Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biology Majorship
Taxonomy
study of grouping and classification
Taxon
any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain category
Levels of Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Eubacteria
true bacteria
prokaryotic (without true nucleus)
with peptidoglycan in the cell wall
classification (based on shape)
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Group Shape Representative species
Coccus Round Staphylococcus
Bacillus Rod Streptobacilli
Spiral Twisted Spirillum
Classification Characteristic/s
Diplococci Two cocci
Streptococci Chain of cocci
Tetrad Four (4) cocci; division in two (2) planes
Sarcinae Eight (8) cocci, Cube like arrangement; division in three (3) planes
Staphylococci Clusters of cocci
Protista
eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
with plant, animal and fungus like characteristics
unicellular eukaryotes
Fungus like Protists
Phylum Characteristics Representative species Economic importance
Water Molds Found in damp environments Phytophthora infestans Causes potato blight
Slime Molds lack chitin in their cell walls Physarum polycephalum Decomposition
Fungi
eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
heterotroph (consumer)
some are saprophytes (consume decaying plants) and some are parasitic
classification
o zygomycetes (common molds)
resistant spherical spores
living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material
example-black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer)
o basidiomycetes (club fungi)
fungi with gills or pores
examples are mushrooms and bracket fungi.
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o ascomycetes (sac fungi)
examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, yeast
o deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)
have no sexual reproduction
examples Penicillum
Plantae
eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
autotroph (producer)
photosynthetic
Plants
Non vascular
(Bryophytes)
Vascular
Moss
(Bryophyta)
Liverwort (Hepatophyta)
Hornwort
(Anthocerophyta
Seedless
Seeded
Fern allies
Fern
Non Flowering
Flowering
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm
Monocot
Dicot
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Type of Arrangement
Type of Number of Type of leaf Type of root
flowering of vascular
flower cotyledon venation system
plant bundles
Monocot Floral parts in one seed Scattered Parallel Diffused or
multiples of leaf vascular leaf veins fibrous
3’s bundles
Dicot Floral parts in Two seed Vascular Netted leaf Taproot
multiples of leaf bundles in veins system
4’s or 5’s rings or
circular
arrangement
Animalia
eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
heterotroph (consumer)
Dichotomous key
determines the classification of an organism
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Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 2)
Plants
Root
anchorage and absorption
protection, support, reproduction, and storage (by specialized roots)
root systems include taproot, fibrous, and adventitious
o Taproot- composed of the primary secondary and tertiary roots
o Fibrous- of an extensive mass of similarly sized roots
o Adventitious-arise from the other parts of the plant like in the main branches, twigs
and leaves
Stem
main support system
composed of the main stem and their branches
can be with lenticels (serve as the breathing organ)
can be with leaf scars and bundle scars
with annual rings (can estimate the age of a tree)
can be specialized (ex tuber, stolon)
Leaf
serves in photosynthesis
with stomata (entry of CO2 and exit of H2O vapor)
can be specialized (ex tendrils, spines)
Flower
reproductive structure
male part is the stamen (pollen)
female part is the carpel (ovary)
develop to become the fruit
Transport
Xylem
o conducts water from roots to leaves
o composed of tracheids and xylem vessels
Phloem
o conducts sugar from leaves to other parts
o composed of sieve tube members and companion cells
Nutrition
by photosynthesis
light
CO2 + H2O --------------> C6H12O6 + O2
Chlorophyll
may be supplemented by carnivory (usually consumption of insects) like in the Venus fly
trap and Pitcher plant
Reproduction
pollination (transfer of pollen to the stigma) followed by fertilization (union of sperm and
egg)
has double fertilization
may be sexual (using seeds) or asexual reproduction
life span can be annual, biennial or perennial
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Animals
Nutrition
can holotrophic (feeding on solid organic material), saprotrophic (feeding on soluble
organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants) or parasitic (feeding on the
organic substances present in the body of another living organism)
some structures for obtaining food are tentacles, claws, teeth, and pinchers
food is taken into the gut or alimentary canal
Food is subjected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed
Transport
can be water-filled canals (like in jellyfishes) or in circulatory system (like in vertebrates
and certain invertebrates)
circulation can be open or closed (blood stays in the vessels)
Gas exchange
can diffuse in the tracheal tubes (like in insects), skin (like coelenterates, flatworms and
many annelids), gills (like in fishes), and lungs (like in most vertebrates)
Locomotion
wings (in birds), tails and fins (in fishes and aquatic mammals like dolphin and whales)
Reproduction
may be asexual (no gametes needed)
Fission- divides into two or more equal-sized parts
Budding- outgrowth develops on the parent animal that becomes a new individual
