12 = 3 – 1 = 2.
2
(e)  3  2  2  3 2  = 6  9 2  2 2  3  2  = 6  7 2  6 = 7
2
2.
(f) 3 5  3 2 5  3 3  = 6  5   9  5  3   2  3  5   3  3 
2 2
= 30  9 15  2 15  9 = 39  11 15.
Exercise 2(c)
 3 ,  5 ,  11 ,  15  ,
5 4 3 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e)  2  , 3 2  , (g) 5  3  , (h)  2 8  ,

7 6 3 3
(f)
(i)  2   5  ,  3  5 , (k)  8  18  , (l)  45  20  ,

3 2 5 2
(j)
3 3 5
12 72 21 6
(m) 5
, (n) 5
, (o) , (p) 3
,
3 2 7 3
5 5 3
28 2 18 54 40
(q) 3
, (r) 3
, (s) , (t) 3
.
7 72 96 8

(a) 
3 2 3 2
3 , 
(b) 2 5 3 5  2 , 
(c)  2 1  2 1 ,  
(d) 2 3  3  3 5 , 
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 
(e) 2 5  3 3 5  4 ,  (f) 3 2  4 3  2 2  3  ,
(g)  2 10  3 6  2 10  3 6  , (h)  4 7  2 5  3 7  5  ,
(i)  6 3  2 5  5 3  4 5  , (j)  3 18  2 27  2 32  48  ,
(k)  40  18  160  50  , (l)  54  32  24  72  .
2.2 Rationalization of the denominator

When simplifying fractions containing surds at the denominator it is usually more
convenient to make the denominator rational so as to avoid division by a decimal. The
process of making the denominator rational is what we call rationalization. For example,
when we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of 1 by a , we have
a
1 = a a a
= = .
a a
 a
2 a
a
Example 2.7
Rationalize the following.
(a) 1 , (b) 1 , (c) 4 .
3 5 3
Solution
(a) 1  1  3  33 , (b) 1  1  5  55 , (c) 4  4  3  4 3 3 .
3 3 3 5 5 5 3 3 3
Rationalizing surds with binomial denominator

Conjugate surds
Given the surd expression a  b , then a  b is called its conjugate. The conjugate of
2  3 is 2  3 . Similarly, the conjugate of 2 5  4 3 is 2 5  4 3 . The product
 
of a surd expression and its conjugate is not a surd, as a  b a  b  a 2  b . When 
rationalizing a fractional surd whose denominator is of the form p a q b  or
a  p b , it is always important to multiply both numerator by the conjugate of the
denominator.
Example 2.8
(a) 1 , (b) 4 , (c) 3 5  2 .
3 1 7  3 2 5 3 2
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Solution
3 1 3 1 3 1
(a) 1 = = = = 1 3 1.
3 1  3 1 3 1  31 2 2 2
(b) 4 =
4 7  3  =
4  7 3  = 4 7 3 = 7  3.
7  3  7  3  7  3  73 4
(c) 3 5  2 =
3 5  2  2 5  3 2  = 30  9 10  2 10  6 = 36  11 10 .
2 5 3 2  2 5  3 2  2 5  3 2  20  18 2
Example 2.9
Simplify 1 .
1 5 
2
Solution
1 1 1 6 2 5
= = =
1  5  12 5 5 62 5 (6  2 5)(6  2 5)
2
6 2 5 6 2 5 31
= = = 5
36  20 16 8 8
Example 2.10
Simplify 1  1 .
(1  2)2 (1  2)2
Solution
(1  2)2  (1 
= 1  2 2  2  1 2 2 2  2 = 6 = 6.
2) 2
1  1 =
(1  2)2 (1  2)2 (1  2)(1  2) 
2 (1  2) 1

Example 2.11
Simplify 5  5 leaving your answer in the a n , where a, b and n are
3 2 3 2
constants.
Solution
5(3  2)  5(3 
= 15  5 2  15  5 2 =  10 2.
2)
5  5 =
3 2 3 2 (3  2)(3  2) 92 7
Example 2.12
3  2
1. Evaluate . June 1995. Ans: 5  2 6.
3  2
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2. Express 4  5 in the form p  q 5, where p and q are rational number.

32 5
Nov. 2001. Ans: 2  5.
3 3 2
3. Express in the form a  b c , where a, b and c are rational numbers.
3 3 2
Nov. 2002. Ans.  7  2 6.
5 5
4. Express 8  2 6 in the form m 3  n 2, where m and n are rational numbers.

2 3 3 2
Nov. 2006. Ans:  14 3  6 2.
3
5. Simplify the expression 8  5 32  4 50

1  18
. June 1999. Ans. 1 12  2 2 .
17  
Exercise 2(d)
(a)  3 1
2  3 1 ,
2  (b) 2 2  3 ,
2 2  2
(c) 3 5  2 2 ,
2 5 3 2
4 7  3
(d) , (e) 2 3  3 2 , (f) 5 2  3 5 ,
2 7 3 3 4 3 5 2 6 2 2 5
(g) 3 6  3 3 , (h) 4 5  2 10 , (i) 3 14  4 7 .
6 2 3 5 5  4 10 14  2 7
2. Simplify each of the following completely:
(a) 6 2 , (b) 15 3 (c) 6 7 , (d) 6 5 ,
3 5 6 2 6
108
(e) 3 11 , (f) , (g) 5 48 , (h) 200
,
2 3 24 50 80
       .
2 3 3 4
(i) 5 , (j) 5 7 , (k) 36 5 , (l) 3
3 5 6 2
 78  , (n) 24  , (o) 3   (p) 24  .

