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The Effect of Ulexite to the Tribological Properties

of Brake Lining Materials

Ilker Sugozu,1 Ibrahim Mutlu,2 Kezban Banu Sugozu3


1
Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Tarsus Technology, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey

2
Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey

3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Selc¸uk University,
Konya, Turkey

Recently, different brake pads have started to be inves- comfort brake performance. Currently, more than 200 mate-
tigated in brake friction industry by replacing the asbes- rials are used to produce commercial brake friction materials
tos with new materials. This paper presents the role
of Ulexite on friction assessment and screening Test
and they are normally classified as binders, fibrous rein-
of newly formulated brake pads. Friction coefficient, forcements, non-fibrous reinforcements, and property modi-
specific wear ratio, and scanning electron microscope fiers according to their expected roles in brake performance
SEM for friction surfaces were examined to assess the [6].
performance of brake pads. From the results, they Current friction materials (non-asbestos organic—
concluded that the friction material containing Ulexite
improved friction stability and fade resistance. Further, NAO) used for brake-pads, linings, shoes, blocks, clutch
for heat treated samples they claimed a higher and sta- facings, etc. are based on very complex formulations con-
ble friction coefficient. POLYM. COMPOS., 39:55–62, 2018. taining ingredients of various types, natures and in vari-
C 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers
V ous combinations and amounts. The influence of these
ingredients on performance properties (most of the times
working synergistically) is so complex that formulation of
INTRODUCTION friction materials is still referred as an art rather than science
[7]. Tribotesting of such materials is equally complex job
Brake linings are important parts in braking systems
because brake materials are used in various forms (pads,
for all types of vehicles. They convert the kinetic energy
shoes, linings, blocks against different rotors such as discs,
of the car to thermal energy by friction in the contact
drums, wheels, etc.) under varying operating conditions.
zone [1]. The complicated series of events that occur in
Fade behavior resulting from the high temperatures
the contact zone play a crucial role in the tribological
observed during braking are directly related to the molecu-
behaviour of the brake lining materials and have been
lar structure of the resin [6]. The fade phenomenon in fric-
investigated by many researchers over many years [2, 3].
tion materials was explained by the thermal decomposition
The frictional forces and wear behaviour of the brake
of ingredients in friction materials at elevated temperatures,
lining change continuously during braking, depending on
and as a consequence, the friction force drops or decreases
various factors, such as driving conditions, brake lining
substantially to an unacceptably low level, which reduces
formulation, manufacturing parameters and the character-
braking efficiency and reliability [8, 9]. Therefore, Boron
istics of the friction film that accumulates at the interface
can used to improve frictional stability at high tempera-
between the rotor and friction material [4, 5].
tures; since it includes high proportion of boron.
The brake friction material for an automotive brake sys-
Boron minerals are contains Sodium, Calcium and Mag-
tem is a multiphase composite containing more than 10
nesium. Although there are more than 150 Boron minerals
ingredients. The ingredients in the commercial friction mate-
in nature, mainly economical Boron minerals are Tincal,
rial have been increased to such a large number during the
last two decades to meet various requirements for safe and Colemanite and Ulexit. Boron minerals content of glass dif-
fers from 1% to 22.5% depending on the quality and type
of the glass. Boron minerals are used in borosilicate glasses.
Correspondence to: I. Sugozu; e-mail: ilkersugozu@gmail.com
DOI 10.1002/pc.23901
In borosilicate glass production addition of boron increases
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). the mechanical strength and resistance to thermal shocks.
C 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers
V Boron has great importance that used in from detergent to

POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018
weapon and space industry. Boron minerals are consumed TABLE 1. The amount of ingredients used for friction materials
mostly in glass and fiberglass industry. Boron minerals can (wt%).
be used in heat resistant glasses. Raw and refined boron are
U-4/ U-8/ U-12/ U-16/ U-20/
used in ceramic glazes; the thin coatings are applied onto Specimens code UH-4 UH-8 UH-12 UH-16 UH-20
ceramics. Boron minerals help glass formation, reduce ther-
mal expansion and give resistance and durability to the Phenolic resin 22 22 22 22 22
ceramics. Various boron formulations can also be used as Steel fibers 15 15 15 15 15
Al2O3 3 3 3 3 3
flame retardants in mattresses, fabrics and paper. Boron for-
Brass particles 5 5 5 5 5
mulations are applicable to fabrics and paper by direct Graphite 3 3 3 3 3
spraying or by dipping [10]. Barite 20 20 20 20 20
Ulexite is a boron production which is widely used in Cu particles 8 8 8 8 8
industry. Due to its capability to increase heat resistant Cashew 20 16 12 8 4
Ulexite 4 8 12 16 20
and form abrasion resistant, it is used in boron glass pro- Total 100 100 100 100 100
duction and in ceramic industry. In addition, Ulexite
increases hardness where it is applied. Due to these rea-
sons, it is included in brake lining formulation. crucial role in the properties and cost of final products [11].
In the current work, in order to improve the perform- The most important factors involved during the heat treat-
ance of the brake lining, Ulexite was added into phenolic ment process are temperature, time and furnace atmos-
composites and tribological properties of such brake lin- phere. If heat treatment is carried out for a long time, the
ing were investigated. In the experimental studies, the pores may be eliminated, and the material becomes dense.
change of friction coefficient, the specific wear ratio, den- Although the degree of heat treatment increases with
sity and hardness of specimens were obtained. In addi- increasing time, the effect is small in comparison to the
tion, micro-structural characterizations of braking pads temperature dependence. The degree of heat treatment
were looked at by using a scanning electron microscopy. depends on the temperature, the activation energy, the dif-
fusion coefficient and the original size of the particles. An
MATERIALS AND METHODS attempt should be made to achieve the desired properties of
the parts by shorter manufacturing times and correspond-
Friction materials investigated in this study were manu- ingly lower temperatures because of the maintenance costs
factured using a simple formulation containing nine ingre- and energy consumption [12].
dients. Brake lining contains 9 components, heat treated Friction material specimens were produced by a con-
specimens i.e. binder (resin), filler (barite), fibers (steel, ventional procedure for a dry formulation following dry-
Copper, Brass particles), lubricant (graphite), friction modi- mixing, pre-forming hot pressing, post-curing, scratching,
fier (cashew dust, Ulexite) and abrasive (alumina). A new and grinding. An analytical balance was used to weigh
automotive brake friction material was developed by using each of the ingredients which were mixed for 10 min
Ulexite and its performance on brake friction characteristics using a commercial blender. The final mixture was loaded
was specifically examined. Friction materials investigated into a cylindrical (small samples) or a brake lining (brake
were NAO type materials containing nine different lining samples) mold. The mixtures in both mold types
ingredients including Ulexite. Different amounts of Ulexite were hot pressed at 1808C for 10 min and subsequently
were mixed with other regular ingredients in the brake pad. post cured. During the hot pressing process, pressure was
Specimens were separated two groups as heat treated released several times to release the gases that evolved
(shown with UH code) and non-heat treated (shown with U from the crosslinking reaction (polycondensation) of the
code). In these specimens, only half of the samples (shown phenolic resin. Post-curing was carried out at a constant
with UH code) were heat treated in 4 h at 1808C tempera- temperature of 1808C by placing the samples in a pre-
ture. The ingredients in the friction material comprise heated furnace (Fisher Scientific Isotemp Furnace) for
binder resin, friction modifiers, and space filler. Friction 4 h. The size of the brake pad was approximately 25.4 3
material specimens were produced by a conventional proce- 12.7 3 6 mm (and had a slot in a vertical direction in the
dure for a dry formulation following dry-mixing, pre- center). Using the Friction Assessment and Screening
forming and hot pressing. Detailed conditions for each Test (FAST) machine, friction tests were performed for
manufacturing step can be found in the author’s other study each material. For each sample, three friction test proce-
[8]. The composition of the friction materials studied in this dures were applied and the average of these three tests
work is shown in Table 1. Samples that show with H indi- was recorded. For comparison purposes, FAST testing
ces were heat treated in 4 h at 1808C temperature. was also repeated with samples obtained. A schematic
Heat treatment, as one of the most basic and important diagram of the friction tester and its contact geometry has
processes in brake lining manufacturing, causes particles of been previously published [13].
a material to join together, gradually reducing the volume Friction and wear tests were conducted using a specific
of pore space between them, enhances curing uniformity, pad-on-disc braking tester with grey cast iron as the coun-
reduces thermal expansion during service and may play a terpart with a 227 mm diameter and a hardness of 210 HB,