may be sexual (gametes needed)
Behavioral Adaptations
Reflex actions- can happen unconsciously
Learning- adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences
habituation- subjected to repeated stimulation
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Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
Matter
anything that has mass and occupies space
Matter
Pure
Mixture
Element
Compound
Homogenous
Heterogeneous
Atom
tiniest particles of an element
have subatomic particles
o proton-positive
o neutron- neutral
o electron-negative
has atomic number (number of protons)
has atomic mass (number of protons and neutrons)
Isotopes
same atomic number but of different mass number
Example
o Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3
o Carbon -12, Carbon-14
Ion
charged particles
can be cations (positively charged) or anions( negatively charged)
Element
composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
Molecules
aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds
Compound
composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions
can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances
Mixture
consist of two or more substances wherein their composition varies
May be homogenous (one phase) or heterogenous (multiple phase)
Examples of homogenous mixture
o vinegar
Examples of heterogenous mixture
o Soil
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Periodic Table
horizontal rows called period (indicates the number of energy levels)
vertical column called group or family (indicates the number of valence electrons)
element in the periodic table can be metals, metalloids or non metals
Covalent bond
sharing of valence electron
Ionic bond
formed by oppositely charged ions
there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another
States of matter
Solid
o molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces
o holds its shape
o volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid.
Liquid
o molecular forces are weaker than solid
o takes the shape of its container
o can flow
Gas
o molecular forces are very weak.
o take both the shape and the volume of the container
o can flow
Carbon
forms the backbone of biology for all life on Earth.
Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen (carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence
electrons)
Water
contracts until it reaches 40 C then it expands until it is solid.
Solid water is less dense that liquid water (thus, ice floats)
Can be attracted to other water (cohesion).
can be attracted to other materials (adhesion).
High surface tension
High boiling point
Water has a high specific heat (amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by
one degree Celsius)
Chemical reactions
Synthesis
o A + B AB
Decomposition
o CD C + D
Single displacement
o EF + G EG + F
Double displacement
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o IJ +Kl IL +KJ
Proteins
o Building blocks are amino acids
Amino acids may be essential (can not be synthesized by the body)
phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine,
leucine, and lysine
(Any Help) In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly
Valuable
Amino acids may be non essential (can be synthesized by the body)
Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cysteine, Glutamate, Glutamine,
Glycine, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, Arginine, Histidine
Individuals living with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of
phenylalanine extremely low to prevent mental retardation and other metabolic
complications. However, phenylalanine is the precursor for tyrosine synthesis.
Without phenylalanine, tyrosine cannot be made and so tyrosine becomes
essential in the diet of PKU patients.
Lipids
o Huge storage of energy
o Can be phospholipid, fats, waxes, oils, steroids
Fats-glycerol + 3 fatty acids
unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature
unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen atoms
(hydrogenation)
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saturated fats are solid at room temperature
Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated with
atherosclerosis. (plaques are deposited on the walls of blood vessel
reducing blood flow)
Waxes
fatty acid linked to alcohol
more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats
covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny
Some insects have waxy coats that prevent then from drying out.
Phospholipid
important in cellular membranes
Two fatty acids are linked to glycerol. A phosphate group is attached to
the glycerol
Steroid
example is cholesterol
The backbone is not an alcohol but a four-ring hydrocarbon
Nucleic acids
o Storage of information
o Transmit parental traits to offspring
o Building blocks are called nucleotide (sugar + nitrogenous base +phosphate group)
o Can be DNA or RNA
Criteria DNA RNA
Pyrimidine base Cytosine (C) and thymine (T) Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U)
Purine base Adenine (A) and guanine (G) Adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Phosphate group Present Present
Number of strands 2 1
Location Nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast Nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes
Robert Hooke
discovered the cell
Rudolf Virchow
stated tat cells come from pre-existing cells
Cell theory
Cells are the basic unit of life
All organisms are composed of cells. Every living thing is either single-celled or multi-celled.
all cells arise from pre-existing cells (Except for the origin of life itself).