3
(m) 64 162 125 45
243 75 96
3. Evaluate the following:

(a) 7  175 (b) 5  45 (c) 3  300
(d) 
7 3 7 6 ,
7  (e) 5 45  8
80 , (f) 2  50  20 ,
72 
(g) 6 27  2 , (h) 3 48  15 , (i) 27  108   ,
12
12 75 48
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 22   40   32 
(j) 11 5 11   (k) 200  98   (l) 63 28  
 7 11   128   112 
 3   27   8 
(m) 7  28   (n) 13 52   (o) 15  3 15  
 63   117   60 
(p)

17  68 
30 
 (q)

5  180 
28 
 (r) 6  294  384
 153   245 
(s) 
14 56  126  (t) 
76 171  304  (u) 84  189  336 
4. Express the following in the form p  r q :

   
(a) 150  3 2  4 3  2 6 6  9 ,
(b) 1500  3 3  5 5   2 15  15  3,
(c) 10 3 10  2  8  45  810 ,
(d) 126  18  28  14  56  5,
(e)  2  2 3  3 2  4 3   24  6  2  ,
(f)  8  12  18  27   3 6  2  1 ,
6
(g) 
1100  44 3 11  144  99  11 
(h) 24  1  2   10  15  4 6 2 6  1
 6 
 
(i) 20  45  80  5   4
20 
7 ,
(j) 6  15  40  3
10 
 90  1210.
2.3 Equal surds

If x  a  b and y  c  d are surd expressions, then x = y  a = c and b = d.
Note:  a b 2 = a  b  2 ab and  a b 2 = a  b  2 ab.
Example 2.13
Find the positive square root of (a) 11  4 6, (b) 23  4 15.
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Solution
(a) The square root of 11 4 6 , must be (b) The square root of 23  4 15 must
of the form a  b , where a  b , be of the form a b.
as the root must be non-negative.
23  4 15 = a b
a b
11 4 6 =
23  4 15  a b 2
 
2 =
11 4 6 = a b
23  2 4  15 = (a  b)  2 ab
11 4 6 = (a  b)  2 ab
23  2 60 = (a  b)  2 ab
11  2 4  6 = (a  b)  2 ab Comparing the left hand side and the right
Comparing the left hand side and the right hand side of the expression, it follows that
hand side of the expression, it follows that 23 = a + b ……… (1)
11 = a + b …………. (1) 60 = ab ……… (2)
24 = ab …………. (2) It follows from (1) that b = 23 – a.
It follows from (1) that b = 11 – a. Substitute it into (2). We have
Substituting b = 11 – a into (2) we have a(23 – a) = 60
a(11 – a) = 24 23a – a2 = 60
11a – a2 = 24 2
a – 23a + 60 = 0
2
a – 11a + 24 = 0 (a – 3)(a – 20) = 0
(a – 8)(a – 3) = 0 Hence a = 3 and b = 20 or
Hence a = 8 and b = 3 or a = 3 and b = 8 a = 20 and b = 3
Hence the square root of 11 4 6 is Hence the square root of 23  4 15 is
8 3 = 2 2 3. 3  20 = 32 5.
Exercise 2(e)
Find the positive square root of the following
(a) 3  8, (b) 7  40, (c) 14  8 3, (d) 14  4 6,
(e) 38  6 33, (f) 32  8 15, (g) 30  12 6, (h) 16  4 15,
2.4 Surd equations

Example 2.14
Solve the following equations
(a) x 2  7  4, (b) x  x  3  3,
(c) 3x  3  x  2  1, (d) 5x  4  x  8  2.
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Solution
(a) x2  7 = 4 (b) x  x  3 = 3
2 x3 = 3 – x
 x 2  7  = 42 (Squareboth sides)



  2
x  3 = 3  x 2 (Squareboth sides)
x2 + 7 = 16 x + 3 = 9 – 6x + x2
x2 = 16 – 7  x2 = 9 x2 – 7x + 6 = 0
x =  9  x = 3 (x – 1)(x – 6) = 0
We check if any or all the roots x = 1 or x = 6
satisfy the equation. We check if any or all the roots
satisfy the equation.
When x = 3, 32  7 = 16 = 4
When x = 1, 1  1  3 = 1 4 = 3
2
When x = –3, (3)  7 = 16 = 4 When x = 6, 6  6  3 = 6  9 = 9
Hence x = 3 and x = –3 are the Hence x = 1 is the solution since it
solutions to the equation since they satisfies the equation. Since x = 6
both satisfy the equation.
does not satisfy the equation, it
follows that it is not a solution.
(c) 3x  3  x  2 = 1 (d) 5x  4  x  8 = 2
3x  3 = 1  x  2 5x  4 = 2  x  8
3x + 3 = 1  2
x  2 (Squareboth sides) 
5x  4 = 2  x  8 2 (Squarebothsides)
3x + 3 = 1 2 x  2  x  2 5x  4 = 4  4 x  8  x  8
3x + 3 = 3 x  2 x  2
5x  4 = 12  x  4 x  8
2x = 2 x2
4x – 16 = 4 x  8
2x  2
 
2
= 2 x  2 (Squareboth sides)
 2
(4 x  16) 2 = 4 x  8 (Squareboth sides)
4x2 = 4(x + 2)
x2 = (x + 2) 16x2 – 128x + 256 = 16(x + 8)
x2 – x – 2 = 0 16x2 – 128x + 256 = 16x + 128
(x – 2)(x + 1) = 0 16x2 – 144x + 128 = 0
x = –1 , x = 2 x2 – 9x + 8 = 0
When x = –1,  3  3   1  2 = –1 (x – 1)(x – 8) = 0  x = 1, x = 8
When x = 2, 6  3  2  2 = 1 When x = 1, 5  4  1  8 = –2
Hence x = 2 is the solution since it When x = 8, 40  4  8  8 = 2
satisfies the original equation. Hence x = 8 is the solution since it
satisfies the original equation.
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Example 2.15
1. Solve x  7  3x  2  1. Nov. 2004. Ans: x  2, x  9.
2. Solve 3x  4  x  5  1. June 2007. Ans: x  1 or 4.
Exercise 2(f)
Solve the following equations
(a) 3x2  3  3  6, (b) x  3x  7  7,
(c) 3x  4  2 x  1  7, (d) 2 x  1  3x  2  2,
(e) x  7  3x  2  1, (f) x  2  5x  1  1,
(g) 2 x  6  x  4  3, (h) 3x  4  x  3  3,
(i) 2 x  2  x  2  1, (j) 2 x  2  x  1,
(k) 6 x  3  2 x  1  4, (l) 2 x  2  x  8  3,
(m) 3x  1  x  4  3, (n) 7 x  5  5x  6  1.
3 7  5 3 7 5
1. Without using tables, evaluate + .
3 7  5 3 7 5
4 5 3 2
2. Express in the form p + q r where p, q, and r are rational number.
7 22 5
3 5 2
3. Express in the form a + b 10 , where a and b are rational.
2 5 3 2
2 5 5 2
4. Express in the form q + r s , where q, r and s are rational.
2 5 5 2
2 3  3 2
5. Simplify .
2 3  3 2
5 2
6. Simplify leaving your answer in the form a + b r , where a, b,
(3  2 )(3  2 )
and r are constants.
8  5 32  4 50
7. Simplify the expression .
1  18
147  108  75
8. Simplify the expression .
243  192
Page 34 Surds
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3 2 3
9. Express in the form a + b 6 , where a and b are rational.
2 3
3 5 3
10. Express in the form q + s r , where q, r and s are rational.
2 53 3
2 2 1
11. Simplify .
3 2 1
3 2
12. Evaluate .
3 2
3 5 3
13. Express in the form a 15  b , where a and b are rational numbers.
2 5 3
1 2 1 2
14. Without using table, find the value of  .
5 3 5 3
15. (a) Simplify 2  8 2
8 .
(b) Given that 5 = 2.236068, find the value of 1 , correct to five significant
5
figures.
16. Simplify each of the following completely
3 4
3 2 7 5  3  7 
(a) , (b) , (c) 5   , (d) 20   .
3 2 7  5   10 
 1  1  1
(a)  2 3   2 3  , (b) ,
 3 2  3 2
 