56 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 DOI 10.1002/pc


standard of TSE 555 (1992) [12] and calculated using the
following equation:

1 1 m1 2m2
V5 3 3
2pR fm n q

where V is the specific wear ratio (cm3/Nm), R is the


distance between the centre of specimen and the centre of
the rotating disk (m), n is the rev of the rotating disk
(rev/min), m1 and m2 are the average weights of specimen
before and after the test (g), q is the density of the brake
lining (g/cm3), and fm is the average friction force (N).
The densities of the specimens were determined through
FIG. 1. The test equipment used.
the Archimedean principle in water and were repeated
five times for each specimen after heat treatment [12].
In order to confirm uniform mixing and proper curing
according to national standard SAE-J661 (Fig. 1). In order during manufacturing, the distribution of surface hardness
to define friction coefficients of automotive brake pad was measured using a Brinell hardness tester. Hardness
under different temperatures, a test device was designed testing was carried out on a Brinell hardness testing
and manufactured. machine using a 62.5 kgf load and 2.5 mm steel ball to
Using a real brake disc type tester, the friction coeffi-
determine the hardness variation as a function of braking
cient characteristics of the pad next to the disc made of
pad compositions. The surface of the specimens was care-
cast iron were investigated by changing the pad. The test
fully prepared and each specimen was tested after produc-
sample was mounted on the hydraulic pressure and
tion of each braking pad (The surface of the specimens
pressed against the flat surface of the rotating disc. Before
was carefully prepared using silicon carbide papers from
performing the friction coefficient test, the surfaces of the
coarse (180 grid) to fine (1,200 grid) and each specimen
test samples and the cast iron discs were ground with
was tested after production). At least five indentations
320-grid sandpaper. The normal load was varied to
were made from the center to the edge of the specimens
achieve a constant friction force. Braking tests were car-
to obtain an accurate value of the hardness for each speci-
ried out under 1.05 MPa pressure, 6 m/s velocity and at
men and an average value was obtained. Experimental
temperatures from 508C to 4008C for 500 s according to
scatter was at most 62 HB.
national standard SAE-J661 and TSE 555 [12]. Electrical
Braking pads were examined and micro-structurally
heater was used in order to achieve 4008C in friction sur-
characterized by means of LEO 440 scanning electron
face temperature. The temperature and friction coefficient
microscope (SEM) under the vacuum of 1.29 3 1024 mbar
values were stored in a databank. The tests were repeated
pressure. Before the examination in SEM, all the specimens
three times for each sample. Friction coefficients-
were coated with gold in 1028m thickness using Sputter-
temperature graphs are obtained to identify the effect of
Coater machine by means of evaporation technique under
these variables.
the following conditions: 24 3 1022 mbar pressure, 3 A/s
In the braking tests, 1.05 MPa pressures and ten differ-
deposition speed, and 15 s deposition time.
ent temperatures (from 508C to 4008C) were used and
also friction coefficients were calculated for each temper-
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ature. In wear test, braking pads were tested 6 m/s sliding
speed, 187 mm average frictional diameter and 23,400 m The friction coefficient of the brake friction material is
path. By weighing the peaks to determine loss of mass in an important parameter affecting brake performance and
braking pads, specific wear ratio was calculated for each can be used to understand various issues of braking phe-
temperature and pressure. A pad-on-disc test equipment nomena such as stopping distance, fade, noise propensity,
was used, and the counterface was cast iron. The gray pedal feel, and brake-induced vibration. In this work, the
cast iron disc specimens had a composition of Fe-3.40% friction coefficient was measured as a function of temper-
C-2.20% Si-0.60% Mn-0.15% S-1.05% P. Disc samples ature to understand the resin effects on the friction effec-
of 227 mm in diameter and 9.75 mm in thickness were tiveness at different temperatures.
obtained from a domestic company in Turkey. The rough- As far as the friction coefficient is concerned, it varied
ness of cast iron disc was also Ra 5 1.40 mm. The Brinell significantly in the initial stage of testing. This can be attrib-
hardness of the disc samples was 191.13 kgf/mm2 using uted to the fact that the size of the contact area increased and
5 mm ball and 1.471 kN (150 kgf) load. the friction layer was developed on the surface. The varia-
The weight of the pads for each sample was taken tions of friction coefficient with temperature are depicted in
before and after the friction test, and the specific wear Figs. 2–6. The applied temperature was among 508C–4008C
was determined with the mass method following the with the increment of 508C. The characteristic temperature

