Chapter 1

Units associated with basic

electrical quantities
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the basic SI units
• recognize derived SI units
• understand prefixes denoting multiplication and division
• state the units of charge, force, work and power and perform simple calculations involving these units
• state the units of electrical potential, e.m.f., resistance, conductance, power and energy and perform simple
calculations involving these units

Table 1.1 Basic SI Units

1.1 SI units
Quantity Unit
The system of units used in engineering and science is length metre, m
the Système Internationale d’Unités (International sys-
tem of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is mass kilogram, kg
based on the metric system. This was introduced in 1960 time second, s
and is now adopted by the majority of countries as the
official system of measurement. electric current ampere, A
The basic units in the SI system are listed with their thermodynamic temperature kelvin, K
symbols, in Table 1.1.
Derived SI units use combinations of basic units and luminous intensity candela, cd
there are many of them. Two examples are: amount of substance mole, mol
• Velocity — metres per second (m/s)
• Acceleration — metres per second squared (m/s2 )
1.2 Charge
SI units may be made larger or smaller by using prefixes
which denote multiplication or division by a particu- The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) where
lar amount. The six most common multiples, with their one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 coulomb =
meaning, are listed in Table 1.2. For a more complete 6.24 ×1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as the
list of prefixes, see page 4. quantity of electricity which flows past a given point

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00001-X
 4 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Table 1.2
Part 1

Prefix Name Meaning

M mega multiply by 1 000 000 (i.e. ×106)
k kilo multiply by 1000 (i.e. ×103)
m milli divide by 1000 (i.e. ×10−3)
µ micro divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. ×10−6)
n nano divide by 1 000 000 000 (i.e. ×10−9)
p pico divide by 1 000 000 000 000 (i.e. ×10−12)

in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere is

maintained for one second. Thus,
charge, in coulombs Q = It
where I is the current in amperes and t is the time in
seconds.
Problem 1. If a current of 5 A flows for 2
minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Problem 3. Find the force acting vertically
downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire.
Mass = 200 g =0.2 kg and acceleration due to gravity,
g =9.81 m/s2
Force acting downwards=weight = mass × acceleration
= 0.2 kg ×9.81 m/s2
= 1.962 N

Quantity of electricity Q = It coulombs

1.4 Work
I = 5 A, t = 2 × 60 =120 s
Hence Q = 5 × 120 =600 C The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where one
joule is one newton metre. The joule is defined as the
work done or energy transferred when a force of one
newton is exerted through a distance of one metre in the
1.3 Force
direction of the force. Thus
The unit of force is the newton (N) where one newton work done on a body, in joules W = Fs
is one kilogram metre per second squared. The newton
is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of where F is the force in newtons and s is the distance in
one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per metres moved by the body in the direction of the force.
second squared. Thus, Energy is the capacity for doing work.
force, in newtons F = ma
1.5 Power
where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the accelera-
tion in metres per second squared. Gravitational force, The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt is one
or weight, is mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 . joule per second. Power is defined as the rate of doing
work or transferring energy. Thus,
Problem 2. A mass of 5000 g is accelerated at
2 m/s2 by a force. Determine the force needed. W
power in watts, P=
t
Force = mass × acceleration where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules
kg m and t is the time in seconds. Thus
= 5 kg ×2 m/s2 = 10 2 = 10 N
s
energy, in joules, W = Pt
 Units associated with basic electrical quantities 5

Problem 4. A portable machine requires a force 6. A force of 2.5 kN is required to lift a load.