2
5 3
2 2
162  32  98  1 2   1 2 
(c) , (d)      ,
8  1  2   1  2 
2 2
3 2 2 3  3 2 2 3  5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5
(e)      , (f)  ,
 3 2  2 3   3 2  2 3  5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5
7 3 8 2 7 3 8 2
(g)  .
7 3 8 2 7 3 8 2
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CHAPTER THREE
Binary Operations
3.1 Introduction
In this section, we consider operations on a non-empty set “R” consisting of real
numbers, by which we combine any two numbers x, y  R to produce another number.
For instance, one element of N, the set {0, 1, 2 …}, may be added to another element of
that set to produce a third number, e.g. 2 + 5 = 7. Mathematical operation of addition (+)
has been performed on the numbers 2 and 5 to produce 7. Addition (+) is said to be a
binary operation on the set N of natural numbers because it combines two elements of the
set to produce a third number. Other basic operations that we are familiar with are
subtraction (–), multiplication (), division (), intersection () and union (). Apart
from these basic operations, we can devise many other binary operations. For instance,
we might define a binary operation  on the set R of real numbers by
a  b = 2a + b + ab
so that
(a) 3  5 = 2(3) + 5 + 3(5) = 6 + 5 + 15 = 26,
(b) 13 * 32       
= 2 13  32  13 32 = 231
3 2 2
= 8.
3
Example 3.1
A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a  b = 22a  b , where a, b  R.
a  2
Evaluate: (a) 2  3, (b) 3  2.
Solution
2(2)  3 2(3)  2
(a) 2  3 = = 1, (b) 3  2 = = 4.
2 2
2 6 32  2 11
Example 3.2
The operation  is defined on the set S = {1, 3, 5} by Table 3.1 below
Table 3.1
 1 3 5
1 3 1 5
3 1 3 5
5 5 5 5
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Evaluate: (a) (3  1)  5, (b) 3  (1  5).

Solution
(a) (3  1)  5 = 1  5 = 5, (b) 3  (1  5) = 3  5 = 5.
Exercise 3(a)
1. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a  b  a  b  2ab , where a, b  R.
Evaluate: (a) 2  3, (b) – 4  5, (c) 2  3  (–4)
2. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
x  y = 3x + 2y – xy, where x, y R
Evaluate: (a) 4  2, (b) 2  4.
3. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by a  b = ab,

b a
a, b  0. Calculate: (a) 2  3, (b) 3  2, (c) 4  (–1).
4. An operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by m * n = m + n – 1 mn
2
Find: (a) 4 * 6, (b) 3 * 2, (c) 1 * 1 .
2 4
5. The operation  is defined on the set R of positive real numbers by a  b = a  b .

2 2
a b
Evaluate: (a) 2  3, (b) 1  4, (c) 1  1.
2 4
6. A binary operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by
x * y = xy2 + x2y where x, y  R
Evaluate: (a) 2 * 4, (b) 5 * (–2).
3.2 Closure
Suppose the binary operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a * b = a + b + 2ab..Then for any two real numbers x and y, when they are combined
using the binary operation *, that is x * y = x + y + 2xy, the result is always another real
number. For example, 3 and 4 are two distinct real numbers. When they are combined,
the result, that is 3 * 4 = 3 + 4 + 2(3)(4) = 31, is also a real number. The set R is therefore
said to be closed under the binary operation *.
Definition 3.1 (Closure)

A set R is said to be closed with respect to a binary operation * if for any
two elements a, b  R, a * b produces an element which belongs to R. That is,
a * b  R for all a, b  R.
Binary Operations Page 37

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Example 3.3
Supposing the binary operation * is defined on the set T = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by
a * b = a + b + 2ab. 2, 3  T but 2 * 3 = 2 + 3 + 2(2)(3) = 17  T. Even though 2 and 3
are both elements of T, however 3 * 2 = 17 does not belong to the set T. Hence we can
conclude that the set T is not closed under the operation *.
Example 3.4
Table 3.2 defines the operation  on the set S = {a, b, c, d}. Table 3.2
The set S is closed with respect to  since when any two elements  a b c d
of S are combined, the result is always an element of S. That is, a b d a c
for any pair of elements x, y  S  x  y  S. b d c b a
a  b  S, a  c  S, a  d  S, c a b c d
b  c  S, b  d  S, c  d  S. d c a d b
3.3 Properties of binary operation

Several properties of binary operation have well established names. Three of these
properties are commutative operation, associative operation and distributive operations.
3.3.1 Commutative operations

Addition (+) and multiplication () are both commutative since for all a, b  R,
a + b = b + a and a  b = b  a. The union () and the intersection () are both
commutative since for any two sets A and B, A  B = B  A and A  B = B  A.
Definition 3.2 (Commutative operation)