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Prokaryote
No true nucleus
With nucleoid region
Eukaryote
With true nucleus
Structures Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic Cell
Cell wall Peptidoglycan with unique amino cellulose
disaccharide
Plasma membrane present present
organelles Not membrane-bound Membrane-bound
Sub-cellular Structure in Ribosomes ( 70S) Ribosomes (80S)
cytoplasm Thylakoid Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vacuole and vesicle
Lysosome
Peroxisomes
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
cytoskeleton
Cilia and flagella Does not have a 9 + 2 pattern of With 9 + 2 pattern of
microtubule microtubules
Centriole absent 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule
Nucleus Nucleoid (not enclosed by a Nuclear envelope surrounding
membrane) nucleoplasm, chromatin and
Innumerable enzymes nucleolus
Chromosome (loop of DNA)
nucleolus absent Concentrated area of
chromatin, RNA and proteins
Cellular structures
Cell membrane
o For protection
o Explained by the fluid mosaic model
Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed with proteins
Fluid because component move throughout the membrane
mosaic because of integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins,
phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins.
Mitochondrion
o Production of ATP
o Enclosed by the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix.
o folds are called cristae
o has its own DNA
Chloroplast
o pigment-containing
o has of small flattened sacs called thylakoids
thylakoids are arranged in stacks called granum
o has its own DNA
Ribosome
o Make proteins
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o May be attached (in rough endoplasmic reticulum) or free
Endoplasmic Reticulum
o May be Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Contain ribosomes
For protein synthesis
Flattened
o May be Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
No ribosomes
For lipid synthesis and detoxification
Tubular
Golgi Apparatus
o modifies and packages materials
Vacuole
o Surrounded by tonoplast
o For storage and osmotic regulation
Lysosome
o For intracellular digestion
o Contain digestive enzymes
o Suicide bag of the cell
o May destroy cellular debris, pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
Microtubules
o provides structural support and allows motion
o has protein subunits called tubulin.
Nucleus
o Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic material
o Surrounded by the nuclear membrane
Flagellum/Cilia
o Has 9+2 microtubular arrangement
o For movement
Centrioles
o Has 9+0 microtubular arrangement
o For cellular division
Nucleolus
o Assembles rRNA
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Only present in
Centrioles Always present lower plant
forms.
Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. Lysosomes usually not evident.
Plasma Membrane Present Present
Cell wall Absent Present
Chloroplast Absent Present
Nucleus Present Present
Transport
Passive
o Does not use ATP (the energy currency of the cell)
o Movement is through the concentration gradient (from high concentration to low
concentration)
o Examples
Diffusion
movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which
they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It
continues until the concentration of substances is uniform
Applications
Gas exchange for respiration
Gas exchange for photosynthesis
Facilitated diffusion
movement of specific molecules down a concentration gradient, using a
carrier protein
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane
Water movement in
Hypotonic environment-net water movement is going inside;
animal cell burst; plant cell turgid (no bursting because of
presence of cell wall)
Hypertonic environment-net water movement is leaving the cell;
cell plasmolyzed (shrink)
Isotonic environment-water entering and exiting the cell is the
same; cell remains the same in shape
Applications
Absorption of water by plant roots
Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted
tubules of the nephron (basic unit of the kidney)
Absorption of water by the alimentary canal
Active
o Uses ATP
o Movement is against the concentration gradient (from low concentration to high
concentration)
o Example
Sodium potassium pump
Bulk transport
o Endocytosis-cell membrane folds to ingest particles
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Phagocytosis-‘eating’
Pinocytosis-‘drinking’
o Exocytosis-release of materials from the cell; very important in waste disposal
Cell division
Interphase
G1- The cell increases in size
S- DNA is synthesized
G2- significant protein being synthesized
Through Mitosis
Happens in somatic cells (all cells except the sex cells)
Daughter cells are the same with the parent cells
Some importance of mitosis
o Healing of wound
o Replace of worn out tissue
o Replacement of skin cells
Through Meiosis
Happens in sex cells
Daughter cells have half of the genetic materials (haploid cell) of the parent cells
Some importance of meiosis
o Restore diploid state of parent cell
o Production of sperm and egg cells
Has two divisions (First division is called reductional phase; Second division is called equational
phase)
Events
Prophase I Synapsis or pairing of the homologous
Crossing-over (recombination or physical exchange of equal pieces of
adjacent non-sister chromatids ) follows
Metaphase I Homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes separate with sister chromatids remaining
together.
