BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More specifically, the electric current is
the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit. The charge can be negatively charged
electrons or positive charge carriers including protons, positive ions or holes. The magnitude of the
electric current is measured in coulombs per second, the common unit for this being the Ampere or
amp which is designated by the letter ‘A’. The Ampere or amp is widely used within electrical and
electronic technology along with the multipliers like milliamp (0.001A), microamp (0.000001A),
and so forth. Current flow in a circuit is normally designated by the letter ‘I’, and this letter is used
in equations like Ohms law where V=I⋅R.
What is electric current: the basics
The basic concept of current is that it is the movement of electrons within a substance. Electrons
are minute particles that exist as part of the molecular structure of materials. Sometimes these
electrons are held tightly within the molecules and other times they are held loosely and they are
able to move around the structure relatively freely. One very important point to note about the
electrons is that they are charged particles - they carry a negative charge. If they move then an
amount of charge moves and this is called current. It is also worth noting that the number of
electrons that able to move governs the ability of a particular substance to conduct electricity. Some
materials allow current to move better than others. The motion of the free electrons is normally
very haphazard - it is random - as many electrons move in one direction as in another and as a
result there is no overall movement of charge.

If a force acts on the electrons to move them in a particular direction, then they will all drift in the
same direction, although still in a somewhat haphazard fashion, but there is an overall movement in
one direction. The force that acts on the electrons is called and electromotive force, or EMF, and its
quantity is voltage measured in volts.

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To gain a little more understanding about what current is and how it acts in a conductor, it can be
compared to water flow in a pipe. There are limitations to this comparison, but it serves as a very
basic illustration of current and current flow. The current can be considered to be like water
flowing through a pipe. When pressure is placed on one end it forces the water to move in one
direction and flow through the pipe. The amount of water flow is proportional to the pressure
placed on the end. The pressure or force placed on the end can be likened to the electro-motive
force. When the pressure is applied to the pipe, or the water is allowed to flow as a result of a tap
being opened, then the water flows virtually instantaneously. The same is true for the electrical
current. To gain an idea of the flow of electrons, it takes 6.24 billion, billion electrons per second to
flow for a current of one ampere.
Conventional current and electron flow
There is often a lot of misunderstanding about conventional current flow and electron flow. This
can be a little confusing at first but it is really quite straightforward. The particles that carry charge
along conductors are free electrons. The electric field direction within a circuit is by definition the
direction that positive test charges are pushed. Thus, these negatively charged electrons move in
the direction opposite the electric field.

This came about because the initial investigations in static and dynamic electric currents were
based upon what we would now call positive charge carriers. This meant that then early convention
for the direction of an electric current was established as the direction that positive charges would
move. This convention has remained and it is still used today.
In summary:

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 Conventional current flow: The conventional current flow is from positive to the negative
terminal and indicates the direction that positive charges would flow.
 Electron flow: The electron flow is from negative to positive terminal. Electrons are negatively
charged and are therefore attracted to the positive terminal as unlike charges attract.

This is the convention that is used globally to this day, even though it may seem a little odd and out-
dated.
Speed of electron or charge movement
The speed of the transmission of electrical current is very different to that of the speed of the actual
electron movement. The electron itself bounces around in the conductor, and possibly only makes
progress along the conductor at the rate of a few millimetres a second. This means that in the case
of alternating current, where the current changes direction 50 or 60 times per second, most of the
electrons never make it out of the wire.
To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in
near-straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light.
Effects of current
When an electric current flows through a conductor there are a number of signs which tell that a
current is flowing.
 Heat is dissipated: Possibly the most obvious is that heat is generated. If the current is small
then the amount of heat generated is likely to be very small and may not be noticed. However if
the current is larger then it is possible that a noticeable amount of heat is generated. An electric
fire is a prime example showing how a current causes heat to be generated. The actual amount
of heat is governed not only be the current, but also be the voltage and the resistance of the
conductor.
 Magnetic effect: Another effect which can be noticed is that a magnetic field is built up around
the conductor. If a current is flowing in conductor then it is possible to detect this. By placing a
compass close to a wire carrying a reasonably large direct current, the compass needle can be
seen to be deflecting. Note this will not work with mains because the field is alternating too fast
for the needle to respond and the two wires (live and neutral) close together in the same cable

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 will cancel out the field.
The magnetic field generated by a current is put to good use in a number of areas. By winding a
wire into a coil, the effect can be increased, and an electro-magnet can be made. Relays and a
host of other items use the effect. Loudspeakers also use a varying current in a coil to cause
vibrations to occur in a diaphragm which enable the electronic currents to be converted into
sounds.
How to measure current
One important aspect of current knows the amount of current that may be flowing in a conductor.
As electric current is such a key factor in electrical and electronic circuits, knowing what current is
flowing is very important.
There are many different ways is measuring current. One of the easiest is to use a multimeter.
How to measure current with a DMM:
Using a DMM, digital multimeter it is easy to measure current by placing the DMM actually in the
circuit carrying the current. The DMM will then give an accurate reading of the current flowing in
the circuit
Current is one of the most important and fundamental elements within electrical and electronic
technology. The current flowing in a circuit can be used in a variety of ways from generating heat to
causing circuits to switch, or information to be stored in an integrated circuit.
Unit of current; ampere definition
The ampere is equivalent to a charge of one coulomb per second flowing in a circuit. Although this
is the practical realisation of the ampere, the formal definition relates the level of current to basic SI
parameters. One of the major distinctions in the type of current flow in a circuit is whether the
current is an alternating current, AC, or direct current, DC. AC & DC electricity are both widely used
in electrical and electronic circuits, each being used for different purposes. Both AC and DC have
their own characteristics and provide different advantages that can be used in different situations.
What is direct current, DC
As the name implies direct current, DC is a form of electricity that flows in one direction – it is direct
and this gives it its name.

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The characteristic of direct current, DC can be shown on a graph. Here the current can be seen to be
seen to be either positive or negative only
Applications direct current, DC
Direct current, DC is used in very many areas:
 Batteries: Batteries, both non-rechargeable and re-chargeable can only supply direct current.
The rechargeable batteries also need recharging using direct current.
 Electronic equipment: All equipment like computers, radios, mobile phones, and in fact all
electronic equipment uses direct current to power the electronic circuits. Bipolar transistors,
FETs and the integrated circuits that use these components all need direct current to power
them and will damaged if a reverse polarity is supplied. Although many of these items are
powered by AC mains, there is a unit called a power supply within the unit that converts the
incoming AC to direct current with the right voltage(s) within the electronic item.
 Some electrical equipment: Although a lot of electrical equipment uses AC, some uses
direct current.
 Solar panels: Solar panels used for generating electricity produce direct current directly
from the solar panels themselves. When used with AC mains to feed into the mains or
supply local AC power for AC supplies, a unit known as an inverter is required to enable the
direct current, DC from the solar panels to be converted to AC.
What is alternating current, AC
Alternating current, AC is different to direct current. As the name implies, it flows first in one
direction and then the other.

The graph above shows the current waveform varying as a sine wave, with the current first moving
in one direction and then the other.Often it is more usual to see the voltage variations. Again for an
alternating waveform the voltage will vary positive and negative.It can be seen for both current and
voltage that the waveform varies becoming, in this example, first positive and then negative.

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The sine wave is easy to present and understand, but a wide variety of other waveforms can also
constitute an alternating waveform with alternating current. There are a few salient points about
alternating waveforms. The first is the time period for the waveform. This is the time from a point
on one cycle of the waveform to the identical pint on the next cycle. Often the peak is the easiest to
see as shown, but any point may be taken - for example when a particular voltage is reached in a
given direction - this may a voltage trigger point, etc. Zero crossings are another easy point to
identify. Another point about an alternating waveform is its frequency. This is the number of times
a given point on the waveform is seen within a second and it is measured in Hertz, Hz where 1 Hz is
one cycle per second. The example shown has a frequency of 3 Hz as three cycles are seen within a
second. As other examples, mains power has a frequency of either 50 Hz or 60 Hz dependent upon
the country. Europe and many other countries use 50 Hz, whereas North America, Caribbean, and
some South American countries use 60 Hz.
Alternating current applications
Alternating current tends to be used for power distribution. It has the advantage that it can easily
be converted to other voltages using a simple transformer - transformers do not work with direct
current.
If power is distributed at a high voltage then the losses are much lower. Take the example of a 250
volt supply carrying 4 amps and a 1 Ω wire resistance. As power, watts = volts x amps, the power
being carried is 1000 watts. The power loss is I2 x R = 16 watts.
If a voltage line is carrying 4 amps but has a voltage of 250 000, volts, i.e. 250 kV, and the line is
carrying 4 amps, then the power loss is still the same, but the overall transmission system is
carrying 1 MW and 16 watts is an almost negligible loss.
It is for this reason that high voltages are used for power transmission, and then reduced to a
relatively safe level for use within domestic and commercial properties.
In view of the fact that alternating current is used for the supply system, it is also used in motors,
for heating and for many other items without the need for it to be converted to direct current.

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AC vs DC
In many areas there can be a decision to be made of AC vs DC and which form of supply is best for a
given application. Alternating current, AC and direct current, DC both have their advantages and
disadvantages, but this means that there is a choice to select the best option for any given use or
application. Alternating current, AC is generally used for power distribution, which is why the
mains sockets in our homes and at work provide an alternating current to power whatever is
needed, but direct current, DC is more widely used for the electronics boards themselves and for
many other applications. Both alternating and direct current supplies are both widely used across
the electrical and electronics industries, each in their own areas of benefit.
Both AC and DC are able to provide electrical power transfer, but with slightly different benefits.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The electrical potential is defined as the capability of the charged body to do work. When the body
is charged, either electric electrons are supplied to it, or they are removed from it. In both the cases,
the work is done. This work is stored in the body in the form of electric potential. Thus, the body
can do the work by exerting a force of attraction or repulsion on the other charged particles.

The capacity of the charged body to do work determines the electrical potential on it. The measure
of the electrical potential is the work done to charge a body to one coulomb, i.e.,

Units: Since the work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs, the unit of electric
potential is joules /coulombs, the unit of electric potential isjoules/coulomb or volts.

Hence a body is said to have an electrical potential of 1 volt if one joule of work is done to charge
the body to one coulomb.

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Electric Potential Difference
The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to carrying a unit charge
from one point to another in an electric field. In other words, the potential difference is defined as
the difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.

When a body is charged to a different electric potential as compared to the other charged body, the
two bodies are said to a potential difference. Both the bodies are under stress and strain and try to
attain minimum potential
Unit: The unit of potential difference is volt.

POWER
The rate at which the work is being done in an electrical circuit is called an electric power. In other
words, the electric power is defined as the rate of the transferred of energy. The electric power is
produced by the generator and can also be supplied by the electrical batteries. It gives a low
entropy form of energy which is carried over long distance and also it is converted into various
other forms of energy like motion, heat energy, etc. The electric power is divided into two types, i.e.,
the AC power and the DC power. The classification of the electric power depends on the nature of
the current. The electric power is sold regarding joule which is the product of the power in
kilowatts and the running time of the machinery in hours. The utility of power is measured by the
electric meter which records the total energy consumed by the powered devices. The electric power
is given by the equation shown below.