A binary operation * defined on a set “R” of real numbers is said to be
commutative if a * b = b * a , for all a , b R.
Example 3.5
The operation * is defined on the set of real numbers R by a * b = a + b + 2ab.
Show that * is commutative.
Solution
a * b = a + b + 2ab……….(1)
b * a = b + a + 2ba
= a + b + 2ab ……… (2) [Since ba = ba and b + a = a + b]
From (1) and (2), a * b = b * a for all a , b  R. Hence the operation * is commutative.
Example 3.6
The operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by x  y = x – y + 3xy.
Page 38 Binary Operations

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Solution
x  y = x – y + 3xy ……………………………………………………………(1)
y  x = y – x + 3yx ……………………………………………………………(2)
Since subtraction is not commutative it follows that x – y  y – x and therefore
x  y  y  x. Hence the operation  is not commutative.
Example 3.7
Refer to Table 3.2. The operation  is commutative on the set S since for every pair of
elements x, y  S, x  y = y  x. That is,
a  b = b  a = d, a  c = c  a = a, a  d = d  a = c,
b  c = c  b = b, b  d = d  b = a, c  d = d  c = d.
3.3.2 Associative operations

Addition (+) and multiplication () are both associative since for all a, b, c  R,
(a + b) + c = b + (a + c) and (a  b)  c = b  (a  c). The union () and the
intersection () are also associative since for any three sets A, B and C,
(A  B)  C = A  (B  C) and (A  B)  C = A  (B  C).
Definition 3.3 (Associative operation)

A binary operation * defined on a closed set R is said to be associative if for every
a, b, c, R, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Example 3.8
The operation  is defined over the set of real numbers “R” by a  b = a  b  12 ab. Find
(a) (2  3)  4, (b) 6  (2  5).
Solution
(i) (2  3)  4 = 2  3  12 (2)(3)  4 [Note: 2  3  12 (2)(3) = 8]
= 8  4 = 8  4  12 (8)(4) = 28.

(i) 6  (2  5) = 6  2  5  12 (2)(5)  [Note: 2  5  12 (2)(5) = 12]
= 6  12 = 6  12  12 (6)(12) = 54.
Example 3.9
Show that the operation * defined over the set of real numbers “R” is associative, where
a * b = a + b + ab.

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MATHEMATICS
Solution
(a * b) * c = (a + b + ab) * c
= (a + b + ab) + c + (a + b + ab)c
= a + b + ab + c + ac + bc + abc
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc……………………………...(1)
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c + bc)
= a + (b + c + bc) + a(b + c + bc)
= a + b + c + bc + ab + ac + abc
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc……………………………...(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) it follows that (a * b) * c = a * (b * c ) for all a , b , c  R.
Hence the operation * is associative.
3.3.3 Distributive operations

Definition 3.4 (Distributive operations)
Let * and  be two binary operations both defined on the closed set “R”
consisting of real numbers. We say the operation * is distributive over  if for all
a, b, c  R, a * (b  c) = (a * b)  (a * c).
For example, multiplication () is distributive over addition (+) since for all a, b, c R
a  (b + c) = (a  b) + (a  c) written as a(b + c) = ab + ac.
Example 3.10
The operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by a  b = ab + a.
Determine whether or not the operation  is associative.
Solution
(a  b)  c = (ab + a)  c = (ab + a)c + (ab + a) = abc + ac + ab + a
= a + ab + ac + abc ……………………………………………………(1)
a  (b  c) = a  (bc + b) = a(bc + b) + a = abc + ab + a
= a + ab + abc …………………………………………………………(2)
From (1) and (2) (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) and therefore the operation  is not associative.
Example 3.11
The operation  is defined on the set of non-zero rational numbers by
a  b = a b.
ab
Determine whether  is; (a) commutative, (b) associative. June 1998.
Solution
(a) Let Q denote the set of non-zero rational numbers.

AKRONG SERIES
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MATHEMATICS
The operation  is commutative if for all a , b  Q, a  b = b  a

a  b = ab and b  a = b  a.
ab ba
Since addition (+) and multiplication () are both commutative it follows that
a  b = b  a. Hence the operation  is commutative.
(b) The operation  is said to be associative if for all a , b, c  Q,
(a  b)  c = a  (b  c)
(a  b)  c = a b c =
 a ab b   c = a  b  abc
ab a  b  abc
 a ab b  c
= .....................(1)
ab ( a  b )c ac  bc
ab
a   b bc c
= abc  b  c
abc  b  c
a  (b  c ) = a  b  c = bc …………...(2)
a  b bc 
=
bc c a (b  c ) ab  ac
bc
It follows from (1) and (2) that (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) hence the
operation  is not associative.
Example 3.12
Table 3.3 defines the operation  on the set Table 3.3
Y = {r, s, t, u}  r s t u
Find p and q if; r s u r t
(a) (u  r )  (t  s) = p, s u t s r
(b) (q  r)  (t  u) = s. t r s t u
u t r u s
Solution
(a) (u  r)  (t  s) = p  t  s = p  s = p.
Hence p = s.
(b) We substitute q = r, s, t, u in the equation (q  r)  (t  u) = s to find which of them
satisfies it. Only ‘s’ satisfies the equation and thus forms the root. That is:
(s  r)  (t  u) = u  u = s.
Hence q = s.
Example 3.13
A binary operation  is defined on the set Table 3.4
T = {1, 2, 3, 4} by  1 2 3 4
a  b = a + b – ab, where a, b  T. 1 1 1 1 1
(a) (i) Copy and complete Table 3.4. 2 1 –1 –2
(ii) Is T closed with respect to ? 3 1 –1
(b) Evaluate (2  3)  4. June 1994. 4 1 –2 –8