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Telophase I Two daughter cells are formed with each daughter cell containing only
one chromosome of the homologous pair
Prophase II DNA does not replicate
Metaphase II Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
Anaphase II Sister chromatids migrate separately to each pole.
Telophase II Cell division is complete.
Four haploid daughter cells are produced.
Cytokinesis
cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells
happens after telophase
Cancer
cells have uncontrolled mitosis resulting to uncontrolled growth
division beyond the normal limits
may spread to other parts of the body (metastasis)
Gregor Mendel
Father of Genetics
used the garden pea (Pisum sativum)
Results of Experiment
o First generation- purebred tall plants were crossed with purebred short plants all the
offspring were tall plants.
o Second generation- tall plants, which were the progeny of the first generation, were
crossed with themselves 75% or ¾ of the resulting progeny were tall plants and 25% or
¼ of the plants were short
Mendelian Laws of Genetics
o Mendel Law of Dominance
When recessive genes are with the dominant genes , the dominant genes are the
ones expressed
o Law of Segregation
states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are equally divided
and are equally distributed in all the resulting gametes after meiosis
o Law of Independent Assortment
states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the gametes and
fertilization occurs at random
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o A given gene can have more than two (2) alleles
o Can only be studied in populations
o Example-ABO blood group; Bombay phenotype (a person with antigens for blood type A,
B or AB has Blood type O)
Sex Link
o gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex chromosome
o Example- Color blindness and hemophilia in humans
Sex limited
o The phenotype is the same in a specific gender regardless of the genotype
o Example
Phenotype
Genotype
Female Male
HH Hen-feathered Hen-feathered
Hh Hen-feathered Hen-feathered
hh Hen-feathered Cock-feathered
Sex influenced
o Heterozygous genotype may exhibit one phenotype one sex and the contrasting one on
the other
o Example
Phenotype
Genotype
Female Male
BB Bald Bald
Bb Not Bald Bald
bb Not Bald Not Bald
Mutation
change in genes or chromosomes, which causes a new trait to be inherited
may be inheritable (change occurs in the sex cells) or non heritable (change occurs in the
somatic cells) mutations
may be negative (cause of sickness like sickle cell anemia) or positive (cause desirable traits like
superior intelligence) mutation
possible causes (mutagen)
o radiation (x-rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactive substances)
o chemical (formaldehyde, benzene)
Types
o Single gene disorders
information contained in the particular gene is either changed or absent
o Chromosome Abnormalities or Chromosomal aberrations
Changes in number
Changes in structure
o Mitochondrial disorders
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genes in the mitochondria (egg contains most of the mitochondrial cells) is
altered
o Multifactorial disorders
caused by a combination of genetic changes and environmental factors
DNA replication
Unzipping
o DNA unwinds
o Use the enzyme helicase to unzip
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
o Unzipping or Initiation
o Complementary base pairing
A pairs with U
T pairs with A
G pairs with C and vice versa
o Joining of adjacent nucleotides
Translation
o mRNA codons are read in the ribosomes.
o ends with the production of proteins.
o tRNA carries the amino acids to the ribosome; tRNA anticodons match with the codons
Applications of Genetics
Genetic Engineering
Animal Cloning
Plant Cloning
DNA Fingerprinting
Creation of Monoclonal Antibodies
Tissue Engineering
Benefits of Biotechnology
In Agriculture:
Improved crop varieties and animals in terms of quality traits, resistance to biotic and abiotic
stresses
Enhanced crop protections thru diagnostics & biodrugs for plant and animal diseases.