Where V is the voltage in volts, I is the current in amperes, R is the resistance offered by the
powered devices, T is the time in seconds and the P is the power measured in watts.
Unit of Electric Power
The unit of electrical power is Watt.

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If,
Thus, the power consumed in an electrical circuit is said to one watt if one ampere current flows
through the circuit when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.The bigger unit of

electrical power is the kilowatt (kW), it is usually used in the power system
Types of an Electric Power
The electrical power is mainly classified into two types. They are the DC power and the AC power.
1. DC Power
The DC power is defined as the product of the voltage and current. It is produced by the fuel cell,
battery and generator.

Where P – Power in watt.

V – voltage in volts.
I – current in amps.
2. AC Power
The AC power is mainly classified into three types. They are the apparent power, active power and
real power.
1. Apparent Power – The apparent power is the useless power or idle power. It is represented by
the symbol S, and their SI unit is volt-amp.

Where S – apparent power

Vrms – RMS voltage = Vpeak√2 in volt.
Irms – RMS current = Ipeak√2 in the amp.
2. Active Power – The active power (P) is the real power which is dissipated in the
circuit resistance.

Where,

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P – the real power in watts.
Vrms – RMS voltage = Vpeak√2 in volts.
Irms – RMS current = Ipeak√2 in the amp.
Φ – impedance phase angle between voltage and current.
3. Reactive Power – The power developed in the circuit reactance is called reactive power (Q). It is
measured in volt-ampere reactive.

Where, Q – the reactive power in watts.

Vrms – RMS voltage = Vpeak√2 in volt.
Irms – RMS current = Ipeak√2 in the amp.
Φ – impedance phase angle between voltage and current.
The relation between the apparent, active and reactive power is shown below.

The ratio of the real to the apparent power is called power factor, and their value lies between 0
and 1.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The electromotive force is the total voltage induce by the source. In other words, it is the amount of
energy supplied by the source to each coulomb of charge. It is measured in volts and represented by
the symbol ε (epsilon).

The emf is the maximum voltage that can be attained by the circuit. Naturally, it is generated when
the fluctuation occurs in the magnetic field. The emf is expressed by the formula shown below

The electromotive force is the type of energy which forces a unit positive charge to move from the
positive to the negative terminal of the source. It separates the two charges from each other.
Example – Consider a circuit shown in the figure below.

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A battery has an EMF of 12V ; it means that the battery supplies 12 joules of energy to each
coulomb of charge. The charge is travel from the positive terminal to negative terminal through an
external circuit; it gives a whole of the energy originally supplied by the battery.

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 RESISTANCE
Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of electrons in material. While a potential difference across
the conductor encourages the flow of electrons, resistance discourages it. The rate at which charge
flows between two terminals is a combination of these two factors. If two different conductors are
placed in a circuit, then the amount of current found to flow in each may not be the same. There are
a number of reasons for this:
1. The first is that the ease with which electrons are able to move within the structure of the
material. If the electrons are bound tightly to the crystal lattice, then it will not be easy to pull
them free so that there can be a drift of electrons in a particular direction. In other materials
there are very many free electrons drifting randomly around the lattice. It is these materials that
allow a current to flow more easily.
2. Another factor that affects the electrical resistance of an item is its length. The shorter the
length of material, the lower its overall resistance. From the analogy with a pipe the longer the
pipe the more resistance to the water flow there will be.
3. The third is the cross sectional area. The wider the cross sectional area the lower the resistance.
Again comparing it to a water pipe, the wider the bore, the easier it is for water to flow through
it.
In most cases conductors are required to carry current with as little resistance as possible. As a
result copper is widely used because current flows easily within its structure. Also its cross
sectional area is made wide enough to carry the current without any undue resistance.
In some instances it is necessary to have elements which resist the flow of current. These items are
called resistors and they are made out of materials which do not conduct electricity as well as
materials like copper or other metals.
Resistance notation
The basic unit of electrical resistance is the Ohm as already mentioned. This is often denoted by the
Greek symbol Ω.
In addition to this the basic unit can be prefixed by multipliers. This is because the range of values
for electrical resistance can span many decades and it is necessary to have an easy notation that
does not rely on counting the numbers of zeros in a number as this would easily lead to mistakes.
MULTIPLIER MEANING NAME

R units Ohms, Ω

k thousands kilohms, kΩ

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M millions Megohms, MΩ
Occasionally resistances less than an ohm are encountered, these are measured in milliohms (m )
thousandths of an ohm.
Normally when resistances are indicated on an electronic circuit diagram they are denoted as 10R
for a ten ohm resistor, 10k for a ten thousand ohm resistor, and 10M for a ten MΩ resistor. The
reason for this is that the Greek letter omega is not as easy to use as the prefixes R, k, and M.
What are resistors?
Resistors are used in virtually all electronic circuits and many electrical ones. Resistors, as their
name indicates resist the flow of electricity, and this function is key to the operation most circuits.
here are two main circuit symbols used for resistors. The oldest one is still widely used in North
America and consists of a jagged line representing the wire used in a resistor. The other resistor
circuit symbol is a small rectangle, and this is often termed the international resistor symbol and it
is more widely used in Europe and Asia.

Resistor circuit symbols

The unit or resistance is the Ohm, Ω and resistor values may be seen quoted in terms of Ohms - Ω,
thousands of Ohms or kilohms - kΩ and millions of Ohms, megohms, MΩ. When written on circuits
values like 10k may be seen meaning 10 kilohm, or 10 kΩ. The Omega sign is often omitted and the
decimal point replaced by the multipler: e.g. 1R5 would be 1.5 Ohms, 100R is 100Ω, 4k7 is 4.7 kΩ,
2M2 is 2.2MΩ and so forth.
Basic distinction of resistor types
The first major categories into which the different types of resistor can be fitted is into whether
they are fixed or variable. These different resistor types are used for different applications:
 Fixed resistors: Fixed resistors are by far the most widely used type of resistor. They are used
in electronics circuits to set the right conditions in a circuit. Their values are determined during
the design phase of the circuit, and they should never need to be changed to "adjust" the circuit.
There are many different types of resistor which can be used in different circumstances and
these different types of resistor are described in further detail below.
 Variable resistors: These resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps
onto the main resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two connected

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 to the fixed element, and the third is the slider. In this way the component acts as a variable
potential divider if all three connections are used. It is possible to connect to the slider and one
end to provide a resistor with variable resistance.
Variable resistors and potentiometers are widely used for all forms of control:- everything from
volume controls on radios and sliders in audio mixers to a host of areas where a a variable
resistance is required.

Fixed resistor types

There are a number of different types of fixed resistor:
 Carbon composition: The carbon composition resistor is a type of resistor that was once very
common - it was the main type of resistor, but are now seldom used because newer forms of
resistor provide better performance, they are smaller and also cheaper.
Carbon composition resistors are formed by mixing carbon granules with a binder which was
then made into a small rod. This type of resistor was large by today's standards and suffered
from a large negative temperature coefficient.

The resistors also suffered from a large and erratic irreversible changes in resistance as a result of
heat or age. In addition to this the granular nature of the carbon and binder lead to high levels of
noise being generated when current flowed.
Carbon film: This type of resistor was introduced during he early days of transistor technology
when power levels tended to be lower. The carbon film resistor is formed by "cracking" a
hydrocarbon onto a ceramic former. The resulting deposited film had its resistance set by cutting a
helix into the film. This made these resistors highly inductive and of little use for many RF
applications. They exhibited a temperature coefficient of between -100 and -900 parts per million
per degree Celcius. The carbon film is protected either by a conformal epoxy coating or a ceramic
tube

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Metal oxide film resistor: This type of resistor is now the most widely used form of resistor.
Rather than using a carbon film, this resistor type uses a metal oxide film deposited on a ceramic
rod. As with the carbon film, the the resistance can be adjusted by cutting a helical grove in the film.
Again the film is protected using a conformal epoxy coating. This type of resistor has a temperature
coefficient of around + or - 15 parts per million per °Celcius, giving it a far superior performance to
that of any carbon based resistor. Additionally this type of resistor can be supplied to a much closer
tolerance, 5% or even 2% being standard, with 1% versions available. They also exhibit a much
lower noise level than carbon types of resistor, however it has mainly been superseded but he
metal film resistor.
Metal film resistor: The metal film resistor is very similar to the metal oxide film resistor. Visually
it is very similar and the performance is also comparable. Instead of using a metal oxide film, this
type of resistor uses a metal film as the name indicates. Metals such as nickel alloy may be used.

Wire wound resistor: This resistor type is generally reserved for high power applications. These
resistors are made by winding wire with a higher than normal resistance (resistance wire) on a
former.
The more expensive varieties are wound on a ceramic former and they may be covered by a
vitreous or silicone enamel. This resistor type is suited to high powers and exhibits a high level of
reliability at high powers along with a comparatively low level of temperature coefficient, although
this will depend on a number of factors including the former, wire used, etc. As wire wound
resistors are often intended for high power applications, some varieties are designed so that they
can be mounted onto a heatsink to ensure that the power is dissipated into metalwork so it can be
carried away.
Surface mount resistors: Surface mount technology, SMT is now the major format used for
electronic components. They are easier to use in automated manufacturing, and they are able to
provide very high levels of performance. SMT resistors utilise similar technologies to other forms,
but in a surface mount format.
Other types of resistor
Whilst the majority of resistors are standard fixed resistors or variable resistors, there is a number
of other resistor types that are used in some more niche or specialised applications.
 Light dependent resistor / photoresistor: Light dependent resistors or photoresistors change
their resistance with the level of light. They are used in a number of sensor applications and
provide a very cost effective solution in many instances.

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Light dependent resistors have a lag in the time taken to respond to light changes, but they are
cheap and easy to use.
Thermistor: As the name indicates, thermistors are heat sensitive resistors. The resistance of the
thermistor varying with temperature. Some have a negative temperature coefficient, NTC
thermistors, whist others have a positive temperature coefficient, PTC thermistors.
Varistor: Varistors are available in a number of forms. Essentially these electronic components
vary their resistance with the applied voltage and as a result they find uses for spike and surge
protection. Often they may be seen described as Movistors, which is a contraction of the
words Metal Oxide Varistor.
Resistor colour code or coding scheme
There may be three four or sometimes even five rings. These rings have values as shown in table 1.
The first two indicate the significant figures in the value. The second is a multiplier and shows the
power of ten to which the significant figures must be multiplied. As an example if a resistor had the
rings yellow, purple, red these would correspond to the values 4, 7, 2, indicating a resistance of 47 x
10^2 or 4700 ohms. It can be seen from this that the third ring corresponds to the number of zeros
after the significant figures.
The fourth ring if it is present shows the tolerance, i.e. how accurate the resistor is. This is indicated
as a percentage. Many resistors today are either 2% or 5%. This means that their value will be
within 2% or 5% of the stated value. Years ago most resistors were only 20%, although even today
tolerances of this order are quite acceptable for many situations.
The fifth ring, again if it is present, indicates the temperature coefficient. As the value of a resistor
will change with temperature this may be important in some situations. This information may be
added in the fifth ring on the resistor. These figures are quoted in ppm/C i.e. parts per million per
degree C. In other words a 1 kohm resistor with a 100 ppm temperature coefficient would change
by 0.1 ohms for every degree Celsius it changes.

