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Project On Semiconductors PDF
Project On Semiconductors PDF
:-
G.Kavi Chandra
Class: XII
Roll No : 19
Certificate
This is to certify that G.Kavi Chandra
But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to
the atoms and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for
some electrons to jump the small ( 1 ev) energy gap and go
to conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures, the crystal
becomes a conductors. This is the specific property of the
crystal which is known as a semiconductor.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-
conductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as
if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the
entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to
shake off the valence electron. This energy becomes available
to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of
crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come
out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so
intrinsic semi-conductors are of little practical
importance. The conductivity of pure semi-conductor can,
however be enormously increased by addition of some
pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in a very small amount
(about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-conductor). The process of
adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve
its conductivity is called doping. Such semi-conductors are
called extrinsic semi-conductors. Extrinsic semiconductors
are of two types :
i) n-type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic
table like Arsenic is added to the pure semi-conductor, then
four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by
sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon
atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost
free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity
increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are
called extrinsic carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-
type extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will
have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and
have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that
all such electrons create a donor energy level just below the
conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap
between donor energy level and the conduction band is very
small, the electrons can easily raise themselves to conduction
band even at room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-
type extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of
the conduction band (ne) and the number density of holes in
the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure
semiconductor. If ni is the number density of electrons is
conduction band, then it is proved that
ne nh = ni2
p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-
conductor, the impurity atom can provide only three valence
electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is left in
one of the covalent bonds.
The gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons. As the
trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the silicon
crystal, it is called acceptor impurity. The holes so created
are extrinsic carriers and the p-type Si-crystal so obtained is
called p-type extrinsic semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-
crystal also possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the
p-type si-crystal will have a large number of holes (majority
carriers) and a small number of electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all
such holes create an accepter energy level just above the top
of the valance band as shown in figure. The electrons from
valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy
level by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and in
turn create holes in the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the acceptor
atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh Na > > ne
I = Ie + Ih (i)
It ne is the number density of conduction band electrons in the
semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of electrons then
Ie = eneAve
Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh
From (i) I = eneAve + enhAvh
I = eA(neve + nhvh) (ii)
If is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor, then
the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current is given by :
R = l/A (iii)
Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have
V = RI = l/A eA (neve + nh vh)
V = le(neve + nhvh) (iv)
If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:
E = V/l (v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = e (neve + nhvh)
1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)
On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the electrons (or
holes) per unit strength of electric field is called mobility of electrons (or
holes). Therefore,
mobility of electrons and holes is given by :
e = ve/E and h = vh/E
1/ = e(ne e + nh h) (vi)
Also, = 1/ is called conductivity of the material of semiconductor
= e (ne e + nh h) (vii)
The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and
resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon the electron and hole number
densities and their mobilities. As ne and nh increases with rise in temperature,
therefore, conductivity of semiconductor increases with rise in temperature
and resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.
The End