Plants have also been engineered to produce hormones, clotting factors and antibodies
Biotechnology has helped to increase crop productivity by introducing such qualities as disease
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resistance and increased drought tolerance to the crops
In Medicine
Production of pharmaceutical products like hormones (insulin), vaccines, interferons,
complements, important proteins like the anti-clotting factor.
In pharmacogenomics (study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s
response to drugs.)
Biotechnology lead to development of tailor-made medicines and more accurate methods of
determining appropriate drug dosages, improvements in the drug discovery and approval
process, safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of
genetic engineering.
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer
and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal
function such as immunity.
Evolution
gradual change of structure and function of organisms due to the changes in the environment
descent with modification
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Bioremediation
process of cleaning contaminants in the environment using living organisms.
Bacteria are efficient organisms for this purpose
Probiotics
food supplements using bacteria or fungi
Lactobacilli is a common probiotic ingredient
Virus
means poison in ancient Rome
characterized by the presence of capsid (protein coat covering the nucleic acid)
Multiplication
o attachment
virus locates a specific binding site on the recipient host cell.
o penetration
genetic materials or the whole virus enters the cell
o replication and synthesis
the genetic component of the virus dictates to the host cell to reproduce materials
needed by the virus for reproduction
o assembly
viral materials are structured to become new viruses
o release
new viruses are liberated from the host cell
Pathways to achieve the process of multiplication of virus
o lytic cycle
all steps in multiplication (see above) are immediately and successively done.
o lysogenic cycle
the incorporated viral genetic material does not immediately produce the needed
material.
genetic materials stay incorporated in the genetic make up of the host cell until
triggered to produce materials needed for virus assembly.
Classification
DNA Virus Disease caused
Herpes simplex Herpes
Chicken pox virus Chicken pox
Herbarium
collection of plant specimens which are dried, arranged and classified
serves as basis of identifying plants in succeeding collection
Aquarium
miniature water ecosystem
Terrarium
miniature terrestrial ecosystem
Taxidermy
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art of preserving the skins of different animals for study or exhibition
provides realistic visual aid in teaching concepts in animals like Integumentary system and
habitat.
Some methods
o Teasing
parts are dissociated by a solution then separated by fine needles
example
striated muscle fibers preparation
o Smear
spreads the specimen on the slide
example
blood
o grinding
hard tissues are treated then thinned using abrasives. Bone tissues (cross section)
are prepared using this means.
o Squashing
done by gently crushing the specimen to loosen the aggregation
example
Onion root tips showing the chromosome
Culture media
any material designed for growth of microorganisms
Microbes placed in the culture medium are called inoculum.
microbes growing from this setup are called culture.
agar is the most commonly used
o characteristics of agar
few microbes can degrade it making it in solid form
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liquefies at 1000C and remains liquid until about 400C
may be used in petri dish or test tube
Hay infusion
usually used in studying protists
o Steps in making
add hay (grass) in pond water.
drop glucose (to start growth of bacteria, the food of protists)
set aside for a few days to allow proliferation of protists
Levels of organization
Atom
Molecule
Biomolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Integumentary system
protection from harmful elements of the environment
prevents dehydration
synthesizes Vitamin D precursors
regulates body temperature
components
o skin
Epidermis layer
stratum corneum
composed mainly of dead cells
keratin is found on this layer
stratum granulosum
plays a big role in keratinization
granular in appearance
stratum spinosum
spiny in appearance
stratum basale/germinativum
site of active mitotic activity
Dermis layer
Next layer after epidermis
Contain sebaceous gland (secretes sebum/oil) and sweat gland (secrete
sweat)
arrector pili (contract resulting to goose bumps) muscle present
Hypodermis layer
also known as the subcutaneous layer hair
adipose tissues present
o hair
parts
shaft
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protrudes over the epidermis
made up of dead cells
hair follicle
capable of mitosis
o nails
for protection
for grasping objects
for scratching.