Part 1
of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if the How much work is done if the load is lifted
machine is moved 20 m and what average power is through 500 cm? [12.5 kJ]
utilized if the movement takes 25 s?
7. An electromagnet exerts a force of 12 N and
moves a soft iron armature through a dis-
Work done = force × distance = 200 N × 20 m tance of 1.5 cm in 40 ms. Find the power
= 4000 Nm or 4 kJ consumed. [4.5 W]
8. A mass of 500 kg is raised to a height of 6 m
work done 4000 J in 30 s. Find (a) the work done and (b) the
Power = = = 160 J/s = 160 W
time taken 25 s power developed.
[(a) 29.43 kNm (b) 981 W]
Problem 5. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a
9. What quantity of electricity is carried by
height of 10 m in 20 s. What is (a) the work done
6.24 ×1021 electrons? [1000 C]
and (b) the power developed?
10. In what time would a current of 1 A transfer
a charge of 30 C? [30 s]
(a) Work done =force × distance and
force = mass × acceleration 11. A current of 3 A flows for 5 minutes. What
charge is transferred? [900 C]
Hence, work done = (1000 kg ×9.81 m/s2 ) × (10 m)
= 98 100 Nm 12. How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as
to transfer a charge of 30 C? [5 minutes]
= 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
work done 98 100 J 13. Rewrite the following as indicated:
(b) Power = = = 4905 J/s (a) 1000 pF = . . . . . . . . . nF
time taken 20 s
= 4905 W or 4.905 kW (b) 0.02 µF = . . . . . . . . .. pF
(c) 5000 kHz = . . . . . . . . . MHz
(d) 47 k = . . . . . . .. M
Now try the following exercise (e) 0.32 mA = . . . . . . . µA
[(a) 1 nF (b) 20 000 pF (c) 5 MHz
(d) 0.047 M (e) 320 µA]
Exercise 1 Further problems on units
associated with basic electrical
quantities.
1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f.
(Take g = 9.81 m/s2 where appropriate)
1. What force is required to give a mass of 20 kg The unit of electric potential is the volt (V) where one
an acceleration of 30 m/s2 ? [600 N] volt is one joule per coulomb. One volt is defined as the
difference in potential between two points in a conductor
2. Find the accelerating force when a car having
which, when carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates
a mass of 1.7 Mg increases its speed with a
a power of one watt, i.e.
constant acceleration of 3 m/s2 [5.1 kN]
watts joules/second
3. A force of 40 N accelerates a mass at 5 m/s2 . volts = =
Determine the mass. [8 kg] amperes amperes
joules joules
4. Determine the force acting downwards = =
on a mass of 1500 g suspended on a ampere seconds coulombs
string. [14.72 N] A change in electric potential between two points in
an electric circuit is called a potential difference. The
5. A force of 4 N moves an object 200 cm in the
electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of
direction of the force. What amount of work
energy such as a battery or a generator is measured in
is done? [8 J]
volts.
 6 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

1.7 Resistance and conductance Problem 7. A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies a

Part 1

current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much energy is

The unit of electric resistance is the ohm () where provided in this time?
one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined as the
resistance between two points in a conductor when a Energy =power × time and power = voltage ×current.
constant electric potential of one volt applied at the two Hence
points produces a current flow of one ampere in the Energy =VIt = 5 ×3 × (10 ×60) = 9000 Ws or J
conductor. Thus,
= 9 kJ
V
resistance, in ohms R= Problem 8. An electric heater consumes 1.8 MJ
I
when connected to a 250 V supply for 30 minutes.
where V is the potential difference across the two points Find the power rating of the heater and the current
in volts and I is the current flowing between the two taken from the supply.
points in amperes.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
and is measured in siemens (S). Thus, Energy = power × time, hence
energy
1 power =
conductance, in siemens G= time
R
1.8 × 106 J
where R is the resistance in ohms. = = 1000 J/s =1000 W
30 × 60 s
Problem 6. Find the conductance of a conductor i.e. Power rating of heater = 1 kW
of resistance (a) 10 , (b) 5 k and (c) 100 m.
P 1000
Power P = VI, thus I = = =4A
1 1 V 250
(a) Conductance G = = siemen = 0.1 S
R 10 Hence the current taken from the supply is 4 A.
1 1
(b) G = = S = 0.2 × 10−3 S = 0.2 mS
R 5 ×103
Now try the following exercise
1 1 103
(c) G= = S = S =10 S
R 100 ×10−3 100
Exercise 2 Further problems on units
associated with basic electrical
quantities
1.8 Electrical power and energy
1. Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance
(a) 10  (b) 2 k (c) 2 m
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an elec-
[(a) 0.1 S (b) 0.5 mS (c) 500 S]
tric circuit and the voltage across the circuit is V volts,
then 2. A conductor has a conductance of 50 µS. What
is its resistance? [20 k]
power, in watts P = VI
3. An e.m.f. of 250 V is connected across a
Electrical energy = Power × time
resistance and the current flowing through the
= VIt Joules resistance is 4 A. What is the power developed?
[1 kW]
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when deal-
ing with large amounts of energy, the unit used is the 4. 450 J of energy are converted into heat in
kilowatt hour (kWh) where 1 minute. What power is dissipated? [7.5 W]
1 kWh = 1000 watt hour 5. A current of 10 A flows through a conductor
and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d. exists across
= 1000 × 3600 watt seconds or joules
the ends of the conductor? [1 V]
= 3 600 000 J
 Units associated with basic electrical quantities 7

6. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V supplies a current Force F newton N

Part 1
of 5 A for 2 minutes. How much energy is
Electrical Q coulomb C
supplied in this time? [7.2 kJ]
charge or
7. A dc electric motor consumes 36 MJ when con- quantity
nected to a 250 V supply for 1 hour. Find the
power rating of the motor and the current taken Electric current I ampere A
from the supply. [10 kW, 40 A]
Resistance R ohm 

Conductance G siemen S
1.9 Summary of terms, units and
Electromotive E volt V
their symbols force
Potential V volt V
Quantity Quantity Unit Unit difference
Symbol Symbol
Work W joule J
Length l metre m
Energy E (or W) joule J
Mass m kilogram kg
Power P watt W
Time t second s
As progress is made through Electrical Circuit Theory
Velocity v metres per m/s or
and Technology many more terms will be met. A full
second m s−1
list of electrical quantities, together with their symbols
and units are given in Part 4, page 725.
Acceleration a metres per m/s2 or
second m s−2
squared
MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
Currents, voltages and resistances can often be very large or very small. Thus multiples and sub-
multiples of units are often used. The most common ones, with an example of each, are listed in
the table below.

Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,

Example
1.The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied. Determine the
value of the resistance.
Solution
From Ohm’s law,

2. What is the resistance of a coil which draws a current of (a) 50mA and (b) 200μA from a
120V supply?
Solution
3. Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13A from a 240V supply.
Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each week and
1kWh of energy costs 13.56p
Solution
Power=VI watts=240×13=3120W=3.12kW
Energy used per week =power×time =(3.12kW)×(30h)=93.6kWh
Cost at 13.56p per kWh=93.6×13.56=1269.216p
Hence weekly cost of electricity=£12.69
 Chapter 5
Series and parallel networks
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in a series circuit
• understand voltage division in a series circuit
• calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in a parallel network
• calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in series-parallel networks
• understand current division in a two-branch parallel network
• appreciate the loading effect of a voltmeter
• understand the difference between potentiometers and rheostats
• perform calculations to determine load currents and voltages in potentiometers and rheostats
• understand and perform calculations on relative and absolute voltages
• state three causes of short circuits in electrical circuits
• describe the advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel connection of lamps

In a series circuit
5.1 Series circuits
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit
Figure 5.1 shows three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 con- and hence the same reading is found on each of
nected end to end, i.e. in series, with a battery source the two ammeters shown, and
of V volts. Since the circuit is closed a current I will (b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to
flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be determined the total applied voltage, V , i.e.
from the voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3
V = V 1 +V 2 + V 3
R1 R2 R3
From Ohm’s law:
V1 V2 V3
A
A V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 and V = IR

I where R is the total circuit resistance.

V
Since V = V1 + V2 + V3
Figure 5.1 then IR = IR1 +IR2 +IR3

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00005-7
 Series and parallel networks 37

Dividing throughout by I gives P.d. across R3 , V3 = 25 − 10 − 4 = 11 V

Part 1
R = R1 + R2 + R3 V 25
Current I = = = 0.25 A, which is the current
R 100
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is obtained flowing in each resistor
by adding together the values of the separate resistances. V2 4
Resistance R2 = = = 16 
I 0.25
Problem 1. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.2,
determine (a) the battery voltage V , (b) the total Problem 3. A 12 V battery is connected in a
resistance of the circuit, and (c) the values of circuit having three series-connected resistors
resistance of resistors R1 , R2 and R3 , given that the having resistances of 4 , 9  and 11 . Determine
p.d.’s across R1 , R2 and R3 are 5 V, 2 V and 6 V the current flowing through, and the p.d. across the
respectively. 9  resistor. Find also the power dissipated in the
R1 R2 R3 11  resistor.