DOI 10.1002/pc POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 57


FIG. 2. The change of friction coefficient as a function of temperature FIG. 4. The change of friction coefficient as a function of temperature
for samples U-4/UH-4. for samples U-12/UH-12.

dependences of the friction coefficient as detected in FAST between 508C and 2008C of testing in FAST. Such an
for all samples are shown in Figs. 2–6. As seen from the fig- increase is often associated with the adhesion of metal chips
ures, the friction coefficient shows a very different feature. in the brake lining to the friction surface of the cast iron
Figure 2 shows the change of the friction coefficient disc. The observed magnitude of change in friction coeffi-
as a function of temperature up to 4008C. The friction cient generally indicates unstable and aggressive friction.
coefficient varied significantly in the initial stage of test- Some mild vibrations and noise were observed after
ing, since the contact area increased and the friction layer approximately 2008C of testing. High metal content in sam-
developed on the surface [14]. The figure indicates that ple UH-8 dictated the character of the friction process. As
the level of the friction coefficient and the temperature at apparent from Fig. 3, sample U-8 exhibited a sudden
peak values were affected by the type of resin used. It is decrease of the friction coefficient after approximately
seen from Fig. 2 that for the UH-4 sample (4 percent 2008C of testing. This sudden change was typically
Ulexite at 1.05 MPa pressure), friction coefficient gradu- observed at the beginning of the test before a stable friction
ally increased up to the average value of 0.43 in 2008C layer was developed. The oscillation of the friction coeffi-
temperature and then it slowly decreased in 4008C. For cient (a sudden change within a short period of time) was
U-4 sample, friction coefficient sharply increased up to higher in this time period. In brake linings, heat is gener-
about 0.41 value at the temperature of 2008C, and then it ated due to friction during braking. This heat increases the
rapidly decreased up to 0.39 value at the temperature interface temperature and this, in turn, decreases friction
of 3008C. The observed amount of change in friction coefficient. Therefore, the decrease in friction coefficient
coefficient of U-4 in Fig. 2 slowly decreased after a little should be minimum for an effective braking [15].
increase (i.e., between 3008C and 4008C temperature) and Sample UH-12 exhibited a relatively stable friction coef-
then stabilized which is known as the typical friction ficient throughout the entire test. This indicates that a stable
manner in the literature [15]. Such increase can often be friction layer was developed after a short run-in. Neither
attributed to the adhesion of metal chips in the brake judder nor rapid changes of the friction coefficient occurred
lining to the friction surface of the cast iron disc. Note in sample UH-12. Friction showed a rising for UH-12 sam-
that this sample has 4% Ulexite which can be seen from ple performing a peak value of 0.46 at about 2008C, and
Table 1. then it slowly decreased up to the value of 0.44 between
The characteristic temperature dependences of the fric- 2008C and 4008C temperatures and then it remained stable
tion coefficient as detected in FAST for samples U-8 and between 3008C and 4008C temperatures. Ostermeyer [16]
UH-8 are shown in Fig. 3. In addition, sample UH-8 reported that friction coefficient decreases with increase in
showed a continuous increase in the friction coefficient interface temperature. For U-12 sample, friction coefficient

FIG. 3. The change of friction coefficient as a function of temperature FIG. 5. The change of friction coefficient as a function of temperature
for samples U-8/UH-8. for samples U-16/UH-16.