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 OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is directly proportional to
the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and inversely proportional to the resistance of
the circuit. The formula for Ohm’s law is V=I/R. This relationship between current, voltage, and
relationship was discovered by German scientist Georg Simon Ohm. Most basic components of
electricity are voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm’s law shows a simple relation between these three
quantities. Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.

Ohm’s Law Formula

Voltage= Current× Resistance
V= I×R
V= voltage, I= current and R= resistance
The SI unit of resistance is ohms and is denoted by Ω
This law is one of the most basic laws of electricity. It helps to calculate the power, efficiency, current,
voltage, and resistance of an element of an electrical circuit.
Applications of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law helps us in determining either voltage, current or impedance or resistance of a linear
electric circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also makes power calculation simpler.
How do we establish the current-voltage relationship?
In order to establish the current-voltage relationship, the ratio V / I remains constant for a given
resistance, therefore a graph between the potential difference(V) and the current (I) must be a straight
line.
How do we find the unknown values of resistance?
It is the constant ratio that gives the unknown values of resistance,

For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the area of cross-section
A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given temperature the resistance,

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where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of wire. The specific
resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire, then the cross-sectional area, A = πr². Then the specific resistance or
resistivity of the material of the wire is,

Limitations of ohms law

1. Ohm’s law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current to
flow in one direction. Such types of network consist elements like a diode, transistor, etc.
2. Ohm’s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those which
do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage that means the resistance value
of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of non – linear
elements are the thyristor.
Resistors

Resistors are one of the important blocks of electrical circuits. They are made up of the mixture of clay
or carbon, so they are not only good conductors but good insulators too. Most of the resistors have four
color bands. The first and second band reveal the first and second digits of the value respectively. The
third band is used to multiply the value digits and the fourth band tells us the tolerance. If there is no
fourth band, it is assumed that the tolerance is plus or minus 20%.
Resistance in series
A series generally means connected along a line, or in a row, or in an order. In electronics, series
resistance means that the resistors are connected one after the other and that there is only one path
for current to flow through

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 .
Laws of Series Circuits
 Individual resistance add up to the total circuit resistance
 Current through the circuit is the same at every point.
 Individual voltages throughout the circuit add up to the total voltage.
Resistance in parallel
There are many different ways to organize a parallel circuit. In the practical world, most of the wiring
is done in parallel so that the voltage to any one part of the network is the same as the voltage supplied
to any other part of it.

Laws of Parallel Circuits

 The reciprocals of all the individual resistances add up to the reciprocal of the total circuit
resistance.
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 …
 Voltage through the circuit is the same at every point.
 Individual current draws throughout the circuit add up to the total current draw.
Solved Example For You
Q. Find the resistance of an electrical circuit that has voltage supply of 10 Volts and current of 5mA.
Solution:
V = 10V, I = 5mA = 0.005A
R=V/I
= 10V / 0.005A
= 2000Ω = 2kΩ
Circuits consisting of just one battery and one load resistance are very simple to analyze, but
they are not often found in practical applications. Usually, we find circuits where more than two
components are connected together.

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 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit
components: series and parallel.
Series Configuration Circuit
First, an example of a series circuit:

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3) connected in a long chain from one terminal
of the battery to the other. (It should be noted that the subscript labeling—those little numbers
to the lower-right of the letter “R”—are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They serve only
to identify one resistor from another.)The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is
only one path for current to flow. In this circuit, the current flows in a clockwise direction, from
point 1 to point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back around to 1.
Parallel Circuit Configuration
Now, let’s look at the other type of circuit, a parallel configuration:

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one continuous path for current
to flow. There’s one path from 1 to 2 to 7 to 8 and back to 1 again. There’s another from 1 to 2 to 3
to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to 1 again. And then there’s a third path from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to
8 and back to 1 again. Each individual path (through R 1, R2, and R3) is called a branch.
The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are connected between the
same set of electrically common points. Looking at the schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2,
3, and 4 are all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors, as well as
the battery, are connected between these two sets of points.And, of course, the complexity
doesn’t stop at simple series and parallel either! We can have circuits that are a combination of
series and parallel, too.

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Series - Parallel Configuration Circuit

In this circuit, we have two loops for the current to flow through: one from 1 to 2 to 5 to 6 and
back to 1 again, and another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 and back to 1 again. Notice how both
current paths pass through R 1 (from point 1 to point 2). In this configuration, we’d say that
R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, while R 1 is in series with the parallel combination of
R2 and R3.
the three principles you should understand regarding series circuits:
1. Current: The amount of current is the same through any component in a series circuit.
2. Resistance: The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances.
3. Voltage: The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage
drops.
Let’s take a look at some examples of series circuits that demonstrate these principles.
We’ll start with a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery:

The first principle to understand about series circuits is as follows:

The amount of current in a series circuit is the same through any component in the circuit.
This is because there is only one path for current flow in a series circuit. Because electric charge
flows through conductors like marbles in a tube, the rate of flow (marble speed) at any point in
the circuit (tube) at any specific point in time must be equal.
Using Ohm’s Law in Series Circuits
From the way that the9-volt battery is arranged, we can tell that the current in this circuit will
flow in a clockwise direction, from point 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and back to 1. However, we have one
source of voltage and three resistances. How do we use Ohm’s Law here?

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An important caveat to Ohm’s Law is that all quantities (voltage, current, resistance, and power)
must relate to each other in terms of the same two points in a circuit. We can see this concept in
action in the single resistor circuit example below.
Using Ohm’s Law in a Simple, Single Resistor Circuit
With a single-battery, single-resistor circuit, we could easily calculate any quantity because they
all applied to the same two points in the circuit:

Since points 1 and 2 are connected together with wire of negligible resistance, as are points 3 and
4, we can say that point 1 is electrically common to point 2, and that point 3 is electrically
common to point 4. Since we know we have 9 volts of electromotive force between points 1 and 4
(directly across the battery), and since point 2 is common to point 1 and point 3 common to point
4, we must also have 9 volts between points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor).
Therefore, we can apply Ohm’s Law (I = E/R) to the current through the resistor, because we
know the voltage (E) across the resistor and the resistance (R) of that resistor. All terms (E, I, R)
apply to the same two points in the circuit, to that same resistor, so we can use the Ohm’s Law
formula with no reservation.
Using Ohm’s Law in Circuits with Multiple Resistors
In circuits containing more than one resistor, we must be careful in how we apply Ohm’s Law. In
the three-resistor example circuit below, we know that we have 9 volts between points 1 and 4,
which is the amount of electromotive force driving the current through the series combination of
R1, R2, and R3. However, we cannot take the value of 9 volts and divide it by 3k, 10k or 5k Ω to try
to find a current value, because we don’t know how much voltage is across any one of those
resistors, individually.

The figure of 9 volts is a total quantity for the whole circuit, whereas the figures of 3k, 10k, and
5k Ω are individual quantities for individual resistors. If we were to plug a figure for total voltage

55
into an Ohm’s Law equation with a figure for individual resistance, the result would not relate
accurately to any quantity in the real circuit.
For R1, Ohm’s Law will relate the amount of voltage across R 1 with the current through R1, given
R1‘s resistance, 3kΩ:

But, since we don’t know the voltage across R 1 (only the total voltage supplied by the battery
across the three-resistor series combination) and we don’t know the current through R 1, we can’t
do any calculations with either formula. The same goes for R 2 and R3: we can apply the Ohm’s
Law equations if and only if all terms are representative of their respective quantities between
the same two points in the circuit.
So what can we do? We know the voltage of the source (9 volts) applied across the series
combination of R1, R2, and R3, and we know the resistance of each resistor, but since those
quantities aren’t in the same context, we can’t use Ohm’s Law to determine the circuit current. If
only we knew what the total resistance was for the circuit: then we could calculate
the total current with our figure for total voltage (I=E/R).
Combining Multiple Resistors into an Equivalent Total Resistor
This brings us to the second principle of series circuits:
The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors in series that the current must flow through,
the more difficult it will be for the current to flow.
In the example problem, we had a 3 kΩ, 10 kΩ, and 5 kΩ resistors in series, giving us a total
resistance of 18 kΩ:

In essence, we’ve calculated the equivalent resistance of R 1, R2, and R3 combined. Knowing this,
we could redraw the circuit with a single equivalent resistor representing the series combination
of R1, R2, and R3:

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Calculating Circuit Current Using Ohm’s Law
Now we have all the necessary information to calculate circuit current because we have the
voltage between points 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 kΩ):

Calculating Component Voltages Using Ohm’s Law

Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit (and we just determined
the current through the battery), we can go back to our original circuit schematic and note the
current through each component:

Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can use Ohm’s Law to
determine the voltage drop across each one (applying Ohm’s Law in its proper context):

Notice the voltage drops across each resistor, and how the sum of the voltage drops (1.5 + 5 +
2.5) is equal to the battery (supply) voltage: 9 volts.
This is the third principle of series circuits:
The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.
Analyzing Simple Series Circuits with the “Table Method” and Ohm’s Law
However, the method we just used to analyze this simple series circuit can be streamlined for
better understanding. By using a table to list all voltages, currents, and resistance in the circuit, it
becomes very easy to see which of those quantities can be properly related in any Ohm’s Law
equation:

57
The rule with such a table is to apply Ohm’s Law only to the values within each vertical column.
For instance, ER1 only with IR1 and R1; ER2 only with IR2 and R2; etc. You begin your analysis by
filling in those elements of the table that are given to you from the beginning:

As you can see from the arrangement of the data, we can’t apply the 9 volts of ET (total voltage)
to any of the resistances (R1, R2, or R3) in any Ohm’s Law formula because they’re in different
columns. The 9 volts of battery voltage is not applied directly across R1, R2, or R3. However, we
can use our “rules” of series circuits to fill in blank spots on a horizontal row. In this case, we can
use the series rule of resistances to determine a total resistance from the sum of individual
resistances:

Now, with a value for total resistance inserted into the rightmost (“Total”) column, we can apply
Ohm’s Law of I=E/R to total voltage and total resistance to arrive at a total current of 500 µA:

Then, knowing that the current is shared equally by all components of a series circuit (another
“rule” of series circuits), we can fill in the currents for each resistor from the current figure just
calculated:

58
Finally, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the voltage drop across each resistor, one column at
a time:

the three principles you should understand regarding parallel circuits:

1. Voltage: Voltage is equal across all components in a parallel circuit.
2. Current: The total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
3. Resistance: Individual resistances diminish to equal a smaller total resistance rather
than add to make the total.
Let’s take a look at some examples of parallel circuits that demonstrate these principles.
We’ll start with a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery:

Voltage in Parallel Circuits

The first principle to understand about parallel circuits is that the voltage is equal across all
components in the circuit. This is because there are only two sets of electrically common points
in a parallel circuit, and the voltage measured between sets of common points must always be the
same at any given time.Therefore, in the above circuit, the voltage across R 1 is equal to the
voltage across R2 which is equal to the voltage across R 3 which is equal to the voltage across the
battery.This equality of voltages can be represented in another table for our starting values:

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Ohm’s Law Applications for Simple Parallel Circuits
Just as in the case of series circuits, the same caveat for Ohm’s Law applies: values for voltage,
current, and resistance must be in the same context in order for the calculations to work
correctly.However, in the above example circuit, we can immediately apply Ohm’s Law to each
resistor to find its current because we know the voltage across each resistor (9 volts) and the
resistance of each resistor:

At this point, we still don’t know what the total current or total resistance for this parallel circuit
is, so we can’t apply Ohm’s Law to the rightmost (“Total”) column. However, if we think carefully
about what is happening, it should become apparent that the total current must equal the sum of
all individual resistor (“branch”) currents:

As the total current exits the positive (+) battery terminal at point 1 and travels through the
circuit, some of the flow splits off at point 2 to go through R 1, some more splits off at point 3 to go
through R2, and the remainder goes through R 3. Like a river branching into several smaller
streams, the combined flow rates of all streams must equal the flow rate of the whole river.