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.4.

V1 V2 V3
4A
4V 9V 11 V
V

Figure 5.2 I V1

12 V
(a) Battery voltage V = V1 + V2 + V3
= 5 + 2 + 6 = 13 V Figure 5.4

V 13
(b) Total circuit resistance R = = = 3.25  Total resistance R = 4 + 9 + 11 =24 
I 4
V1 5 V 12
(c) Resistance R1 = = = 1.25  Current I = = = 0.5 A, which is the current in the
I 4 R 24
9  resistor.
V2 2
Resistance R2 = = = 0.5 
I 4 P.d. across the 9  resistor, V1 = I × 9 = 0.5 × 9
V3 6 = 4.5 V
Resistance R3 = = = 1.5 
I 4 Power dissipated in the 11  resistor,
(Check: R1 + R2 + R3 = 1.25 + 0.5 + 1.5
= 3.25  = R) P = I 2 R =0.52 (11)
= 0.25(11)
Problem 2. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.3, = 2.75 W
determine the p.d. across resistor R3 . If the total
resistance of the circuit is 100 , determine the
current flowing through resistor R1 . Find also the 5.2 Potential divider
value of resistor R2 .

R1 R2 R3 The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in

Figure 5.5(a) is given by:
 
10 V 4V V3 R1
I V1 = V
R1 + R2
25 V  
R2
Figure 5.3 V2 = V
R1 + R1
 38 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

R1 R2 Figure 5.6 may be redrawn as shown in Figure 5.7, and

voltage
Part 1

 
V1 V2 6
V= (50) = 30 V
6+4
V
(a)

4V

50 V
R1 6V V

Figure 5.7
VIN

VOUT
Problem 5. Two resistors are connected in series
R2
across a 24 V supply and a current of 3 A flows in
the circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of
2  determine (a) the value of the other resistor, and
(b) the p.d. across the 2  resistor. If the circuit is
(b)
connected for 50 hours, how much energy is used?
Figure 5.5

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.8

The circuit shown in Figure 5.5(b) is often referred
to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit can con-
R1 5 2 V Rx
sist of a number of similar elements in series connected
across a voltage source, voltages being taken from con-
nections between the elements. Frequently the divider
V1
consists of two resistors as shown in Figure 5.5(b),
where I53A
  24 V
R2
V OUT = V IN Figure 5.8
R1 + R2

A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a V 24

(a) Total circuit resistance R = = =8
source of lower e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f., and I 3
is the basic operating mechanism of the potentiometer, Value of unknown resistance, Rx = 8 − 2 = 6 
a measuring device for accurately measuring potential
differences (see page 117). (b) P.d. across 2  resistor, V1 = IR1 = 3 × 2 =6 V
Alternatively, from above,
Problem 4. Determine the value of voltage V    
shown in Figure 5.6. R1 2
V1 = V= (24) = 6 V
R1 + Rx 2+6
4V
Energy used = power × time

= V × I ×t
50 V 6V V
= (24 × 3 W) (50 h)

= 3600 Wh = 3.6 kWh

Figure 5.6
 Series and parallel networks 39

Now try the following exercise

6. An oven takes 15 A at 240 V. It is required to

Part 1
Exercise 11 Further problems on series reduce the current to 12 A. Find (a) the resistor
circuits which must be connected in series, and (b) the
voltage across the resistor. [(a) 4  (b) 48 V]
1. The p.d.’s measured across three resistors con-
nected in series are 5 V, 7 V and 10 V, and the
supply current is 2 A. Determine (a) the supply
voltage, (b) the total circuit resistance and (c)
the values of the three resistors. 5.3 Parallel networks
[(a) 22 V (b) 11  (c) 2.5 , 3.5 , 5 ]
Figure 5.11 shows three resistors, R1 , R2 and R3 con-
2. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.9, determine nected across each other, i.e. in parallel, across a battery
the value of V1. If the total circuit resistance source of V volts.
is 36  determine the supply current and the
value of resistors R1 , R2 and R3 . I1 R1
A1
[10 V, 0.5 A, 20 , 10 , 6 ]

