Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Energy
gy Loss in Vehicles
Standby Accessories
17%(4%) 2%(2%)
Aerodynamic Drag
3%(11%)
Fuel Tank Rolling Resistance
100%(100%)
( ) 4%(7%)
Braking
6%(2%)
Engine Loss Drivetrain Loss
62%(69%) 6%(5%)
Losses of fuel energy in a vehicle in city usage (highway usage)
[U.S. National Academy of Science, 2006]
Energy
gy Loss in Vehicles
Standby Accessories
17%(4%) 2%(2%)
Aerodynamic Drag
3%(11%)
Fuel Tank Rolling Resistance
100%(100%)
( ) 4%(7%)
Braking
6%(2%)
Engine Loss Drivetrain Loss
Vehicle
Vehicle Road Load
62%(69%)
Road Load
6%(5%)
Road Grade
Road Grade
[SARTRE project test, Sweden]
Offline modeling & [Toyota]
control development [6]
Engine certification [7]
Engine certification [7]
[Mathworks]
Objective
j
Estimate the road load parameters of a vehicle
Focus
Focus on rolling resistance & aerodynamic drag
on rolling resistance & aerodynamic drag
Use on‐road testing of a production vehicle
Use a novel force measurement method & compare results
p
with traditional method(s)
Outline
1. Introduction
3. Instrumentation &
sample data
5. Force measurement
method
6. Summary
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Slide 7
Rolling Resistance
For a free rolling tire under no slip:
Mg: Vertical load on the tire due to sprung & unsprung mass
vx: Tire longitudinal velocity
: Tire longitudinal velocity ω: Tire angular speed
ω: Tire angular speed Rz: Ground reaction force
: Ground reaction force
Rx: Rolling resistance force Mrr: Rolling resistance moment r: Loaded tire radius
vx vx vx
Mg ω Mg ω Mg ω
Mrr
Rx Rx
Tire normal force a
distribution is asymmetric.
The resultant normal force
The resultant normal force Rz Rz
acts towards the leading a∙Rz = Mrr= r∙ Rx Rolling resistance
edge.
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc. www.aanddtech.com force
Slide 8
Aerodynamic
y Dragg
[BMW]
Density of air
Frontal area of the vehicle
Coefficient of aerodynamic drag
Relative velocity of the vehicle wrt
l i l i f h hi l the wind
h i d
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Slide 9
Predominantly
P d i tl Includes
l d I l d i fl
Includes influence
includes the aerodynamic drag of road grade
effect of rolling
effect of rolling
resistance Includes dependence
of rolling resistance on
velocity & drivetrain
losses
• ‘b’ term is not always included
• A number of other formulations exist [8], including
• Influence of rotational inertias
• Correction factors
• Additional dependencies
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Slide 10
[Terrametrix]
[Nissan]
[Volvo]
[M t k]
[Maptek]
Rolling resistance: Tire Aerodynamic drag:
testing Wind tunnel testing Grade: Road profiling
Pros: High repeatability, aids in parametric evaluation
Cons: Higher cost, may not represent real driving conditions
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Slide 11
[VTI Sweden]
[VTI Sweden] [Timken]
[9]
Pros: Less instrumentation Pros: Drivetrain losses are excluded
Cons: Time consuming tests include
Cons: Time consuming tests, include Cons: Difficult to install on
Cons: Difficult to install on
drivetrain losses production vehicle
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Slide 12
[A&D]
Stop
Test Vehicle: FWD Mini Cooper S
Test Vehicle: FWD Mini Cooper S S
Start
Test Track: Proving ground in Tochigi, Japan
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Slide 14
Instrumentation
Anemometer
Measures wind velocity & direction
6‐Component Wheel Force Transducer
(Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz)
o Distributed force bridges with model based decomposition to get
orthogonal force components
o Very low cross sensitivity, interference & temperature sensitivity and
high sampling rate
o 0.1% resolution (6N or 1.8Nm) www.aanddtech.com
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc.
Slide 15
Instrumentation
Anemometer
Measures wind velocity & direction
6‐Component Wheel Force Transducer
p
(Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz)
I fl
Influence of drivetrain losses is included in this measurement
fd i i l i i l d d i hi
Influence of a and b terms is included in this measurement (ignoring bearing
friction and wheel well aerodynamic losses) www.aanddtech.com
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc.