60
The same thing is encountered where the currents through R 1, R2, and R3 join to flow back to the
negative terminal of the battery (-) toward point 8: the flow of current from point 7 to point 8
must equal the sum of the (branch) currents through R1, R2, and R3.
This is the second principle of parallel circuits: the total circuit current is equal to the sum of
the individual branch currents.
Using this principle, we can fill in the IT spot on our table with the sum of IR1, IR2, and IR3:

How to Calculate Total Resistance in Parallel Circuits

Finally, applying Ohm’s Law to the rightmost (“Total”) column, we can calculate the total circuit
resistance:

The Equation for Resistance in Parallel Circuits

Please note something very important here. The total circuit resistance is only 625 Ω: less than
any one of the individual resistors. In the series circuit, where the total resistance was the sum of
the individual resistances, the total was bound to be greater than any one of the resistors
individually.Here in the parallel circuit, however, the opposite is true: we say that the individual
resistances diminishrather than add to make the total.This principle completes our triad of
“rules” for parallel circuits, just as series circuits were found to have three rules for voltage,
current, and resistance.Mathematically, the relationship between total resistance and individual
resistances in a parallel circuit looks like this:

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 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current in the
conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines of force of
conductor. For example, if current i.e., positive charges moving in a wire, it produces the magnetic
field along the wire and the direction of magnetic lines, and force can be determined using Right
Hand Rule.

Explanation of Electromagnetism with an Example

Permanent Magnetic speakers commonly used in TV’s and Radios are perfect example of
Electromagnetic devices. Let’s see the operation of these devices which are based on the principle
of electromagnetism. See the picture below.

In order to convert electrical waves into audible sound, the speakers are designed. A metal coil is
attached to a permanent magnet and when current passes through the coil it generates a magnetic
field. The newly formed magnetic field is repelled by the permanent magnetic field resulting in the
vibrations. These vibrations are amplified by the cone-like structure causing the sound. This is how
speakers work based on electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic Induction
We have seen what happens when a conductor is electrically charged. Now, let’s see what happens
if we place conductor in between magnetic field.When a conductor is placed or moved through the
magnetic field it generates voltage i.e., electricity. This principle is called Electromagnetic Induction.
The voltages generated will be based on the speed of conductor moving through the electric field.
Faster the speed of conductor, the greater the induced electricity or voltage.
Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law states that whenever there is relative motion between magnetic field and conductor,
the flux linkage changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across the coil.

62
Explanation with an example
DC Generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. It is a system
that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

In the above figure, A rectangular conductor width sides are placed in between a magnetic field.
When the rectangular conductor rotates in between magnetics, it cuts magnetic field thereby
causing Electromagnetic field (e m f).

GENERATION OF AC AND DC SUPPLY

Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a result, the
voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to deliver power to houses, office
buildings, etc.
Generating AC
AC can be produced using a device called an alternator. This device is a special type of electrical
generator designed to produce alternating current.A loop of wire is spun inside of a magnetic field,
which induces a current along the wire. The rotation of the wire can come from any number of
means: a wind turbine, a steam turbine, flowing water, and so on. Because the wire spins and enters
a different magnetic polarity periodically, the voltage and current alternates on the wire. Here is a
short animation showing this principle:

To generate AC in a set of water pipes, we connect a mechanical crank to a piston that moves water
in the pipes back and forth (our "alternating" current). Notice that the pinched section of pipe still
provides resistance to the flow of water regardless of the direction of flow.
Waveforms
AC can come in a number of forms, as long as the voltage and current are alternating. If we hook up
an oscilloscope to a circuit with AC and plot its voltage over time, we might see a number of

63
different waveforms. The most common type of AC is the sine wave. The AC in most homes and
offices have an oscillating voltage that produces a sine wave. Other common forms of AC include the
square wave and the triangle wave: Square waves are often used in digital and switching
electronics to test their operation. Triangle waves are found in sound synthesis and are useful for
testing linear electronics like amplifiers.
Applications
Home and office outlets are almost always AC. This is because generating and transporting AC
across long distances is relatively easy. At high voltages (over 110kV), less energy is lost in
electrical power transmission. Higher voltages mean lower currents, and lower currents mean
less heat generated in the power line due to resistance. AC can be converted to and from high
voltages easily using transformers.
AC is also capable of powering electric motors. Motors and generators are the exact same device,
but motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy (if the shaft on a motor is spun, a
voltage is generated at the terminals!). This is useful for many large appliances like dishwashers,
refrigerators, and so on, which run on AC.
Direct Current (DC)
Direct current is a bit easier to understand than alternating current. Rather than oscillating back
and forth, DC provides a constant voltage or current.
Generating DC
DC can be generated in a number of ways:
 An AC generator equipped with a device called a "commutator" can produce direct current
 Use of a device called a "rectifier" that converts AC to DC
 Batteries provide DC, which is generated from a chemical reaction inside of the battery
Using our water analogy again, DC is similar to a tank of water with a hose at the end.

The tank can only push water one way: out the hose. Similar to our DC-producing battery, once the
tank is empty, water no longer flows through the pipes.
Applications
Almost all electronics projects and parts for sale on SparkFun run on DC. Everything that runs off of
a battery, plugs in to the wall with an AC adapter, or uses a USB cable for power relies on DC.
Examples of DC electronics include:

64
  Cell phones
 The LilyPad-based D&D Dice Gauntlet
 Flat-screen TVs (AC goes into the TV, which is converted to DC)
 Flashlights
 Hybrid and electric vehicles

IDEA OF BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply can be defined as it is an electrical device used to give electrical supply to
electrical loads. The main function of this device is to change the electrical current from a source to
the accurate voltage, frequency and current to supply the load. Sometimes, these power
supplies can be named to as electric power converters. Some types of supplies are separate pieces
of loads, whereas others are fabricated into the appliances that they control.
Power Supply Block Diagram
The Power supply circuit is used in various electrical & electronic devices. The power supply
circuits are classified into different types based on the power they utilize for providing for circuits
or devices. For instance, the microcontroller based circuits are generally the 5V DC regulated power
supply (RPS) circuits, which can be designed with the help of different method for changing the
power from 230V AC to 5V DC.
The power supply block diagram, and the step by step conversion of 230V AC to 12V DC is
discussed below.
 A step-down transformer converts the 230V AC into12v.
 The bridge rectifier is used to change AC to DC
 A capacitor is used to filter the AC ripples and gives to the voltage regulator.
 Finally voltage regulator regulates the voltage to 5V and finally, a blocking diode is used for
taking the pulsating waveform.

ELECTRICAL LOAD
When an electrical circuit has a defined output terminal, those appliances which draw power from
that circuit are collectively known as the electrical load or just the load’.

65
When testing an electrical load, the dummy’ load is what is known as a load bank. As a balance to
the current source, the electronic load is a current sink. The current load can be altered and set
electronically in a defined range and the current is regulated electronically.It is important to be able
to make accurate measurements of force with load cells and load sensors. The electrical load
consumes electrical energy and transforms it generally into heat, which is dissipated through the
Manatronics constant current load banks via forced air which is generally more convenient (no
plumbing required as in water) and potentially safer than water.Electrical loads are used in many
and varied situations, particularly they are used to test:
 Solar and fuel cells
 Generators
 Power supplies
 Batteries
They are also operated under operating modes including constant;
 Current
 Voltage
 Power and
 Resistance.
To validly test your electrical load, choosing the right load bank is critical. The right load bank
will prove your design, performance and capacity of your system through simulating the plant
load – all without having to run your plant at maximum capacity and increasing risk.
Quality load testing your electrical load will not only ensure the plant can run at all potential
levels, it will also aid in avoiding excessive wear and tear of your equipment and prolong the life
of your generators, UPS and battery systems.

CURRENT DIVISION AND VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE

Current Division Rule
A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all the branches in a parallel
circuit, and the voltage remains the same across them. The current division rule determines the
current across the circuit impedance. The current division is explained with the help of the circuit
shown below
current I has been divided into I1 and I2 in two parallel branches with the resistance R 1 and R2 and V
is the voltage drop across the resistance R1 and R2.
As we know
V = IR ……..(1)

66
Then the equation of the current is written as

Let the total resistance of the circuit be R and is given by the equation shown below

Equation (1) can also be written as

I = V/R ……….(3)
Now, putting the value of R from the equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

But

Putting the value of V = I1R1 from the equation (5) in the equation (4), we finally get the equation as

And now considering V = I2R2 the equation will be

Thus, from the equation (6) and (7) the value of the current I 1 and I2respectively is given by the
equation below

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Thus, in the current division rule, it is said that the current in any of the parallel branches is equal
to the ratio of opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, multiplied by the total current.
Voltage Division Rule
The voltage division rule can be understood by considering a series circuit shown below. In a series
circuit, voltage is divided, whereas the current remains the same.