AKRONG SERIES
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MATHEMATICS
Solution
Table 3.5
(a) (i) The completed table is as shown in
 1 2 3 4
Table 3.5.
1 1 1 1 1
(ii) T is not closed with respect to  since
2 1 0 –1 –2
there exist a, b  T such that a  b  T
3 1 –1 –3 –5
For example 3  4 = –5 T
(b) (2  3)  4 = –1  4 4 1 –2 –5 –8
= –1 + 4 – (–1) (4) = 7.
It follows that the solution of (2  3)  4 does
not exist in3.14
Example T.
A binary operation  is defined on the set T  {2, 3, 4, 5} Table 3.6
by a  b  3a  2b  ab, where a, b  T .  2 3 4 5
(a) Copy and complete Table 3.6. 2 6 6 6 6
(b) Show whether or not T is closed under . 3 6 4
(c) Evaluate (3  4)  (3  5). June 2005. 4 4 2
Ans: (b) T is not closed, (b) (3  4)  (3  5) = 3. 5 9 6 3 0
Example 3.15
A binary operation * is defined on set S = {2, 3, 5, 7} by Table 3.7
a * b  a  b  2, where a, b  S.  2 3 5 7
(a) Copy and complete Table 3.7. 2 2 3 5 7
(b) (i) Show whether or not S is closed under *. 3 3 4 8
(ii) Evaluate 3 * (2 * 5). Nov. 2006. 5 5 8
Ans: (b) (i) S is not closed under *, (ii) 3 * (2 * 5) = 6.
7 7 8 10
Example 3.16
A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a  b = a2 – 2ab + b2, where a, b  R
Find (a) r such that 2  (–5) = r .
( x  1)  x
(b) , x  0, simplifying your results as far as possible. June 2000.
x
Solution
(a) Given a  b = a2 – 2ab + b2,
2  (–5) = 22  2(2)(5)  (5)2  4  20  25  49.
 r = 49  r  492  2, 401.
( x  1)  x ( x  1)2  2( x  1)( x)  x 2
 x  2x  1  2x  2x  x  1 .
2 2 2
(b) 
x x x x

AKRONG SERIES
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MATHEMATICS
Example 3.17
A binary operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by a * b  a  b 2. Compute
each of the following, leaving your answers in surd form:
(a) 2*1, (b) 3*(2*3). Nov. 2001.
Ans: (a) 2  2, (b) 9  2 2.
Example 3.18
The binary operation  is defined by m  n  1  m  n  .
2
(a) Form a table of the operation  on the set T = {2, 4, 6}.
(b) State with reason whether or not  is
(i) close under T, (ii) commutative under T. Nov. 2002.
Example 3.19
A binary operation * is defined on the set R, of real numbers by p * q  p 2  q 2  pq.
(a) Determine whether or not * is commutative.
(b) Evaluate 2*7. Nov. 2003.
Ans. (a) * is commutative, (b) 67.
Example 3.20
The binary operation * and  are defined on the set R, of real numbers by
a * b  2a  ab and x  y  x  y  xy
respectively, where a, b, x, y  R.
(a) Determine whether or not  is commutative.
(b) Evaluate (3 * 2)  (5  3). June 2006.
Ans: (a)  is commutative, (b) 89.
Example 3.21
A binary operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a*b = ab where a, b  R and a, b  0
b a

(a) (i) Calculate 3 2  2 3 *   3  2 ,
(ii) Deduce the value of  3  2 * 3 2  2 3  .
(b) (i) If x * y = 1, show that y = 12  x  x 5 
(ii) Hence find the values of y for which 4  2 5  * y = 1, giving your answer in
the form p  q r  where p, q and r are rational numbers.

AKRONG SERIES
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MATHEMATICS
Solution

(a) (i) 3 2  2 3 *  3 2 =  3 2 2 3
3  2
 3  2
3 2 2 3
3 2 2 3
=
3 2  2 3  3  2  = 3 6  6  6  2 6 = 6 .
3  2  3  2  3  2  32
3  2
=
 3  2  3 2  2 3 
= 3 6  6  6  2 6 = 6.
3 2 2 3 3 2  2 3  3 2  2 3  18  12 6

 3 2 2 3 *  
3 2 = 3 2  2 3 
3  2
3  2
3 2 2 3
= 6–
6
6
= 5
6
6.
(ii)  
3 2 * 3 2 2 3 =  3  2
3 2 2 3
3 2  2 3 =
3  2 6
6
– 6 =  5 6.
6
y x2  y 2 2 2
(b) (i) x * y = 1  x  =1  = 1  x – y = xy
y x xy
2 2 2
 x – y2 – xy = 0  y + xy – x = 0 [which is a quadratic in y]
2
A = 1, b = x, c = –x .
b  b2  4ac x  x 2  4(1)(  x 2 )
= x  x2  4 x2
= x  5x
2
y = = .
2a 2(1) 2 2
= 
1 x  x 5 .
2  …………………………………………………………(1)

(ii) 4  2 5  * y = 1  x = 4  2 5 
Therefore from (1), we have
   
y = 1  4  2 5  4  2 5 5  = 1  4  2 5  4 5  10 
2  2   
y1 =  4  2 5  4 5  10 =
1
2
1 14  6 5 = 7  3 5.
2  
y2 = 1  4  2 5  4 5  10 = 1 6  2 5  = 3  5.
2 2
Example 3.22
The binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
2 2
m  p = m + p – mp
Find: (a) 4  3,
(b) x such that x  y = y. Stating the range of values of y for which x is defined.
June 1995.
Solution
2 2
(a) Given m  p = m + p – mp, for all m , p  R
2 2
4  3 = 4 + 3 – 4  3 = 16 + 9 – 12 = 13.

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2 2 2 2
(b) x  y = y  x + y – xy = y  x – yx + y – y = 0
This is a quadratic equation in x, where
2
a = 1, b = –y, c = y – y
y  (  y )2  4(1)( y 2  y ) y  4 y 3 y 2
x = b  b  4ac =
2
= .
2a 2(1) 2
x is defined if
2 2
4y – 3y  0  3y – 4y  0  y(3y – 4)  0
y =0 or y = 4
3
Hence the range of values of y for which x is defined is y : 0  y  4 .  3 
Example 3.23
2 2
An operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by a  b = a + b – 2ab
(a) Evaluate 3  1 and 1  3.
12 12
(b) Use your result in (i) to evaluate  3 1

12  1
12
 3 . 
(c) Find the truth set of 2  a = 9.
Solution
     2
2 2
(a) 3 1 = 3  1 3 1 = 3 1  2 3
12 12 12 12 12
37  2 1
= 12 = 37  1 = 25 .
4 12 12
   
2 3
1  3 = 1 3 1  3 2 3
 2  1  3 = 12
12 12 12 12
37  2 1 = 37  1 = 25 .
= 12 4 12 12
(b)  3 1
12 
1  3
12  = 25  25 =
12 12  1225    1225 
2 2
 2  25  25
12 12
=  
625 625 625 =

625 625 = 0.
144 144 72 72 72
2 2 2 2
(c) 2  a = 9  2 + a – 2(2)(a) = 9  4 + a – 4a = 9  a – 4a – 5 = 0
 (a + 1)(a – 5) = 0  a = –1 or a = 5.
The truth set = {a: a = –1, 5}.