Slide 16
Vehicle Instrumentation II
Laser Doppler Sensor
Measures vehicle velocity & slip
angle
GPS Sensor & In‐vehicle Network
Measures vehicle longitude,
latitude, altitude, and ECU CAN
communication
Inertial Sensor
Inertial Sensor
Measures vehicle roll,
pitch and yaw
Wheel Position Sensor
Measures 6 degrees of freedom of the tire
Measures 6 degrees of freedom of the tire
Digital Signal Processing
& A i iti
& Acquisition
100Hz sampling
(max 100kHz)
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Slide 17
Sample Data
FL
FR
RL
RR
Sample Data
Acceleration Coast‐down Acceleration Braking
FL
FR
RL
RR
Sample Data
Acceleration Coast‐down Acceleration Braking
Contribution of a and b terms
FL
FR
RL
RR
Outline
1. Introduction
3. Instrumentation &
sample data
5. Force measurement
method
6. Summary
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Slide 21
Coast-down Tests
Procedure:
• Conduct tests on a flat road with low wind conditions
• Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
• Begin coast down in a straight line
• Record vehicle velocity and vehicle velocity relative to wind as a function
of time
f i
35
30
25
20
Velocity (m/s))
Coast‐down
15
10
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc. Time (sec) www.aanddtech.com
Slide 22
Coast-down Tests
Procedure:
• Conduct tests on a flat road with low wind conditions
• Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
• Begin coast down in a straight line
• Record vehicle velocity and vehicle velocity relative to wind as a function
of time
f i
Flat road assumption
6
Road grade (deg)
4
2
Road grade (deg)
-2
-4
-6
20 Technology,
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D 40 60
Inc. 80 100 120 140 160 180
www.aanddtech.com 200
Time (sec)
Slide 23
Coast-down Tests
Procedure:
• Conduct tests on a flat road with low wind conditions
• Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
Accelerate the vehicle and put the transmission in N
• Begin coast down in a straight line
• Record vehicle velocity and vehicle velocity relative to wind as a function
of time
f i
• Use linear regression to obtain coefficients a, b & c
Use linear regression to obtain coefficients a, b & c
• Use minimization of
• Verify by Simulated Annealing
• SAE J1263 J2263 and ISO 10521 1 contain more detailed procedures
SAE J1263, J2263 and ISO 10521‐1 contain more detailed procedures
400 Sneaker
200
• Estimated Values:
Data‐sets augmented a = 194.87, b = 3.87, c = 0.37
0
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (sec)
35
(33m/s, 118km/hr, 73mph) Measured velocity
95% C fid
95% Confidence bounds
b d: 30
Calculated velocity
a: 184 – 204 25
m/s)
Velocity (m
20
b: 2.7 – 5
15
c: 0.35 – 0.39
10
5
(7.5m/s, 27km/hr, 16mph)
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Time (sec)
Slide 25
400
Sneaker
F
• Estimated Values:
200
Data‐sets augmented a = 191.69, b = 2.54, c = 0.41
0
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (sec) 35
Measured velocity
95% C fid
95% Confidence bounds
b d: 30
Calculated velocity
a: 183 – 200 25
m/s)
Velocity (m
20
b: 1.5 – 3.5
15
c: 0.39 – 0.43
10
5
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www.aanddtech.com 50 60 70 80
Time (sec)
Slide 26
Validation Procedure
During coast‐down:
Generalized equation under all conditions (including coast‐down):
Tire traction/braking
force
Wheel force
Wheel force
sensor
measurements
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Slide 27
Validation Procedure
35
30
25
20
m/s)
Velocity (m
15
Parameter
10
5
identification
0
-5
Parameter Validation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (sec)
Estimates are poor outside the coast‐down region
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Slide 28
Residual Analysis
y
Analyze cross‐correlation coefficient of residuals:
An example:
0.1 1.2
elation coefficient
06
0.6
0
0.4
-0.05 0.2
-0.1 -0.2
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time Time
Residual Analysis
y
Analyze cross‐correlation coefficient of residuals:
0.6 0.5
0.5
Residuals & steering angle Residuals & accelerator
n coefficient
n coefficient
0.4
0.4
pedal position
p p
malzed cross-correlation
malized cross-correlation
(Residuals & Steering
0.3 0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
Norm
01
0.1
Norm
-0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec) Time (sec)
Outline
1. Introduction
3. Instrumentation &
sample data
5. Force measurement
method
th d
6. Summary
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Slide 32
Use regression to identify c c = 0.5371
35 ID ID
30
25
20
Velocity (m/s)
15
10
0
Validation
-5
5