Let us consider a voltage source E with the resistance r1 and r2 connected in series across it.
As we know
I = V/R or we can say I = E/R
Therefore, the current (i) in the loop ABCD will be

By putting the value of i from equation (8) in the equation (9) the voltage across the resistance
r1 and r2 respectively is given by the equation shown below as

Thus, the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times the
total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.
Let’s analyze a simple series circuit and determine the voltage drops across individual resistors:

From the given values of individual resistances, we can determine a total circuit resistance,
knowing that resistances add in series:
Determine the Total Circuit Resistance

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From here, we can use Ohm’s Law (I=E/R) to determine the total current, which we know will be
the same as each resistor current, currents being equal in all parts of a series circuit:

Use Ohm’s Law to Calculate Current

Now, knowing that the circuit current is 2 mA, we can use Ohm’s Law (E=IR) to calculate the
voltage across each resistor:

It should be apparent that the voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance,
given that the current is the same through all resistors. Notice how the voltage across R 2 is
double that of the voltage across R 1, just as the resistance of R2 is double that of R1.If we were to
change the total voltage, we would find this proportionality of voltage drops remains constant:

Solving for Voltage Drop Ratios

The voltage across R2 is still exactly twice that of R 1‘s drop, despite the fact that the source
voltage has changed. The proportionality of voltage drops (ratio of one to another) is strictly a
function of resistance values.With a little more observation, it becomes apparent that the voltage
drop across each resistor is also a fixed proportion of the supply voltage. The voltage across R 1,
for example, was 10 volts when the battery supply was 45 volts. When the battery voltage was
increased to 180 volts (4 times as much), the voltage drop across R 1 also increased by a factor of
4 (from 10 to 40 volts). The ratio between R1‘s voltage drop and total voltage, however, did not
change:

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Likewise, none of the other voltage drop ratios changed with the increased supply voltage either:

Voltage Divider Formula

For this reason, a series circuit is often called a voltage divider for its ability to proportion—or
divide—the total voltage into fractional portions of constant ratio. With a little bit of algebra, we
can derive a formula for determining series resistor voltage drop given nothing more than total
voltage, individual resistance, and total resistance:

The ratio of individual resistance to total resistance is the same as the ratio of individual voltage
drop to the total supply voltage in a voltage divider circuit. This is known as the voltage divider
formula, and it is a short-cut method for determining voltage drop in a series circuit without
going through the current calculations of Ohm’s Law.
Example of Using Voltage Divider Formula
Using this formula, we can re-analyze the example circuit’s voltage drops in fewer steps:

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Voltage - Dividing Components
Voltage dividers find wide application in electric meter circuits, where specific combinations of
series resistors are used to “divide” a voltage into precise proportions as part of a voltage
measurement device.

A parallel circuit is often called a current divider for its ability to proportion—or divide—the total
current into fractional parts.
To understand what this means, let’s first analyze a simple parallel circuit, determining the
branch currents through individual resistors

Knowing that voltages across all components in a parallel circuit are the same, we can fill in our
voltage/current/resistance table with 6 volts across the top row:

Using Ohm’s Law (I=E/R) we can calculate each branch current:

Knowing that branch currents add up in parallel circuits to equal the total current, we can arrive
at total current by summing 6 mA, 2 mA, and 3 mA:

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The final step, of course, is to figure total resistance. This can be done with Ohm’s Law (R=E/I) in
the “total” column, or with the parallel resistance formula from individual resistances. Either
way, we’ll get the same answer:

Once again, it should be apparent that the current through each resistor is related to its
resistance, given that the voltage across all resistors is the same. Rather than being directly
proportional, the relationship here is one of inverse proportion. For example, the current
through R1 is twice as much as the current through R 3, which has twice the resistance of R1.
If we were to change the supply voltage of this circuit, we find that (surprise!) these proportional
ratios do not change:

Calculating Current Ratios

The current through R1 is still exactly twice that of R3, despite the fact that the source voltage has
changed. The proportionality between different branch currents is strictly a function of
resistance.Also reminiscent of voltage dividers is the fact that branch currents are fixed
proportions of the total current. Despite the fourfold increase in supply voltage, the ratio
between any branch current and the total current remains unchanged:

Now we can see for ourselves the point we made at the beginning of this page: A parallel circuit is
often called a current divider for its ability to proportion—or divide—the total current into
fractional parts.
The Current Divider Formula

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With a little bit of algebra, we can derive a formula for determining parallel resistor current given
nothing more than total current, individual resistance, and total resistance:

The ratio of total resistance to individual resistance is the same ratio as the individual (branch)
current to total current. This is known as the current divider formula, and it is a short-cut method
for determining branch currents in a parallel circuit when the total current is known.
Current Divider Formula Example
Using the original parallel circuit as an example, we can re-calculate the branch currents using
this formula, if we start by knowing the total current and total resistance:

If you take the time to compare the two divider formulae, you’ll see that they are remarkably
similar. Notice, however, that the ratio in the voltage divider formula is R n (individual resistance)
divided by RTotal, and how the ratio in the current divider formula is R Total divided by Rn:

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Current Divider Formula vs. Voltage Divider Formula
It is quite easy to confuse these two equations, getting the resistance ratios backward. One way to
help remember the proper form is to keep in mind that both ratios in the voltage and current
divider equations must be less than one. After all, these are divider equations,
not multiplier equations! If the fraction is upside-down, it will provide a ratio greater than one,
which is incorrect.
Knowing that total resistance in a series (voltage divider) circuit is always greater than any of the
individual resistances, we know that the fraction for that formula must be R n over RTotal.
Conversely, knowing that total resistance in a parallel (current divider) circuit is always less than
any of the individual resistances, we know that the fraction for that formula must be R Total over
Rn.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER

In physics, the rate of transfer of electrical energy by an electrical circuit per unit time is called
electrical power. Here electrical energy can be either kinetic energy or potential energy. In most of
the cases, potential energy is considered, which is the energy stored due to the relative positions of
charged particles or electric fields. Electrical power is denoted by P and measured using Watt.
Electrical Energy Definition
Electrical energy is energy derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy of the charged
particles. In general, it is referred to as energy that has been converted from electric potential
energy. The movement of charged particles along/through a medium (say wire) constitute current
or electricity.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Some of the keynotes on electrical energy is tabulated below

Electrical energy can be due to either kinetic energy or potential energy. Mostly it is due to potential
Definition
energy, which is energy stored due to the relative positions of charged particles or electric fields.

Symbol E

Joule (J)
Units
Kilowatt-hour(kWh)

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 Electron-Volt(eV)

E=QV
Where,
Formula
Q is charge
V is the potential difference

Electrical charges moving through a wire or electricity.

Lightning.

Batteries.

Static electricity.
Examples
Electric wheels generate electrical energy.

Electricity stored in capacitors.

Audio speakers.

Doorbells.

Lighting, cooling, heating.

Uses Operating appliances, electronics, computers, machinery.
Public transportation systems.

Electricity travels at the speed of light that is more than 186,000 miles per second.

Facts A spark of static electricity can measure up to 3,000 volts.

A bolt of lightning can measure up to 3,000,000 volts and it lasts less than one second.

Electrical Energy Formula

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A cell has two terminals – a negative and a positive terminal. The negative terminal has the excess
of electrons whereas the positive terminal has a deficiency of electrons. Let us take the positive
terminal as A and the electrical potential at A is given by V(A). Similarly, the negative terminal is B
and the electrical potential at B is given by V(B). Electric current flows from A to B, and thus V(A) >
V (B).
The potential difference between A and B is given by
V = V(A) – V(B) > 0
Mathematically, electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge through the cross-
section of a conductor.
Thus, it is given by I = ∆Q/ ∆t where I is the electric current and ∆Q is the quantity of electric charge
flowing through a point in time ∆t.
The potential energy of charge Q at A is Q V(A) and at B, it is Q V(B). So the change in the potential
energy is given by
∆Upot = Final potential energy – Initial potential energy
= ∆Q [(V (B) – V (A)] = –∆Q V
= –I V∆t (Since I = ∆Q/ ∆t)
If we take the kinetic energy of the system into account, it would also change if the charges inside
the conductor moved without collision. This is to keep the total energy of the system unchanged.
Thus, by conservation of total energy, we have:
∆K = –∆Upot
Or ∆K = I V∆t > 0
Thus, in the electric field, if the charges move freely across the conductor, there would be an
increase in the kinetic energy as they move.
When the charges collide, the energy gained by them is shared between the atoms. Consequently,
the vibration of the atoms increases resulting in the heating up of the conductor. Thus, some
amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat in an actual conductor.
Electrical Energy Into Mechanical Energy
Electrical energy can be converted into other forms of energy like heat energy, light energy, motion
etc. The best-known example are:
 Fan: The motor in Fan converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
 Bulb: Here the electrical energy is converted into light energy.

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 POWER
Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an electrical circuit.
Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of time.

Symbol P

SI Unit Watt, joule per second

Scalar or Vector Scalar Quantity

P=VI
Where,
Formula
V is the potential difference (volts)
I is the electric current

We talked about the energy that is dissipated due to the heating up of the conductor. The energy
dissipated in time interval ∆t is given by
∆W = I V∆t
And the energy dissipated per unit time is actually the power dissipated, which is given by P =
∆W/∆t. But we know the formula for power is given by P = I V
Hence, according to Ohm’s law, V = IR. Substituting we have,
P = I2 R
Or
P = V2/R
It is this power which is responsible for heating up the coil of a bulb, which gives out heat and light.

POWER
Power is always dependent on work done, so if a person does work at different rates his power also
differs at different times, this is where the concept of average-power comes into the picture.
What is Power?
We can define power as the rate of doing work, it is the work done in unit time. The SI unit of power
is Watt (W) which is joules per second (J/s). Sometimes the power of motor vehicles and other
machines are given in terms of Horsepower (hp) which is approximately equal to 745.7 watts.
What is average power?

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We can define average power as the total energy consumed divided by the total time taken. In
simple language, we can say that average power is the average amount of work done or energy
converted per unit of time.
Power Formula
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done upon an object. Power is a time-based quantity.
which is related to how fast a job is done. The formula for power is mentioned below.
Power = Work / time
P=W/t
Unit of Power
The unit for standard metric work is the Joule and the standard metric unit for time is the second,
so the standard metric unit for power is a Joule / second, defined as a Watt and abbreviated W.
Example of Power
A 60-watt bulb is switched on 24 hours a day and there is another 60-watt bulb which is
turned on for only 12 hours. Find the energy consumed by both the bulbs in one day.
Solution:
For the first 12 hours, both bulb A and B are turned ON, therefore,
Power = 60 + 60 = 120 watts
Energy = Power x Time
= 120 x 12
= 1.44 kWh (kilowatt hour)
Now for the next 12 hours only bulb A would remain ON hence,
Power = 60 watts
Energy = 60 x 12 = 0.72 kW h
In this scenario, the power consumed during the whole day varies as one bulb is turned ON for only
12 hours so we have to calculate average power,
Average Power = Total energy consumed / Total time taken
Therefore the average power for our light bulbs will be,
= (1.44 + 0.72) / 24
= 0.092 kW
You must have noticed that electrical components and energy meters in homes use a unit called
kWh (kilowatt hour), which stands for 1 kilowatt of power is been consumed every 1 hour, kWh is
the unit of energy.

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 CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
RESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE, INDUCTANCE
Resistance
Resistance is a value which measure how much the component “resist” the passage of electrical
current, the value is measured in ohms (Ω). One way to calculate resistance:

R=ρAL
 ρ is the resistivity, a material’s property.
Another form to calculate the resistance is applying Ohm’s law.
R=\frac{V}{I}R=IV
 VV is the voltage and II is the current.
This is the resistor, the component with a defined resistance and the resistor’s color code.

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Resistors in series, the resistance is summed.

Resistors in parallel:

In AC circuits with very high frequency, the resistance even in resistors vary, passive components in
high frequency stays to another post.
Capacitance
Capacitance is the capacity to store energy in a capacitor, is measured in farads (F), these are
capacitors.
Capacitance is calculated in this form:

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 The capacitance in a capacitor with parallel plates.