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Exercise 3(b)
1. The operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by a * b  a , where
a b
a + b  0. Determine whether or not the operation is:
(a) commutative, (b) associative.
2. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a  b = a2 – 4ab + b2, where a, b  R
(a) 2  3, (b) 3  2, (c) (1  2)  3.
3. A binary operation  is defined on the set T = {1, 2, 3, 4} by
a  b = a + b – ab, where a, b  T.
(a) (i) Copy and complete the table below.
 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 –1 –2
3 1 –1
4 1 –2 –8
(ii) Is T closed with respect to?
(b) Evaluate (2  3)  4.
4. A binary operation  is defined on the set of real numbers R by
a  b = a + b –5ab
where a, b  R and R is closed under . Determine whether or not, the operation  is
(a) commutative, (b) associative.
5. A binary operation ° is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a ° b = 2a + 3b – ab, where a, b  R and a , b  0
Evaluate: (a) 4 ° 5, (b) –2 ° 6, (c) (1 ° 2) ° 3, (d) 1 ° (2 ° 3).
a  b = ab , where a, b  R
a b
Determine whether or not, the operation  is commutative
(a) Calculate (i) a  (b  c) (ii) (a  b)  c and then determine whether or not the
operation  is associative.
(b) Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the truth set of the equation
(x  1) + (x  2 ) = 1  2.
7. An operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by x * y = x2 – y2.
 
Calculate 2  3 * 4  3 . 

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3.4 Identity and inverse elements

Definition 3.5 (Identity or neutral elements)
A set R is said to have an identity element “e” with respect to a binary operation
*, if for every element a  R , a * e = e * a = a.
The element “e” is therefore referred to as an identity or neutral element under *.

The identity element under addition (+) is ‘0’ since for all a  R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a
The identity element under multiplication () is ‘1’ since for all a  R, a  1 = 1  a = a
[Note: A set “R” has an identity element “e” if and only if the binary operation * is
commutative.]
Example 3.24
The operation * is defined over the set R of real numbers by a * b = a + b + 2ab.
Find the identity element under the operation *.
Solution
Let e  R be the identity element under the operation *. It then follows that for every
element a  R, a * e = e * a = a. Solving for e we have
a * e = a  a + e + 2ae = a
e + 2ae = a – a = 0
e(1 + 2a) = 0
e= 0 = 0.
1  2a
Hence the identity element under * is 0.
Definition 3.6 (Inverse element)

The element a–1  R is said to be the inverse element of a  R under the operation
* with identity element e if a * a–1 = a–1 * a = e.
The inverse of the element a under addition (+) is (–a) since a + (–a) = 0.
The inverse of the element a under multiplication () is 1 since a  1 = 1.
a a
Example 3.25
.Table 3.8 below defines the operation  on the set Table 3.8
S = {a, b, c, d}. The identity element in the set S is ‘c’ since  a b c d
for every element x  S, x  c = c  x = x, That is a b d a c
a  c = c  a = a, b  c = c  b = b, b d c b a
c  c = c  c = c, d  c = c  d = d. c a b c d
It therefore follows that: d c a d b

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(i) the inverse of a=d {since a  d = c},

(ii) the inverse of b=b {since b  b = c},
(iii) the inverse of c=c {since c  c = c},
(iv) the inverse of d=a {since d  a = c}.
Example 3.26
The operation * is defined over the set R of real numbers by
a * b = a + b + 2ab; for all a, b  R.
Find the inverse under * of a general element a  R and state which element has no
inverse. Determine the inverses of 2 and 3.
Solution
For a  R, let a–1  R be the inverse. From Example 3.25, the identity element is e = 0
 a * a–1 = a–1 * a = e = 0.
a * a–1 = 0
a + a–1 + 2aa–1 = 0
a–1 + 2aa–1 = –a
a–1(1 + 2a) = –a
a–1 = a .
1  2a
The inverse expression a–1 becomes undefined when the denominator is zero.
That is, a–1 is not real when 1 + 2a = 0  a   12 . Hence  12 has no inverse.
The inverse of 2 = 2 =  2.
1  2(2) 5
The inverse of 3 = 3 =  3.
1  2(3) 7
Example 3.27
A binary operation  is defined on the set of real numbers R by
a  b = a + b –5ab
where a, b  R and R is closed under . Find under , the
(a) identity element (b) inverse of  14 . June 2001.
Ans: (a) 0 (b) 1 .
9
Example 3.28
A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
m  n = m + n + 10
Find: (a) the identity element;
(b) the inverses of 2 and (–5) under . June 1993.

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Solution
(a) If e is the identity element R, then for every a  R,
a  e = a  a + e + 10 = a  e + 10 = a – a  e + 10 = 0
 e = –10.
Hence the identity element is –10.
(b) For every a  R, there exist a–1R such that
a  a–1 = e  a + a–1 + 10 = –10  a + a–1 = –20
–1
 a = –20 – a.
Inverse of 2 is –20 – 2 = –22.
Inverse of (–5) is –20 – (–5) = –20 + 5 = –15.
Example 3.29
The operation  is defined on the set T = {0, 1, 2, 3} by a  b  a  b , where a  b
denotes the magnitude of a – b. State with reasons whether or not
(a) the set (T) is closed under the operation , (b) the operation  is commutative,
(c) there is an identity element, (c) each element has an inverse.
Solution
A table of values which defines the operation  on the set T is given in Table 3.9 below.
Table 3.9
 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 0 1 2
2 2 1 0 1
3 3 2 1 0
(a) From the table it is clear that whenever any two elements in T are combined under the
operation , the result is an element of T. That is,
0  1 = 1  T, 1  3 = 2  T, 2  3 = 1  T etc.
Hence the set T is closed with respect to the operation .
(b) It can be seen from Table 3.9 that
0  1 = 1  0 = 1, 0  2 = 2  0 = 2, 0  3 = 3  0 = 0,
1  2 = 2  1 = 1, 1  3 = 3  1 = 2, 2  3 = 3  2 = 1.
Hence the operation  is commutative.
(c) From the Table 3.9, whenever the element ‘0’ is combined to other element it gives
the same element. That is,
0  0 = 0, 0  1 = 1, 0  2 = 2, 0  3 = 3, 0  4 = 4.
Therefore ‘0’ is the identity element under .
(d) Whenever an element is combined with its inverse it gives the identity element. We
know from (c) that the identity element is ‘0’. For example the inverse of 3 is 3