58 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 DOI 10.1002/pc


Boz and Kurt [15] explained this by sticking of the friction
surfaces. The sticking surface slips after a while due to the
relative movement and therefore this, in turn, results in
changes in the friction coefficient.
Except the U samples where friction coefficient keeps
almost constant, in all of the other samples, It is clear
from these figures that the higher friction coefficient was
obtained with the increment of Ulexite rate in brake lin-
ing. It is also seen from these figures that heat treatment
supplied better friction coefficient. It can be said that heat
FIG. 6. The change of friction coefficient as a function of temperature treatment supplied more homogeneous structure and
for samples U-20/UH-20. hence, micro-structural variations were minimised during
the brake action.
sharply increased up to the value of 0.43 at 2008C tempera- Generally, the friction coefficient decreased between
ture and then it decreased to 0.40 values at 3008C, and then 2008C and 4008C due to softening of phenolic resin. As a
it increased again to 0.42 values at 3508C and then slowly result, fading occurs during the brake action. Furthermore,
decreased to 0.41 values at 4008C temperature. These fluc- with the increasing temperatures, the ingredients in the
tuations to non-homogeneous heat load on lining contact braking pad are affected from each other due to faster diffu-
surface. That is because, heat towards the centre of the disc sion. This phenomenon is called thermal fade [22]. It is
from the contact surfaces changes during the test period stated in the literature that friction coefficient (l) generally
[15]. Therefore, friction coefficient changes continuously varies between 0.1 and 0.7 depending on friction force and
due to this effect. Stachowiak and Batchelor [17] explained disc-lining interface temperature [20]. In addition, it is
this by sticking of the friction surfaces. stated in SAE-J661 that disc-lining interface temperature is
For U-16 sample, friction coefficient increased up to about 3008C–3508C.
0.44 value at 2008C and gradually decreased up to about Wear mechanisms during wearing of friction materials
are extremely complex phenomena since several interactions
0.42 value at 2508C, and again it increased up to 0.43 value
and mechanisms are simultaneously operative during mate-
at 3008C. It is also observed from Fig. 5 that (for 16 percent
rial removal/gain process from both the surfaces. These are
Ulexite at 1.05 MPa pressure), for UH-16 sample, friction
dynamic processes which in turn depend on composition
coefficient slightly increased up to 0.46 value between
of contacting surfaces including that of third phase (tribo-
508C and 4008C temperature. Anti-fade is a phenomenon
layer), which in turn depends on operating parameters such
exhibiting the increment of friction coefficient during
as load, speed and especially interface temperature.
brake applications. The anti-fade causes uncomfortable jerk
No wearing cannot be expected from brake linings. Even
motions at the end of a stop and often accompanies
if very high wear resistant materials are used, this results in
low-frequency noise called “creep groan” [18, 19]. On the
wear of the counter surface. Therefore, a variation of the fric-
other hand, UH-16 sample gradually increased up to 0.48 tion coefficient with the temperatures is considered to be
value between 508C and 2008C and then it slightly much more important than the wear resistance in the friction
decreased to 0.45 value at 4008C temperature This undesir- materials. Specific wear ratio of heat-treated and untreated
able decrease of the friction coefficient at high tempera- specimens was shown in Table 2 for Ulexite added samples,
tures is called thermal fade [14]. respectively. It is seen from Table 2 that wear generally
For U-20 sample, friction coefficient slightly increased up decreased in heat treated specimens. However, wear in the
to 0.46 value between 508C and 2008C and then it slightly
decreased to about value 0.45 at 2508C temperature. It gradu-
ally increased up to about 0.43 value from 2508C to 3008C TABLE 2. Typical characteristics of the brake pad with ulexite.
temperature and then it decreased to about 0.42 value at
4008C temperature. For UH-20 sample, friction coefficient Specific wear Brinell
sharply increased to about 0.5 value at 1008 C and then it ratio (31027) Density hardness Friction
Sample code (cm3/Nm) (g/cm3) (HB) coefficient
decreased to about 0.46 value at 4008C temperature. In addi-
tion, for UH-20 sample, friction coefficient slowly increased U-4 16.2 1.660 13.9 0.388
to 0.49 value between 508C and 1008C and then it remained UH-4 12.1 1.688 15.3 0.420
stable between 1008C and 1508C temperature. It is seen from U-8 17.2 1.704 14.7 0.399
UH-8 14.0 1.722 18.2 0.440
Fig. 6 that between 508C and 1008C temperature friction
U-12 24.1 1.727 15.9 0.410
coefficient initially increased to a maximum level and then it UH-12 19.0 1.765 18.9 0.450
remained about stable for 1.05 MPa pressure. Natarajan et al. U-16 27.3 1.842 16.2 0.416
[21] a stable and higher friction coefficient is essential for UH-16 21.4 1.872 20.3 0.464
brake drum applications. However, two curves of U-20 and U-20 32.1 1.935 18.2 0.438
UH-20 26.2 1.983 23.2 0.478
UH-20 decreased between 2008C and 4008C temperatures.