Capacitance in a cylindrical capacitor.

 L is the cylinder’s length.

Capacitance in a spherical capacitor.

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Capacitors in parallel:

Inductance
While the capacitor stores energy in an electrical field, the inductor stores energy in a magnetic
field. Inductance is the inductor’s capacity to resist variation of electric current and is measured in
henries (H). The inductor is nothing more than a rolled wire in spirals which can have a nucleus
inside to increase the magnetic field and the inductance. Here are various types of inductors.
Sometimes inductors are called solenoids.
The formula to calculate inductance:

The inductor’s association in series and in parallel is equal to the resistors and the total inductance
is calculated in the same way.
Impedance and Reactance
In alternated current, the value of resistance in the passive components (resistor, capacitor and
inductor) is called impedance, which is formed by reactances. In the resistor the impedance is equal
the resistance value in the CC. In capacitors and inductors, the reactance is an imaginary number
and are called respectively capacitive reactance and inductive reactance.
Capacitive reactance.

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 C is the capacitance and \omegaω is the circuit’s frequency in radians/s.
Inductive reactance.

This graphic shows the impedance as Z, reactances as X_{c}Xc and X_{l}Xl in the imaginary axis and
the resistance in the real numbers axis.

RESISTORS IN AC CIRCUITS
Resistors can also be used in Alternating Current supplies where the voltages, currents and power
being consumed is given in rms values

Resistors are “passive” devices, that is they do not produce or consume any electrical energy, but
convert electrical energy into heat. In DC circuits the linear ratio of voltage to current in a resistor is
called its resistance. However, in AC circuits this ratio of voltage to current depends upon the
frequency and phase difference or phase angle ( φ ) of the supply. So when using resistors in AC
circuits the term Impedance, symbol Z is the generally used and we can say that DC resistance = AC
impedance, R = Z.It is important to note, that when used in AC circuits, a resistor will always have
the same resistive value no matter what the supply frequency from DC to very high frequencies,
unlike capacitor and inductors.For resistors in AC circuits the direction of the current flowing
through them has no effect on the behaviour of the resistor so will rise and fall as the voltage rises
and falls. The current and voltage reach maximum, fall through zero and reach minimum at exactly
the same time. i.e, they rise and fall simultaneously and are said to be “in-phase” as shown below.
V-I Phase Relationship and Vector Diagram

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We can see that at any point along the horizontal axis that the instantaneous voltage and current
are in-phase because the current and the voltage reach their maximum values at the same time, that
is their phase angle θ is 0o. Then these instantaneous values of voltage and current can be
compared to give the ohmic value of the resistance simply by using ohms law. Consider below the
circuit consisting of an AC source and a resistor.

The instantaneous voltage across the resistor, VR is equal to the supply voltage, Vt and is given as:

The instantaneous current flowing in the resistor will therefore be:

As the voltage across a resistor is given as VR = I.R, the instantaneous voltage across the resistor
above can also be given as:

In purely resistive series AC circuits, all the voltage drops across the resistors can be added
together to find the total circuit voltage as all the voltages are in-phase with each other. Likewise, in
a purely resistive parallel AC circuit, all the individual branch currents can be added together to
find the total circuit current because all the branch currents are in-phase with each other.
Since for resistors in AC circuits the phase angle φ between the voltage and the current is zero, then
the power factor of the circuit is given as cos 0o = 1.0. The power in the circuit at any instant in time
can be found by multiplying the voltage and current at that instant.
Then the power (P), consumed by the circuit is given as P = Vrms Ι cos Φ in watts. But
since cos(Φ) = 1 in a purely resistive circuit, the power consumed is simply given as, P = Vrms Ιthe
same as for Ohm’s Law.

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 This then gives us the “Power” waveform and which is shown below as a series of positive pulses
because when the voltage and current are both in their positive half of the cycle the resultant power
is positive. When the voltage and current are both negative, the product of the two negative values
gives a positive power pulse.
Power Waveform in a Pure Resistance

Then the power dissipated in a purely resistive load fed from an AC rms supply is the same as that
for a resistor connected to a DC supply and is given as:

 Where:
 P is the average power in Watts
 Vrms is the rms supply voltage in Volts
 Irms is the rms supply current in Amps
 R is the resistance of the resistor in Ohm’s (Ω) – should really be Z to indicate impedance
The heating effect produced by an alternating current with a maximum value of Imax is not the
same as that of a DC current of the same value. To compare the AC heating effect to an equivalent
DC the rms values must be used. Any resistive heating element such as Electric Fires, Toasters,
Kettles, Irons, Water Heaters etc can be classed as a resistive AC circuit and we use resistors in AC
circuits to heat our homes and water.
Resistors in AC Circuits Example No1
A 1000 Watt (1kW) heating element is connected to a 250v AC supply voltage. Calculate the
impedance (AC resistance) of the element when it is hot and the amount of current taken from the
supply.

Resistors in AC Circuits Example No2

Calculate the power being consumed by a 100Ω resistive element connected across a 240v supply.

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As there is only one component connected to the supply, the resistor, then VR = VS

Then to summarise, in a pure ohmic AC Resistance, the current and voltage are both said to be “in-
phase” as there is no phase difference between them. The current flowing through the resistor is
directly proportional to the voltage across it with this linear relationship in an AC circuit being
called Impedance. As with DC circuits, Ohm’s Law can be used when working with resistors in AC
circuits to calculate the resistors voltages, currents and power

AC INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

The opposition to current flow through an AC Inductor is called Inductive Reactance and which
depends lineally on the supply frequency

Inductors and chokes are basically coils or loops of wire that are either wound around a hollow
tube former (air cored) or wound around some ferromagnetic material (iron cored) to increase
their inductive value called inductance.
Inductors store their energy in the form of a magnetic field that is created when a voltage is applied
across the terminals of an inductor. The growth of the current flowing through the inductor is not
instant but is determined by the inductors own self-induced or back emf value. Then for an inductor
coil, this back emf voltage VL is proportional to the rate of change of the current flowing through it.
This current will continue to rise until it reaches its maximum steady state condition which is
around five time constants when this self-induced back emf has decayed to zero. At this point a
steady state current is flowing through the coil, no more back emf is induced to oppose the current
flow and therefore, the coil acts more like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow through
it.However, in an alternating current circuit which contains an AC Inductance, the flow of current
through an inductor behaves very differently to that of a steady state DC voltage. Now in an AC
circuit, the opposition to the current flowing through the coils windings not only depends upon the
inductance of the coil but also the frequency of the applied voltage waveform as it varies from its
positive to negative values.

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The actual opposition to the current flowing through a coil in an AC circuit is determined by the AC
Resistance of the coil with this AC resistance being represented by a complex number. But to
distinguish a DC resistance value from an AC resistance value, which is also known as Impedance,
the term Reactance is used.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol “X” to distinguish it from a
purely resistive “R” value and as the component in question is an inductor, the reactance of an
inductor is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is measured in Ohms. Its value can be found from
the formula.
Inductive Reactance

Where: XL is the Inductive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and L is the inductance of
the coil in Henries.
We can also define inductive reactance in radians, where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

So whenever a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductive coil, the back emf opposes the rise and
fall of the current flowing through the coil and in a purely inductive coil which has zero resistance
or losses, this impedance (which can be a complex number) is equal to its inductive reactance. Also
reactance is represented by a vector as it has both a magnitude and a direction (angle). Consider the
circuit below.
AC Inductance with a Sinusoidal Supply

This simple circuit above consists of a pure inductance of L Henries ( H ), connected across a
sinusoidal voltage given by the expression: V(t) = Vmax sin ωt. When the switch is closed this
sinusoidal voltage will cause a current to flow and rise from zero to its maximum value. This rise or
change in the current will induce a magnetic field within the coil which in turn will oppose or
restrict this change in the current.But before the current has had time to reach its maximum value
as it would in a DC circuit, the voltage changes polarity causing the current to change direction. This
change in the other direction once again being delayed by the self-induced back emf in the coil, and
in a circuit containing a pure inductance only, the current is delayed by 90o.

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The applied voltage reaches its maximum positive value a quarter ( 1/4ƒ ) of a cycle earlier than the
current reaches its maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage applied to a purely inductive
circuit “LEADS” the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown below.
Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Inductance

This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram were in a purely inductive circuit the
voltage “LEADS” the current by 90 o. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say that
the current “LAGS” the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown in the vector diagram
below.
Phasor Diagram for AC Inductance

So for a pure loss less inductor, VL “leads” IL by 90o, or we can say that IL “lags” VL by 90o.
There are many different ways to remember the phase relationship between the voltage and
current flowing through a pure inductor circuit, but one very simple and easy to remember way is
to use the mnemonic expression “ELI” (pronounced Ellie as in the girls name). ELI stands
for Electromotive force first in an AC inductance, L before the current I. In other words, voltage
before the current in an inductor, E, L, I equals “ELI”, and whichever phase angle the voltage starts
at, this expression always holds true for a pure inductor circuit.
The Effect of Frequency on Inductive Reactance
When a 50Hz supply is connected across a suitable AC Inductance, the current will be delayed by
90o as described previously and will obtain a peak value of I amps before the voltage reverses
polarity at the end of each half cycle, i.e. the current rises up to its maximum value in “T secs“.
If we now apply a 100Hz supply of the same peak voltage to the coil, the current will still be delayed
by 90o but its maximum value will be lower than the 50Hz value because the time it requires to

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reach its maximum value has been reduced due to the increase in frequency because now it only
has “1/2 T secs” to reach its peak value. Also, the rate of change of the flux within the coil has also
increased due to the increase in frequency.
Then from the above equation for inductive reactance, it can be seen that if either
the Frequency OR the Inductance is increased the overall inductive reactance value of the coil
would also increase. As the frequency increases and approaches infinity, the inductors reactance
and therefore its impedance would also increase towards infinity acting like an open circuit.
Likewise, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would also decrease to
zero, acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is “directly proportional to
frequency” and has a small value at low frequencies and a high value at higher frequencies as
shown.
Inductive Reactance against Frequency

The inductive reactance of an inductor increases as the frequency across it increases therefore
inductive reactance is proportional to frequency ( XL α ƒ ) as the back emf generated in the inductor
is equal to its inductance multiplied by the rate of change of current in the inductor.
Also as the frequency increases the current flowing through the inductor also reduces in value.
We can present the effect of very low and very high frequencies on a the reactance of a pure AC
Inductance as follows:

In an AC circuit containing pure inductance the following formula applies:

So how did we arrive at this equation. Well the self induced emf in the inductor is determined by
Faraday’s Law that produces the effect of self-induction in the inductor due to the rate of change of
the current and the maximum value of the induced emf will correspond to the maximum rate of
change. Then the voltage in the inductor coil is given as:

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then the voltage across an AC inductance will be defined as:

Where: VL = IωL which is the voltage amplitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase difference or phase
angle between the voltage and current.
In the Phasor Domain
In the phasor domain the voltage across the coil is given as:

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XL∠90o where:

AC through a Series R + L Circuit

We have seen above that the current flowing through a purely inductive coil lags the voltage
by 90o and when we say a purely inductive coil we mean one that has no ohmic resistance and
therefore, no I2R losses. But in the real world, it is impossible to have a purely AC Inductance only.
All electrical coils, relays, solenoids and transformers will have a certain amount of resistance no
matter how small associated with the coil turns of wire being used. This is because copper wire has
resistivity. Then we can consider our inductive coil as being one that has a resistance, R in series
with an inductance, L producing what can be loosely called an “impure inductance”.If the coil has
some “internal” resistance then we need to represent the total impedance of the coil as a resistance
in series with an inductance and in an AC circuit that contains both inductance, L and
resistance, R the voltage, V across the combination will be the phasor sum of the two component

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voltages, VR and VL.This means then that the current flowing through the coil will still lag the
voltage, but by an amount less than 90 o depending upon the values of VR and VL, the phasor sum.
The new angle between the voltage and the current waveforms gives us their phase difference
which as we know is the phase angle of the circuit given the Greek symbol phi, Φ.Consider the
circuit below were a pure non-inductive resistance, R is connected in series with a pure
inductance, L.
Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit

In the RL series circuit above, we can see that the current is common to both the resistance and the
inductance while the voltage is made up of the two component voltages, VR and VL. The resulting
voltage of these two components can be found either mathematically or by drawing a vector
diagram. To be able to produce the vector diagram a reference or common component must be
found and in a series AC circuit the current is the reference source as the same current flows
through the resistance and the inductance. The individual vector diagrams for a pure resistance and
a pure inductance are given as:
Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

We can see from above and from our previous tutorial about AC Resistance that the voltage and
current in a resistive circuit are both in phase and therefore vector VR is drawn superimposed to
scale onto the current vector. Also from above it is known that the current lags the voltage in an AC
inductance (pure) circuit therefore vector VL is drawn 90o in front of the current and to the same
scale as VR as shown.
Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

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From the vector diagram above, we can see that line OB is the horizontal current reference and
line OA is the voltage across the resistive component which is in-phase with the current.
Line OC shows the inductive voltage which is 90o in front of the current therefore it can still be seen
that the current lags the purely inductive voltage by 90o. Line OD gives us the resulting supply
voltage. Then:
 V equals the r.m.s value of the applied voltage.
 I equals the r.m.s. value of the series current.
 VR equals the I.R voltage drop across the resistance which is in-phase with the current.
 VL equals the I.XL voltage drop across the inductance which leads the current by 90o.
As the current lags the voltage in a pure inductance by exactly 90 o the resultant phasor diagram
drawn from the individual voltage drops VR and VL represents a right angled voltage triangle shown
above as OAD. Then we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically find the value of this
resultant voltage across the resistor/inductor ( RL ) circuit.
As VR = I.R and VL = I.XL the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows:

The Impedance Of An Ac Inductance

Impedance, Z is the “TOTAL” opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that contains both
Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the imaginary part ). Impedance also has the units of
Ohms, Ω. Impedance depends upon the frequency, ω of the circuit as this affects the circuits reactive
components and in a series circuit all the resistive and reactive impedance’s add
together.Impedance can also be represented by a complex number, Z = R + jXL but it is not a phasor,
it is the result of two or more phasors combined together. If we divide the sides of the voltage
triangle above by I, another triangle is obtained whose sides represent the resistance, reactance
and impedance of the circuit as shown below.

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The RL Impedance Triangle

Then: ( Impedance )2 = ( Resistance )2 + ( j Reactance )2 where j represents the 90ophase shift.

This means that the positive phase angle, θ between the voltage and current is given as.
Phase Angle

While our example above represents a simple non-pure AC inductance, if two or more inductive
coils are connected together in series or a single coil is connected in series with many non-inductive
resistances, then the total resistance for the resistive elements would be equal to: R1 + R2 + R3 etc,
giving a total resistive value for the circuit.Likewise, the total reactance for the inductive elements
would be equal to: X1 + X2 + X3etc, giving a total reactance value for the circuit. This way a circuit
containing many chokes, coils and resistors can be easily reduced down to an impedance
value, Zcomprising of a single resistance in series with a single reactance, Z2 = R2 + X2.
AC Inductance Example No1
In the following circuit, the supply voltage is defined as: V(t) = 230 sin( 314t - 30o ) and L = 2.2H.
Determine the value of the current flowing through the coil and draw the resulting phasor diagram.

The voltage across the coil will be the same as the

supply voltage. Converting this time domain value into polar form gives us: VL = 230 ∠-30o (v). The

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inductive reactance of the coil is: XL = ωL = 314 x 2.2 = 690Ω. Then the current flowing through the
coil can be found using Ohms law as:

With the current lagging the voltage by 90 o the phasor diagram will be.

AC Inductance Example No2

A coil has a resistance of 30Ω and an inductance of 0.5H. If the current flowing through the coil is
4amps. What will be the value of the supply voltage if its frequency is 50Hz.

The impedance of the circuit will be:

Then the voltage drops across each component is calculated as:

The phase angle between the current and

supply voltage is calculated as:

The phasor diagram will be.

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 AC CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
The opposition to current flow through an AC Capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance and which
itself is inversely proportional to the supply frequency

Capacitors store energy on their conductive plates in the form of an electrical charge. When a
capacitor is connected across a DC supply voltage it charges up to the value of the applied voltage at
a rate determined by its time constant.A capacitor will maintain or hold this charge indefinitely as
long as the supply voltage is present. During this charging process, a charging current, i flows into
the capacitor opposed by any changes to the voltage at a rate which is equal to the rate of change of
the electrical charge on the plates. A capacitor therefore has an opposition to current flowing onto
its plates.The relationship between this charging current and the rate at which the capacitors
supply voltage changes can be defined mathematically as: i = C(dv/dt), where C is the capacitance
value of the capacitor in farads and dv/dt is the rate of change of the supply voltage with respect to
time. Once it is “fully-charged” the capacitor blocks the flow of any more electrons onto its plates as
they have become saturated and the capacitor now acts like a temporary storage device.
A pure capacitor will maintain this charge indefinitely on its plates even if the DC supply voltage is
removed. However, in a sinusoidal voltage circuit which contains “AC Capacitance”, the capacitor
will alternately charge and discharge at a rate determined by the frequency of the supply. Then
capacitors in AC circuits are constantly charging and discharging respectively.When an alternating
sinusoidal voltage is applied to the plates of an AC capacitor, the capacitor is charged firstly in one
direction and then in the opposite direction changing polarity at the same rate as the AC supply
voltage. This instantaneous change in voltage across the capacitor is opposed by the fact that it
takes a certain amount of time to deposit (or release) this charge onto the plates and is given
by V = Q/C. Consider the circuit below.
AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

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When the switch is closed in the circuit above, a high current will start to flow into the capacitor as
there is no charge on the plates at t = 0. The sinusoidal supply voltage, V is increasing in a positive
direction at its maximum rate as it crosses the zero reference axis at an instant in time given as 0o.
Since the rate of change of the potential difference across the plates is now at its maximum value,
the flow of current into the capacitor will also be at its maximum rate as the maximum amount of
electrons are moving from one plate to the other.As the sinusoidal supply voltage reaches its
90o point on the waveform it begins to slow down and for a very brief instant in time the potential
difference across the plates is neither increasing nor decreasing therefore the current decreases to
zero as there is no rate of voltage change. At this 90o point the potential difference across the
capacitor is at its maximum ( Vmax ), no current flows into the capacitor as the capacitor is now fully
charged and its plates saturated with electrons.At the end of this instant in time the supply voltage
begins to decrease in a negative direction down towards the zero reference line at 180 o. Although
the supply voltage is still positive in nature the capacitor starts to discharge some of its excess
electrons on its plates in an effort to maintain a constant voltage. This results in the capacitor
current flowing in the opposite or negative direction.
When the supply voltage waveform crosses the zero reference axis point at instant 180 othe rate of
change or slope of the sinusoidal supply voltage is at its maximum but in a negative direction,
consequently the current flowing into the capacitor is also at its maximum rate at that instant. Also
at this 180o point the potential difference across the plates is zero as the amount of charge is
equally distributed between the two plates.Then during this first half cycle 0 o to 180o the applied
voltage reaches its maximum positive value a quarter (1/4ƒ) of a cycle after the current reaches its
maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit “LAGS” the
current by a quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown below.
Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Capacitance

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During the second half cycle 180o to 360o, the supply voltage reverses direction and heads towards
its negative peak value at 270o. At this point the potential difference across the plates is neither
decreasing nor increasing and the current decreases to zero. The potential difference across the
capacitor is at its maximum negative value, no current flows into the capacitor and it becomes fully
charged the same as at its 90o point but in the opposite direction.
As the negative supply voltage begins to increase in a positive direction towards the 360 opoint on
the zero reference line, the fully charged capacitor must now loose some of its excess electrons to
maintain a constant voltage as before and starts to discharge itself until the supply voltage reaches
zero at 360o at which the process of charging and discharging starts over again.
From the voltage and current waveforms and description above, we can see that the current is
always leading the voltage by 1/4 of a cycle or π/2 = 90o “out-of-phase” with the potential
difference across the capacitor because of this charging and discharging process. Then the phase
relationship between the voltage and current in an AC capacitance circuit is the exact opposite to
that of an AC Inductance we saw in the previous tutorial.
This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram where in a purely capacitive circuit the
voltage “LAGS” the current by 90o. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say that
the current “LEADS” the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90 o as shown in the vector diagram
below.
Phasor Diagram for AC Capacitance

So for a pure capacitor, VC “lags” IC by 90o, or we can say that IC “leads” VC by 90o.
There are many different ways to remember the phase relationship between the voltage and
current flowing in a pure AC capacitance circuit, but one very simple and easy to remember way is
to use the mnemonic expression called “ICE”. ICE stands for current Ifirst in an AC
capacitance, C before Electromotive force. In other words, current before the voltage in a
capacitor, I, C, E equals “ICE”, and whichever phase angle the voltage starts at, this expression
always holds true for a pure AC capacitance circuit.
Capacitive Reactance
So we now know that capacitors oppose changes in voltage with the flow of electrons onto the
plates of the capacitor being directly proportional to the rate of voltage change across its plates as

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the capacitor charges and discharges. Unlike a resistor where the opposition to current flow is its
actual resistance, the opposition to current flow in a capacitor is called Reactance.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X to distinguish it from a
purely resistive R value and as the component in question is a capacitor, the reactance of a
capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ) which is measured in Ohms.
Since capacitors charge and discharge in proportion to the rate of voltage change across them, the
faster the voltage changes the more current will flow. Likewise, the slower the voltage changes the
less current will flow. This means then that the reactance of an AC capacitor is “inversely
proportional” to the frequency of the supply as shown.
Capacitive Reactance

Where: XC is the Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and C is the AC
capacitance in Farads, symbol F.
When dealing with AC capacitance, we can also define capacitive reactance in terms of radians,
where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