Some diseases
o Acne
inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
common areas affected are the face, chest, back and sometimes the scalp
o Dermatitis
Irritation of the integument
Muscular system
give shape
provides movement
gives posture
capable of heat production
o Types of Muscles
Skeletal- striated, multi-nucleated, voluntary movement
Cardiac- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement
Smooth/visceral -non- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement, spindle
shape
Some disease
o Muscular dystrophy
disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers
o Myasthenia gravis
autoimmune disease
too little acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe
exhaustion and muscle fatigue
Skeletal system
for framework and protection
storage of calcium
production of blood cells
compose of cartilage (tough but elastic) and bone
division
o Axial
Comprises of the skull, thorax and the vertebral column
o Appendicular
Constitutes the shoulder girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle and the lower
extremities
Types of joints
o Ball and socket-exemplified by the shoulders
o Gliding- exemplified by the carpals (wrist)
o Hinge- exemplified by the elbow
o Pivot-exemplified by the neck
Some diseases
o Scoliosis
lateral curvature of the spine
o Osteoporosis
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bones of become brittle and porous due to decrease in calcium and phosphorous
Nervous system
for transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body
Nervous System
Central Nervous system
Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
Sympathetic
(control organs in times of stress)
Parasympathetic
(control organs in times of rest
Circulatory system
Blood
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composed of plasma (made up of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other substances) and
formed elements (blood cells)
Blood cells
erythrocyte
o red blood cell
o carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide
leukocyte
o for protection against invading organisms
o may be granular (neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil) or non granular (lymphocyte and
monocyte)
Thrombocyte
o Platelets
o For initiation of blood clotting
Blood vessels
Artery
o carries blood away from the heart
o usually carries oxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary artery)
Vein
o carries blood towards the heart
o usually carries deoxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary vein)
capillary
o site of exchange of materials
Heart
4 chambers
o 2 receiving atria
o 2 pumping (blood away from the )ventricles
o Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker)
Respiratory system
for exchange of gases
parts include nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
o Nose
For prewarming or air
Filtration of air
o Pharynx
Common pathway of food, water and air
o Larynx
Voice box
Opens and closes the larynx
o Trachea
With C-shape cartilage
With cilia (for filtration)
o Bronchi
Pathway of air
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o Bronchioles
Smaller than bronchi
o Alveoli
Site of exchange of gases
Immune system
for protection
types
o innate (non specific; exemplified by inflammation, phagocytosis, chemical mediators) or
adaptive (specific; exemplified by antibody formation)
o active (antibody produced by the body in response to an antigen) or passive (actual
antibody is transferred to the person)
o Natural (natural exposure) or artificial (with human intervention like vaccination)
Endocrine system
Secretes hormones
Some examples
Gland Hormone Action
Pituitary Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of the uterus
Growth hormone Stimulates growth (specially the bones)
Prolactin Stimulates production
Follicle stimulating hormone Stimulates production of sperm and egg
Pineal Melatonin Biological clock
Thyroid Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine Stimulate and maintain metabolic needs
Calcitonin Lowers blood calcium level
Thymus Thymosin Stimulate T-cell development
Adrenal Adrenaline emergency hormone
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon Increase blood glucose
Testis Testosterone Development of secondary male sex characteristics
Ovary Estrogen Development of secondary female sex characteristics;
Promotes uterine lining growth
Progesterone Promotes uterine lining growth
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Digestive system
breakdown and assimilation of food
parts
o Mouth
breaks down the food into smaller pieces with the help of the teeth (incisors,
canine, premolar and molar) and tongue
o Pharynx
Common passage of food, water and air
o Stomach
Temporary storage of food
Highly acidic
o Small intestine
Complete digestion occurs
Receives secretion of pancreas and liver
o Large intestine
Reabsorption of water
production of some vitamins by help of microorganism
o Anus
Exit of feces
Accessory glands
o Liver
Produce bile (emulsifies fats)
o Gall bladder
Stores bile
o Pancreas
Secrete enzymes for digestion
Peristalsis
Rhythmic contraction of gastrointestinal tract to propel food downward
Urinary system
elimination of waste (urine)
parts
o kidney
nephron is the basic unit
o Ureter
propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
o Urinary bladder
Temporary storage of urine
o Urethra
connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
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o Reabsorption
allows necessary nutrients and substances to be absorbed by the blood while
eliminating ammonia, urea and other waste products
o Secretion
urine is already formed in this final process
Reproductive system
for perpetuation of species
male parts
o Scrotum
enclosing the testes
for thermoregulation.
o Testes
Produce sperms (in seminiferous tubules)
give rise to male secondary sexual characteristics.