DOI 10.1002/pc POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 59


samples numbered as untreated increased. The reason is that
due to the coarse-grained copper content. During the heat
treatment, at the beginning grain growth of copper positively
affected the wear resistance. In general, heat treatment sup-
plied better wear resistance comparing to untreated speci-
mens. Maximum wear ratio of the base friction material was
found to be 32.1 for U-20 sample. This value isn’t very high
for the brake lining materials. This value was decreased to
26.2 for UH-20 sample. Although this is a good result in
terms of wear resistance, this condition results in lower fric-
tion coefficient values (Table 2). On the other hand, 4% and
8% Ulexite (UH-4, UH-8) addition decreased the wear ratios
to 12.1 and 14.0 respectively. The wear resistances of these
specimens were also found to be low. Although, the speci-
men containing 20% Ulexite (UH-20) had a wear ratio of
26.2, its average friction coefficient was found to be 0.478 at
the temperatures of between 508C and 4008C. This is consid-
ered as a good result.
Worn surfaces pad materials were investigated using
SEM. Figure 7 shows the morphology of worn surfaces
of brake pads. It can be observed that the worn surface
morphology is significantly differing for the brake pads.
It is seen from these figures that more homogeneous
microstructure are observed in heat treated specimens
(UH). This is consistent with earlier works [8–24]. It is
seen from Figures that larger micro-voids occurred in the
samples having non-heat treatment comparing to heat
treatment. The bigger sized micro-voids are due to falling
of the metallic particles during the friction. It is known
that if the metal-component coherent surface is bigger,
friction and wear will be increased. It is also observed
that Al2O3 particles are distributed in homogeneous and
therefore they stayed as affective in friction surface. The
SEM images show a dominant erosive wear for the
non-heat treatment specimens (U codes) although small
adhesive wear lands are also observed in some areas. On
the other hand, a complex wear (abrasive, adhesive and
oxidation) is seen for the heat treatment specimens
(UH codes). Manoharan et al. [25] during abrasion, move-
ment of abrasive particle depends on particle morphology, FIG. 7. SEM morphologies of the friction surface of the U and UH
size and degree of stress imposed by particle and surface coded samples.
hardness of contacting surfaces.
As can be seen from Figures (U-4 and U-16), the fric-
tion layer is not continuous. A thick friction layer is Cu increases with increased temperature, as apparent
developed on the surface after testing. Such a layer is from Figures (U-8 and U-12). This tendency is clearly
developed predominantly in scratches, which were filled related to the ability of Fe and Cu to be easily smeared
with friction debris. The uncovered areas were domi- over surface with increased temperature. The friction
nantly associated with the presence of graphite in the layer adheres well to deform Fe and Cu. In UH-4 sample,
vicinity of the surface. Graphite is characterized by its micro-cracks are observed with relation to macro-cracks.
lubricating properties, and a low adherence of the friction In UH-20 sample, an active friction surface layer is devel-
layer can be ascribed to this fact. It can be clearly seen oped due to homogenous distribution of ingredients.
that friction layers have been formed in the samples. While macro-voids exist in U-8 sample, the ingredients in
Larger uncovered areas were observed during the testing. UH-8 sample demonstrate a flake like homogenous distri-
An image analysis of the friction surface revealed that the bution. In U-4 and UH-4 samples, since the ingredients
uncovered areas did not correspond to the content of actively participate in friction, some particles detach
graphite in the bulk (UH-4, UH-16, UH-20). On the other from the bulk and thus macro-voids are observed. On the
hand, the amount of surface covered by deformed Fe and other hand, micro-voids are observed in U-20 and UH-20