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (sec)
Validation Test
R2 2 = 0.9926
0 9926
95% confidence limit for c: 0.53‐
Proprietary and Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc. www.aanddtech.com 0.55
Slide 34
• Front tires: Bridgestone Blizzak
Proprietary and Rear tires: Bridgestone Sneaker
• Confidential, A&D Technology, Inc. www.aanddtech.com
Slide 35
Cross-correlation of Residuals
0.5
New residuals
0.4
Residuals & steering angle Coastdown residuals
0.2
0.1
-0.1
01
N
0.6 -0.2
0.5
Residuals & accelerator
0 50 New residuals
100
Coastdown Time (sec)
residuals
150 200 250
ent
pedal position
d l iti
orrelation coefficie
c pedal position)
0.4
0.3
02
0.2
(Residuals & Acc
Normalized cross-co
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
0 50
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100 150 200 250
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Time (sec)
Slide 38
Z Mrr
T
X
Let WFS measurements be represented as Fx, Fz and My
r Then, From laser Doppler sensor
Fa From encoder
Rz
Rz
Fa
Assuming that wheel well aerodynamic losses are negligible at low
g y g g
speeds, calculate
a = 271
Note: Measured value of rolling resistance is much higher than what
standardized tests predict [11]
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Slide 40
Mean RRF=85.4381 N
σRRF= 1.7629 N Mean RRF=84.5861 N
σRRF= 1.9318 N
= 1 9318 N
Mean RRF=84.8949 N
σRRF= 2.2992 N
Very slight reduction in rolling resistance as speed increases
b ≈ 0
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Slide 41
Summaryy
Coast‐down Method Force Method
aa = 191.69, b = 2.54, c = 0.41
= 191 69 b = 2 54 c = 0 41 aa = 271, b = 0, c = 0.5371
271 b 0 c 0 5371
• R2 = 0.9280 • R2 = 0.9926
• Estimate variance is higher
g • Estimation based on physics;
p y ;
• Estimation only over coast‐down; variance is very low
road load is under‐estimated for • Estimation can be carried out
non coast down conditions
non‐coast‐down conditions d i
during all conditions
ll diti
• Residuals are correlated with • Correlation is significantly
driver inputs reduced
• Changing the tire changes ‘c’ • Changing the tires preserves ‘c’
substantially very closely
• Influence of drivetrain losses is
Influence of drivetrain losses is • Influence of drivetrain losses is
Influence of drivetrain losses is
included NOT included
• Less instrumentation is needed • More instrumentation required
• Less distortion of vehicle • Vehicle aerodynamics are
aerodynamic modified to a greater extent
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Slide 42
Acknowledgements
g
• On-road
O dddata
t acquisition
i iti team:
t
– Takayasu Sasaki
– Yuuki Sakurai
– Masaaki Banno
– Hiroki Yamaguchi
• Kenji Sato
Sato, A&D Technology,
Technology Ann Arbor
• Dr. Michael Smith, A&D Technology, Ann Arbor
References
1. D.Yanakiev & I.Kanellakopoulos, “Speed Tracking and Vehicle Follower Control Design for
Heavy-Duty Vehicles”, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1996
2. D.Yanakiev & I.Kanellakopoulos, “Nonlinear
Nonlinear spacing policies for automated heavy-duty
heavy duty
vehicles”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 47, No. 4
3. Bae, Ryu & Gerdes, “Road grade vehicle parameter estimation for longitudinal control using
GPS”, 2001 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems
4. C. Musardo, G. Rizzoni & B.P. Staccia, “A-ECMS: An Adaptive Algorithm for Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Energy Management” 2005 European Control Conference
5. Hong Yang & Joel Maguire, “Predictive Energy Management Control Scheme for a Hybrid
Powertrain System”
System , US Patent 2011/0066308 A1
6. www.Carsim.com
7. J Fredriksson, E Gelso, M Åsbogard, M Hygrell, O Sponton, NG Vagstedt, “On emission
certification of heavy-duty hybrid electric vehicles using hardware-in-the-loop simulation”,
Chalmers University of Technology, 2011
8. Karlsson, Hammarström, Sörensen & Eriksson, “Road surface influence on rolling resistance
- Coastdown measurements for a car and an HGV”, VTI, 2011
9
9. JŻ b
J.Żebrowski,ki “Traction
“T ti efficiency
ffi i off a wheeled
h l d tractor
t t in i construction
t ti operations”,
ti ” Automation
A t ti
in Construction, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2010
10. Sandburg & Ejsmont, “Noise emission, friction and rolling resistance of car tires – Summary
p
of an experimental study”,
y , National conference on noise control engineering,
g g, Dec 3-5,, 2000,,
Newport beach, California
11. S.K. Clark, “A handbook for the rolling resistance of pneumatic tires”, 1979
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Slide 44
More Information