o Epididymis
Place where sperm mature.
o Vas deferens
duct where sperms pass through
o Seminal Vesicles
secretes sugar, protein, and other substances that nourish the sperm.
o Ejaculatory duct
results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens
o Prostate gland
secretes an alkaline fluid neutralizing the vagina from its acidic condition.
o Bulbourethral glands
pea-sized structure situated below the prostate gland
helps lubricate the penis during intercourse
female parts
o Ovaries
secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone
production of egg
o Fallopian Tubes
Also called oviducts
serves as a passageway egg cell
site of fertilization (ampulla)
o Uterus
Place of the fetus for growth and development.
o Vagina
receives the erected penis
provides a passageway for the fetus to be delivered during the process of labor.
o Vulva
part of the vagina located externally. Incorporated in this area are pairs of lip-like
structures known as the labia. The outer portion is the labia majora and the inner
is the labia minora.
o Mammary glands
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milk production
Fundamentals of Physics
System
collection of parts confined in a specific boundary
Ecosystem, the major unit in ecology is an example of a system
May be an open (may acquire inputs from the environment; ecosystem is an example ) or a
closed system (No input can pass through the boundary of the system)
Thermodynamics
study of collective effects of heat, work and energy in a system.
First Law of Thermodynamics
o law of conservation of energy
o energy is not created nor destroyed but simply converted to another form
o Example
the light energy of the sun is converted by the plants into chemical energy. When
humans walk using the chemical energy, then the chemical energy is converted
to mechanical energy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
o that heat flows spontaneously from a higher temperature material to a lower temperature
material
o can also be viewed in terms of entropy (conversion of matter and energy to a more
random or disorganized state)
o example
Between winter and spring, ice melts. This means that ice accepts heat making it
in a more disorganized state (since liquid molecules have more freedom of
movement)
Heat transfer
can be through conduction, convection and radiation. These can be differentiated with the media
used.
Conduction
o Materials which conduct heat well are called thermal conductors (example is wood)
o Materials that do not conduct well are called thermal insulators
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o Example
A lizard resting on its belly on the soil is losing heat in a sunny day by conduction
Convection
o When fluids are heated, they expand. This results to increase in volume and a
subsequent decrease in density. On the other hand, when fluids area cooled they
decrease in volume and the density increases.
o fluid flowing with it is called the convection current.
o Example
dispersing pollutants in cities
In lakes or oceans, valuable nutrients settling at the bottom can not be accessed
by phototrophic organisms above unless the bottom waters move up. This is
achieved when there is a turnover, convection current.
Radiation
o Example
During forest fires, trunks acquires heat form burning materials through radiation
Lemurs with white fur are able reflect light to the surrounding. During cold
mornings, they allow their small black skin on their belly towards the sun. This
captures more heat for warming up
Ecology
Study of the interaction of organisms to their environment
Relationships
Mutualism
o both members are benefited
o Example
Flower and insect
Commensalism
o One benefits (commensal) while the other is not affected (host)
o Example
Epiphytes (like orchids) and tall trees
Parasitism
o One is benefited (parasite) and the other is harmed (host)
o Classification of parasite
Ectoparasite
Parasite lives outside the host (like mosquito)
Endo parasite
Parasite lives inside the host (like intestinal worms)
Competition
o May impart limiting effects on both members
o may be Interspecific (competing organisms belong to different species) intraspecific
(competing organisms belong to the same species) competitions
Predation
o One is benefited (predator) and the other is harmed (prey)
o Example
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Snake (predator) and mouse (prey)
Niche
role or status of the organism in the community or ecosystem
this can be through participation in the transfer of energy, recycling of materials, shaping
communities
Habitat
place where an organism lives
Food chain
series of eating and be eaten
example
o rice plantmousesnake-decomposer
Food web
composed of different food chains
Food pyramid
shows the energy transferred to each trophic level
producers occupy the base of the pyramid
final consumers at the tip
follows the rule of 10 (energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about 10%.)