AKRONG SERIES
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since 3  3 = 0. Similarly the inverse of 0 is 0, the inverse of 1 is 1 and the inverse of

2 is 2. Each element is the inverse of itself.
Example 3.30
Table 3.10
Table 3.10 shows the operation  on the set
{a, b, c, d}.  a b c d
Use it to answer the following questions. a b c a d
(a) State the identity element. b c d b a
(b) Find the inverse of the elements a and d. c a b c d
(c) State whether or not the operation is d d a d c
commutative. June 2004.
Ans: (a) The identity element is c. (b) a1  b, d 1  d , (c)  is commutative.
Example 3.31
A binary operation * is defined on the set, R of real numbers by a * b  a  b  3 ,
4
a, b  R. Find:
(a) the identity element of the operation; (b) the inverse of a real number x.
(c) the inverse of 2 . June 2003.
3
Ans. (a)  3 , (b) x 1   3  x, (c) the inverse of 2 is  19 .
4 4 3 10
Example 3.32
A binary operation * is defined on the set R, of real numbers by x * y  x  y  6, where
x, y  R.
(a) Calculate 3*(5*2).
(b) Determine whether or not the operation * (i) is commutative, (ii) is associative.
(c) Find the identity element of the operation *. Nov. 2004.
Ans: (a) 3*(5*2)  16, (b) (i) * is commutative, (ii) * is associative, (b) 6.
Exercise 3(c)
1. An operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by x * y = x + y – 2xy.
(a) Find the identity element e of R under the operation *.
(b) Determine the inverse under * of an element x  R, stating the element of x for
which no inverse exists.
2. An operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by
x * y = x + y – 2xy, where x, y  R.
(a) Calculate 2 * 3 * (–4)
(b) Find the identity element e under the operation *.

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(c) Determine the inverse of a general element c  R, stating the element for which
no inverse exists.
3. An operation  is defined over the set R of real numbers by
x  y = x + y + xy
(a) Find the neutral element e under the operation.
(b) Determine whether or not, to each real number x, there corresponds a real number
y, such that y  x = e
(c) Find y such that (x  y)  x = 3. Stating the values of x for which there is no
such y.
p  q = p + q – pq , where p, q  R.
Find:
(a) the identity element e of the operation .
(b) the inverse of the general element x  R, stating the value for which no inverse
exists.
p * q = p + q – 2 , where p, q  R.
 
(a) Evaluate 2  1  2  1 
(b) Find: (i) the identity element, e of R under *, (ii) the inverse p–1 of p,
(iii) the inverse of 2 2 .
p * q = p + q – 2, where p, q  R.
(a) Show that * is associative
(b) Find: (i) identity element, e of R under *, (ii) the inverse p–1 of p,
(iii) the inverse of 4.
7. A binary operation  is defined on the set T = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} by
a  b = a + b – ab, where a, b  T.
(a) Determine whether or not  is closed under T.
(b) Find: (i) the identity element, e of T under , (ii) the inverse of 2.
a * b = a + b – 1 where a, b  R.
Find the inverse of the real number y.
9. An operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by
m * n = m + n – 12 mn
 
(a) Calculate 1  3 * 1  3 ,  (b) Find:
(i) the identity element under *, (ii) inverse of the general element a,
(iii) the inverse of –1 under *.

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10. An operation * is defined on the set of real numbers by x * y = x + y – 7xy.

(a) Determine whether or not * is commutative .
(b) Find the identity element e of R under the operation *
(c) Determine the inverse under * of an element x  R, stating which element of x
for which no inverse exists.
x y
x  y = , (xy  -1)
1  xy
(a) Is the set R closed under the operation  ?
(b) Is the operation  commutative?
(c) Find the identity element for the operation  .
(d) Does each element of R have an inverse under the operation .
a  b = a + b – 2ab, where a , b,R.
(a) Calculate (5 – 3 2 )  (6 + 5 2 ), giving your answer in the form m + n 2
where m and n are rational numbers.
(b) Determine whether or not the operation  is commutative.
(c) Find the identity element e of R under the operation.
(d) Find the inverse of a general element a  R, and state which element of R has no
inverse.
x * y = x + y + 8xy.
(b) Find the identity element e of R under the operation *
(c) Determine the inverse under * of an element x  R, stating the element of x
for which no inverse exists.
14. The operation * is defined on R, the set of real numbers by x * y = 3xy
(a) Determine whether or not the operation * is associative
(b) Find the identity element on R.
(c) Find the inverse of x under the operation *.
1. An operation * is defined on the set Z of integers by x * y = x + y + 3xy.
(a) Construct a table for this operation on the set S = {–1, 0, 1, 2}.
(b) Find, from your table, a number b  S, such that c * b = c for all c  S.

x  y = 3x + 2y – xy, where x, y R.

AKRONG SERIES
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MATHEMATICS
(a) Find z such that x  z = x

(b) State the value of x for which z is not defined.
a  b = 2a + 3b – ab, where a, b  R and a , b  0
(a) Determine whether or not, the operation  is
(i) commutative, (ii) associative.
(b) Find y such that x  y = x, stating the value of x for which there is no such y.
4. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
x  y = xy + 2, where x, y  R.
Find:
(a) the truth set of 4  (2  x) = 58
(b) the element y such that x  y = x, stating the value of x for which there is no such
y.
5. The binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
2 2
m  p = m + p – mp
Find: (a) 4  3
(b) x such that x  y = y. Stating the range of values of y for which x is
defined.
x * y = x2 – y2.
 