60 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 DOI 10.1002/pc


samples due to homogenous distribution of ingredients  Heat treatment supplied more homogeneous structure and
and friction. On macro and micro scale, the friction and hence, micro-structural variations were minimised during
wear characteristics of brake pad/disc depend on the for- the brake action.
mation, growth and disintegration of contact plateaus,  Heat treatment application changed the microstructure of
shape adaptation, and thermal-induced deformation the brake lining, increased the hardness and the density.
 With the increasing of temperature, the ingredients in the
[1–11]. In the case of U-4, U-8, U-12, U-16 and U-20
braking pad were affected other due to faster diffusion. On
samples, SEM photos are more blurred. It is speculated the other hand, hardness of specimen increases due to heat
that these observed in non-heat treated specimens. treatment and also specific wear ratio changes.
It seems not only groove formation occurred on the surfa-  Ulexite additive was positively affected the braking per-
ces but also smearing of the products on the pad surfaces. formance. It is known that during the heat treatment of
Although higher amount of graphite introduced into the cop- Ulexite added samples, Ulexite deports the water and
per based matrix material and could reasonable be expected establishing the structural equilibrium. Therefore, these
lower amount of surface damage for this composite, how- samples supplied higher and stable friction of coefficient.
ever, the result is reverse. Since the addition of large quantity  The heat treatment on Ulexite added specimens, the less
of lubricants, such as graphite, can cause decreasing of wear ratio was obtained comparing to the un-treatment
strength and so low mechanical durability the sliding surfa- ones.
ces undergo extensive surface damage. Because of soft low  With the increasing of Ulexite into specimens, friction
coefficient also increased.
strength of the pad materials transfer particles at the sliding
 The experimental results have shown that the friction
interface are produced and then agglomerated transfer
layer, with the use of Ulexite significantly improved the
particles grow. These particles plastically deformed and flat- overall performance.
tened on the pad surface with brake disc transfer particles to  Simultaneous faded reduction and stabilized friction coef-
form mechanically alloyed layers [26]. ficient. Friction surface and chemistry strongly affect the
The main features are described in the captions. The frictional performance on the friction layer.
surface of UH-20 showed smoothest surface topography  Wear improvements were achieved by adding Ulexite dust
and evidence of very thin fine layer of metal (Cu con- to the friction layer formulation.
tents) which was responsible for its stable friction behav-  The structure of such friction layer differs from the bulk
ior and highest wear resistance. In the literature Kumar material formulation and also depends on the environment
and Bijwe [7] also reported about frictional film transfer and applied testing condition.
on the counterface with rich in Cu due to the combined
ABBREVIATIONS
action of frictional heating and interface stress. This was
claimed to be responsible for high wear resistance of the FAST Friction assessment and screening test
composite containing copper. Surface hardness is one of NAO Non-asbestos organic
the most important factors that govern materials wear SEM Scanning electron microscope
resistance and harder surface would have higher wear
resistance [27]. Micrographs of U-16 and U-20 samples REFERENCES
showed appearance of small cracks on the surface indicat-
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marked as Cu in Figures. Represent the regions where the (2002).
Cu is interacted in the friction layer. Diffusion is occurred 2. T.A. Libsch and S.K. Rhee, Wear, 46, 1 (1978).
in the Cu particulates located in the friction layer. 3. H.S. Qi and A.J. Day, Wear, 262, 5 (2007).
Shiny patches and some degradation of ingredients were 4. D. Aleksendric and D.C. Barton, Tribol. Int., 42, 7
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This is generally responsible for the deterioration in friction (2009).
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DOI 10.1002/pc POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 61


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62 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2018 DOI 10.1002/pc

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