From the above formula we can see that the value of capacitive reactance
and therefore its overall impedance ( in Ohms ) decreases towards zero as the frequency increases
acting like a short circuit. Likewise, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the capacitors
reactance increases to infinity, acting like an open circuit which is why capacitors block DC.
The relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency is the exact opposite to that of
inductive reactance, ( XL ) we saw in the previous tutorial. This means then that capacitive
reactance is “inversely proportional to frequency” and has a high value at low frequencies and a low
value at higher frequencies as shown.
Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

Capacitive reactance of a capacitor decreases as the frequency across its plates increases.
Therefore, capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency. Capacitive reactance

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opposes current flow but the electrostatic charge on the plates (its AC capacitance value) remains
constant.This means it becomes easier for the capacitor to fully absorb the change in charge on its
plates during each half cycle. Also as the frequency increases the current flowing into the capacitor
increases in value because the rate of voltage change across its plates increases.
We can present the effect of very low and very high frequencies on the reactance of a pure AC
Capacitance as follows:

In an AC circuit containing pure capacitance the current (electron flow) flowing into the capacitor is
given as:

and therefore, the rms current flowing into an AC capacitance will be defined as:

Where: IC = V/(1/ωC) (or IC = V/XC) is the current magnitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase
difference or phase angle between the voltage and current. For a purely capacitive
circuit, Ic leads Vc by 90o, or Vc lags Ic by 90o.
Phasor Domain
In the phasor domain the voltage across the plates of an AC capacitance will be:

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XC∠-90o where:

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AC Across a Series R + C Circuit
We have seen from above that the current flowing into a pure AC capacitance leads the voltage
by 90o. But in the real world, it is impossible to have a pure AC Capacitance as all capacitors will
have a certain amount of internal resistance across their plates giving rise to a leakage current.
Then we can consider our capacitor as being one that has a resistance, R in series with a
capacitance, C producing what can be loosely called an “impure capacitor”.If the capacitor has some
“internal” resistance then we need to represent the total impedance of the capacitor as a resistance
in series with a capacitance and in an AC circuit that contains both capacitance, C and
resistance, R the voltage phasor, V across the combination will be equal to the phasor sum of the
two component voltages, VR and VC.This means then that the current flowing into the capacitor will
still lead the voltage, but by an amount less than 90o depending upon the values of R and C giving us
a phasor sum with the corresponding phase angle between them given by the Greek symbol phi, Φ.
Consider the series RC circuit below where an ohmic resistance, R is connected in series with a pure
capacitance, C.
Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

In the RC series circuit above, we can see that the current flowing into the circuit is common to both
the resistance and capacitance, while the voltage is made up of the two component
voltages, VR and VC. The resulting voltage of these two components can be found mathematically but
since vectors VR and VC are 90o out-of-phase, they can be added vectorially by constructing a vector
diagram.
To be able to produce a vector diagram for an AC capacitance a reference or common component
must be found. In a series AC circuit the current is common and can therefore be used as the
reference source because the same current flows through the resistance and into the capacitance.
The individual vector diagrams for a pure resistance and a pure capacitance are given as:
Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

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Both the voltage and current vectors for an AC Resistance are in phase with each other and
therefore the voltage vector VR is drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector. Also we
know that the current leads the voltage ( ICE ) in a pure AC capacitance circuit, therefore the
voltage vector VC is drawn 90o behind ( lagging ) the current vector and to the same scale as VR as
shown.
Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

In the vector diagram above, line OB represents the horizontal current reference and line OA is the
voltage across the resistive component which is in-phase with the current. Line OC shows the
capacitive voltage which is 90o behind the current therefore it can still be seen that the current
leads the purely capacitive voltage by 90 o. Line OD gives us the resulting supply voltage.
As the current leads the voltage in a pure capacitance by 90 o the resultant phasor diagram drawn
from the individual voltage drops VR and VC represents a right angled voltage triangle shown above
as OAD. Then we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically find the value of this resultant
voltage across the resistor/capacitor ( RC ) circuit.
As VR = I.R and VC = I.XC the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows.

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The Impedance of an AC Capacitance
Impedance, Z which has the units of Ohms, Ω is the “TOTAL” opposition to current flowing in an AC
circuit that contains both Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the imaginary part ). A purely
resistive impedance will have a phase angle of 0 o while a purely capacitive impedance will have a
phase angle of -90o.However when resistors and capacitors are connected together in the same
circuit, the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0 o and 90o depending
upon the value of the components used. Then the impedance of our simple RC circuit shown above
can be found by using the impedance triangle.
The RC Impedance Triangle

Then: ( Impedance )2 = ( Resistance )2 + ( j Reactance )2 where j represents the 90ophase shift.

This means then by using Pythagoras theorem the negative phase angle, θ between the voltage and
current is calculated as.
Phase Angle

AC Capacitance Example No1

A single-phase sinusoidal AC supply voltage defined as: V(t) = 240 sin(314t - 20o) is connected to a
pure AC capacitance of 200uF. Determine the value of the current flowing into the capacitor and
draw the resulting phasor diagram.

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The voltage across the capacitor will be the same as the supply voltage. Converting this time
domain value into polar form gives us: VC = 240 ∠-20o (v). The capacitive reactance will be: XC = 1/(
ω.200uF ). Then the current flowing into the capacitor can be found using Ohms law as:

With the current leading the voltage by 90o in an AC capacitance circuit the phasor diagram will be.

AC Capacitance Example No2

A capacitor which has an internal resistance of 10Ω and a capacitance value of 100uF is connected
to a supply voltage given as V(t) = 100 sin (314t). Calculate the current flowing into the capacitor.
Also construct a voltage triangle showing the individual voltage drops.

The capacitive reactance and circuit impedance is calculated as:

Then the current flowing into the capacitor and the circuit is given as:

The phase angle between the current and voltage is calculated from the impedance triangle above
as:

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Then the individual voltage drops around the circuit are calculated as:

Then the resultant voltage triangle for the calculated peak values will be:

AC Capacitance Summary
In a pure AC Capacitance circuit, the voltage and current are both “out-of-phase” with the current
leading the voltage by 90o and we can remember this by using the mnemonic expression “ICE”. The
AC resistive value of a capacitor called impedance, ( Z ) is related to frequency with the reactive
value of a capacitor called “capacitive reactance”, XC. In an AC Capacitance circuit, this capacitive
reactance value is equal to 1/( 2πƒC ) or 1/( jωC )Thus far we have seen that the relationship
between voltage and current is not the same and changes in all three pure passive components. In
the Resistance the phase angle is 0o, in the Inductance it is +90o while in the Capacitance it is -90o.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF EARTHING AN ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION?

In almost every electrical installation made, earthing is used. The earthing system, also known as
the grounding system, is a circuit connecting parts of the electrical system to the ground.

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The earthing system thus regulates the conductors with respect to the earth’s conducting surface.
Hence, the term, ‘earthing’ is also quite appropriate and indicative.
Why is an Earthing Necessary?
Earthing is an important component of electrical systems because of the following reasons:
 It keeps people safe by preventing electric shocks
 It prevents damage to electrical appliances and devices by preventing excessive current
from running through the circuit
 It prevents the risk of fire that could otherwise be caused by current leakage
Advantages of earthing
From a technical perspective, earthing has some excellent advantages, resulting it in becoming a
mainstream practice in the electrical industry.
 The electrical system is related to the potential of the general earth mass and cannot reach
a different potential. The potential of the earth is zero volts and is known as the neutral of
the electricity supply. This helps in keeping the balance.
 Another advantage is that metal can be used in electrical installations without having to
worry about conductivity. Though metal is a good conductor of electricity, proper earthing
ensures that metal parts not meant to be used for current transfer can be included in the
system. This is done by providing a separate path for this faulty current, enabling its
immediate detection and stoppage.
 In cases of surges in the voltage, high voltages can pass through the electricity circuit. These
kinds of overload can lead to damaging of devices and danger to human life. When earthing
is installed with the electrical installations, the current is routed through a different path
and does not affect the electrical system.
 An electrical circuit has to be connected together with a lot of attention to the kind of
reactions each transformer may have in response to any action on the part of any other
transformer. The earth is an ever-present conductive surface and helps configure these
relationships between different electrical sources and makes them easier to handle.
Types of Earthing
Plate earthing
Plate earthing requires a copper or galvanised iron to be buried vertically into the earth in an earth
pit, dug more than 10 feet into the ground. These earth pits are then filled with charcoal and salt in
alternate layers.
Pipe earthing

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For pipe earthing, a pipe of galvanised steel is placed in the soil instead of a plate. The pipe is drilled
with holes for connecting the earthing wires. The length and diameter of the pipe depends on the
type of soil and the type of electrical installation. In this method as well, the earth pits are filled with
alternate layers of charcoal and salt for inducing reactivity. Pipe earthing is the most common type
of earthing.
Rod earthing
Similar to pipe earthing, rod earthing requires the burying of a rod made of copper or galvanised
iron. Electrodes are embedded in the soil and thus decrease the resistance of the earth as required.
Wire earthing
For wire earthing, several horizontal trenches are dug. Strip electrodes are buried inside these
trenches. These electrodes are made of copper, or galvanised iron or steel. Sometimes, round
conductors are also used in the ground.
Waterman method
The Waterman method calls for the use of Waterman or galvanised GI pipes. These pipes are buried
in the earth and earthing clamps are used to reduce the resistance for the electrical connection.
Irrespective of which method is used for earthing, it is important to ensure that the size of the
device, depth of its burial, and its connection to the electrical installations is done with great care
and after in-depth calculations in order for it to be effective.
Factors Affecting Earthing Installations
Several factors can play a role in the earthing installations. These factors will have to be taken into
consideration for any kind of calculations made about the type of earthing, the kind of circuits
required, and so on.The kind of soil is important for determining the effectiveness of the earthing.
The earth’s resistance, moisture level in the soil, salts in the soil, etc. will play a significant role in
determining the way the earthing is made. The soil composition is also another factor that needs to
be taken into consideration. For e.g., rocky soil has to be treated very differently to wet soil.
Apart from the soil, the location of the earth pit is important to determine how the installation
should be done. If there are underground obstructions in the form of rock beds, then they will affect
the installations.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

The function of a lightning protection system is to protect structures from fire or mechanical
destruction and persons in the buildings from injury or even death.A lightning protection system
consists of an external and an internal lightning protection system (presented in figure 1).
The functions of the external lightning protection system are:

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1. To intercept direct lightning strikes via an air-termination system
2. To safely conduct the lightning current to the ground via a down-conductor system
3. to distribute the lightning current in the ground via an earth-termination system

Figure 1 – Components of a lightning protection system

The function of the internal lightning protection system is to prevent dangerous sparking inside
the structure.
Lightning equipotential bonding reduces the potential differences caused by lightning currents.
This is achieved by connecting all isolated conductive parts of the installation directly by means
of conductors or surge protective devices (SPDs) (Figure 2).

The four classes of LPS I, II, III and IV are determined using a set of construction rules including
dimensioning requirements which are based on the relevant lightning protection level. Each set
comprises class-dependent (e.g. radius of the rolling sphere, mesh size) and class-independent
(e.g. cross-sections, materials) requirements.

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