(b) Calculate 2  3 * 4  3 
(c) Find x such that (i) x * 3 = 7, (ii) (2 – x) * (3 – 5x) = –3.
7. An operation * is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a * b = a + b + 2ab, where a, b  R.
(a) Calculate (2 * 3) * 5
(b) Find the truth set of the equation (a * 7) = (a * 5) + (a * 2)
(c) If a * b = 0, express b in terms of a and state the largest possible domain of b.
a b
ab =  , where a, b  R and a, b  0
b a
  
(a) Calculate 5 2  4 3  5 2  4 3 . 
(b) Determine whether or not the operation  is associative.
(c) Find the truth set of (x + 1)  (x – 1) = 3 13 .

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MATHEMATICS
9. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by

x y
x  y = , where x, y  R
1  xy
(a) Is the operation  associative? (b) Simplify 1  x.
(c) Hence or otherwise, find the value of
1  2  3 ….. (n – 2)  (n – 1)  n, where n is a positive integer.
x * y = xy2 + x2y where x, y  R
(a) Evaluate: –2 * (3 * 1). (b) Find x such that 3 * x = 30.
a * b = 2a + b, where a, b  R.
(a) Determine whether or not R is closed under *. (b) Find –2 * 3.
12. The operation * is defined on the set S = {1, 3, 5} by the table below.
* 1 3 5
1 3 1 5
3 1 3 5
5 5 5 5
(a) State the identity element for *. (b) Which element has no inverse
(c) Evaluate (3 * 1) * (5 * 3).
13. An operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by
x  y = x + y – 3xy
(a) Determine whether or not the operation  is commutative.
(b) Find the neutral element e under the operation
(c) Determine whether or not, to each real number x, there corresponds a real number
y, such that y  x = e.
(d) Find y such that (x  y)  x = –6xy – 18x2y.
a  b = (a – b)2, where a , b  R
(a) Determine whether or not, the operation  is commutative
(b) Calculate (i) a  (b  c) (ii) (a  b)  c and then determine whether or not the
operation  is associative.
(c) Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the truth set of the equation

AKRONG SERIES
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(x  2) + (3  x ) = 25.
15. A binary operation * is defined on the set P of non-negative real numbers by
x*y =  2
x  y , where x, y  P.
(a) Calculate:
(i) 24 * 8, leaving your answer as a surd in its simplest form.
(ii) r * r, r  R
(b) Show that * is commutative.
b a
a  b =  , where a, b  R and a , b  0
a b
(a) Determine whether or not, the operation  is (i) commutative, (ii) associative.
(b) Find x such that (x  y) = 2.
17. A binary operation is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a
a * b = a  , where a, b  R and b  0.
b
 
Calculate: (a) 3  2 5 * 3  8 5 ,    
(b) 3  2 5 * 1  3 5 .
 
(c) The value of b such that 3  2 5 * (b)  25  9 5 .
18. The operation  is defined on the set R of positive real numbers by

a2  b2
ab= .
ab
Determine whether or not the operation  is (a) commutative, (b) associative.
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ELECTIVE MATHEMATICS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

Book · September 2011

Christian Akrong Hesse

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

2. An even number is a number which leaves no remainder when it is divided by two

1.1.1 Set-builder notation

the complements of A and B are A = {2, 4, 7} and B  = {1, 3, 7} respectively. The

1.1.3 Venn diagrams

inside the rectangle which represents u. Furthermore,

1.1.4 Power set

(g) Not all prime numbers are odd,

1.2 Operations on sets

The information is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. If u(10)

A and B is written as A  B. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then

Example 1.10 Fig. 1.7

(d) ( P  Q) is shaded (e) P   (P  Q) is shaded

(d) How many students like Physics only? u

(a) The number of students who read Novels = y + 30 = 20 + 30 = 50

1.2.3 Set identities

6. P, Q, and R are subsets of the universal set u = {1  x  12: x is an integer} and

8. P, Q, and R are subsets of u, where u = {x: 4x – 42  58 – 6x, x is a natural

1.3 Three set problems

A  B is shaded horizontally (A  B)  C is shaded vertically

A  B is shaded horizontally ( A  B)  C  is shaded vertically

A is shaded horizontally A  (B  C) is shaded horizontally

(1) A B U (2) A B U (3) A B U

The number of students who offer Geography only = 31 – (5 + 3 + x) = 23 – x

3. In a class of 70 students, 45 offer Mathematics, 37 offer Chemistry and 43 offer

9. In a class, 39 study Physics, 35 study Chemistry and 33 study Biology. 13

Note the following

2.1 Addition, subtraction and multiplication of surds

2.1.2 Addition and subtraction of surds

(b) 2 27  3 75  2 147 = 2 93  3 253  2 493

2. Simplify the following:

3. Simplify the following:

2.1.3 Multiplication of surds

Multiplication of surds of the form a  b n

(e)  2  , 3 2  , (g) 5  3  , (h)  2 8  ,

(i)  2   5  ,  3  5 , (k)  8  18  , (l)  45  20  ,

2. Simplify the following:

2.2 Rationalization of the denominator

Rationalizing surds with binomial denominator

2. Express 4  5 in the form p  q 5, where p and q are rational number.

4. Express 8  2 6 in the form m 3  n 2, where m and n are rational numbers.

5. Simplify the expression 8  5 32  4 50

 78  , (n) 24  , (o) 3   (p) 24  .

3. Evaluate the following:

4. Express the following in the form p  r q :

2.3 Equal surds

Note:  a b 2 = a  b  2 ab and  a b 2 = a  b  2 ab.

2.4 Surd equations

Evaluate: (a) (3  1)  5, (b) 3  (1  5).

3. A binary operation  is defined on the set R of real numbers by a  b = ab,

5. The operation  is defined on the set R of positive real numbers by a  b = a  b .

Definition 3.1 (Closure)

Binary Operations Page 37

3.3 Properties of binary operation

3.3.1 Commutative operations

Definition 3.2 (Commutative operation)

Page 38 Binary Operations

3.3.2 Associative operations

Definition 3.3 (Associative operation)