Biomes
Tundra
o in polar region
o Limited plant growth
o little precipitation
o with permafrost (permanently frozen soil)
Taiga
o also called boreal or coniferous forest
o found in cool, elevated areas
o with tall conifers with needle-like leaves
Temperate deciduous forest
o With deciduous trees (leaves change color together with the season, and shed in winter)
Tropical Forest
o Climate here is mild, as summer remains warm and winter is cold
o Strata include canopy, understorey and floor
Savanna
o grasslands with few shrubs and trees
o site of safari
Grasslands
o Abundant with grass
Desert
o least amount of precipitation
o always dry but NOT always hot
Aquatic ecosystem
Freshwater
o River
o Lake
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Marine (salt) water
o Sea
o Ocean
Succession
change in the species structure of an ecological community over time
may be primary succession (takes place on an area that is originally completely empty of life) or
secondary succession (occurs in an area where life once existed but has then been destroyed)
Natural ecosystem
present in the environment that receives no human intervention
example
o forest
Managed ecosystem
receives no human intervention
example
o aquarium
o terrarium
Frequency
number of times the event occurred
Ratio
comparison of two numbers
Example
o 8:12
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o 8/12
Proportion
statement that two ratios are equal
Example
o 3/4 = 6/8
o 2/4=1/2
Probability
belief that an event will occur or has occurred
Central tendencies
needs to be able to understand summaries of large amounts of data that use simple measures to
best represent the location of the data as a whole.
measures of central tendency
o Mean
arithmetic mean
simply the average of the group
Example
Mean of 13, 14 and 15 is 14 (13+14+15= 42; 42⌯ 3 = 14)
o Median
middle score or the midpoint of the data
Median is a better description than the mean of the majority when the distribution
is skewed
Example
Median of 11, 13, 15, 21,and 45 is 15 (numbers are arranged in
increasing/decreasing order; there are 5 numbers, thus the midpoint is
the 3rd number which is 15)
Median of 11, 13, 15, 21, 25 and 45 is 18 (numbers are arranged in
increasing/decreasing order; there are 6 numbers, the midpoint is
between the 3rd and 4th numbers; thus 15+21 =36; 36⌯2=18)
o Mode
most frequent score
Example
Mode of 2, 2, 3, 5 and 6 is 2
Correlation
describes the degree of relationship between two variables
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o Sumerian Civilization -Sumer, is the cradle of the world’s earliest known civilization
Standardized Measurement following the sexagesimal system (using number 60
as base). They divided the circle into 360 degrees, an hour into 60 minutes and
a minute into 60 seconds)
Canals, dikes, wires and reservoirs
Potter’s Wheel
Wheeled Vehicle
Sailboat
Systematized Farming
Irrigation system –constructed canals for irrigation
Bleaching, dyeing, preparing paints, cosmetics and perfumes
Materia Medica- Compilation of prescriptions for different diseases made from
assorted botanical, zoological, and mineralogical ingredients.
First writing system called cuneiform which is a set of word pictures depicted in
symbols pressed into wet clay tablets and then sun dried
o Babylonian Civilization
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Sun Dial
Calendar
Developed an elaborate irrigation system of canals
o Egyptian Civilization
Hieroglyphics
Papyrus- first paper
Early weather forecasting
Astronomy
Production of Bread and Beer
Henna
Embalming
Metallurgy
o Minoan/ Cretan Civilization
Drainage System
o Greek Civilization
Logical Thinking
Astronomy
Atomic Theory
First Classification of Living things
First accurate measurement of the earth’s diameter
Archimedes Screw
Dissection of Animal corpses
Geometry
o Persian Civilization
Common Calendar
Postal service
Uniform system of gold and silver coinage
o Roman Civilization
Installation of public toilets
Adapted Greek teachings
o Arabic/ Islamic Civilization
Alchemy
Numerical System
Glass lens for magnification
Produced the first gun
o Chinese Civilization
Lacquer
Silk Production
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Records on eclipses
Apothecaries and acupuncture
Paper Making
Gun Powder
Printing
o Indus-Hindu Civilization
Developed metallurgy
Accuracy in measurement
Prevention and treatment of ailments
o The Middle Ages
Algebra was organized and expanded
Comprehensive medical encyclopedia-Canon of Medicine
Introduction of the Hindu Arabic system
o The Renaissance
Improved process of paper making and printing
Scientific method
Microscope
Age of exploration
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