I2 R2
R1 R2 R3 A2

V1 5V 3V I3 R3
I A3
I
18 V

A
Figure 5.9

3. When the switch in the circuit in Figure 5.10

is closed the reading on voltmeter 1 is 30 V V
and that on voltmeter 2 is 10 V. Determine
the reading on the ammeter and the value of Figure 5.11
resistor Rx . [4 A, 2.5 ]

5V Rx In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1 , I2 and I3 is equal to the
V2
A total circuit current, I , i.e. I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 , and
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of
V1 the resistors.
From Ohm’s law:
Figure 5.10
V V V V
4. Two resistors are connected in series across an I1 = , I2 = , I3 = and I =
R1 R2 R3 R
18 V supply and a current of 5 A flows. If one
of the resistors has a value of 2.4  determine where R is the total circuit resistance.
(a) the value of the other resistor and (b) the
p.d. across the 2.4  resistor. Since I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
[(a) 1.2  (b) 12 V] V V V V
then = + +
5. An arc lamp takes 9.6 A at 55 V. It is oper- R R1 R2 R3
ated from a 120 V supply. Find the value of the Dividing throughout by V gives:
stabilizing resistor to be connected in series.
[6.77 ] 1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
 40 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

This equation must be used when finding the total resist-

ance R of a parallel circuit. For the special case of two
Part 1

resistors in parallel

1 1 1 R2 + R1
= + =
R R1 R2 R1 R2

 
R1 R2 product Figure 5.13
Hence R= i.e.
R1 + R2 sum
1 2+1 3
= =
R 6 6
Problem 6. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.12, 6
determine (a) the reading on the ammeter, and (b) Hence, R = = 2 
3
the value of resistor R2 .  
R1 R2 3 × 6 18
Alternatively, R = = = =2
R1 + R2 3 + 6 9

V 12
(b) Current in the 3  resistance, I1 = = = 4A
R1 3

Problem 8. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.14,

find (a) the value of the supply voltage V and (b)
the value of current I .

Figure 5.12

P.d. across R1 is the same as the supply voltage V .

Hence supply voltage, V = 8 × 5 =40 V Figure 5.14
V 40
(a) Reading on ammeter, I = = =2A
R3 20
(a) P.d. across 20  resistor = I2 R2 = 3 × 20 = 60 V,
(b) Current flowing through R2 = 11 −8 − 2 =1 A
hence supply voltage V = 60 V since the circuit is
V 40 connected in parallel.
Hence, R2 = = = 40 
I2 1
V 60
(b) Current I1 = = = 6 A; I2 = 3 A
R1 10
Problem 7. Two resistors, of resistance 3  and
V 60
6 , are connected in parallel across a battery I3 = = = 1A
having a voltage of 12 V. Determine (a) the total R3 60
circuit resistance and (b) the current flowing in the Current I = I1 + I2 + I3 and hence I = 6 + 3 + 1
3  resistor. = 10 A
Alternatively,
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.13.
1 1 1 1 1 + 3 + 6 10
(a) The total circuit resistance R is given by = + + = =
R 60 20 10 60 60
1 1 1 1 1 60
= + = + Hence total resistance R = =6
R R1 R2 3 6 10
 Series and parallel networks 41

V 60
Current I = = = 10 A
R 6

Part 1
Problem 9. Given four 1  resistors, state how
they must be connected to give an overall resistance Figure 5.18
of (a) 14  (b) 1  (c) 1 13  (d) 2 12 , all four
resistors being connected in each case.
1 ×1 1 1
R= = , and , 1  and 1  in series
1 +1 2 2
(a) All four in parallel (see Figure 5.15), 1
gives 2 
1 1 1 1 1 4 1 2
since = + + + = , i.e. R = 
R 1 1 1 1 1 4
Problem 10. Find the equivalent resistance for
the circuit shown in Figure 5.19.

Figure 5.15 Figure 5.19

(b) Two in series, in parallel with another two in

series (see Figure 5.16), since 1  and 1  in R3 , R4 and R5 are connected in parallel and their equi-
series gives 2 , and 2  in parallel with 2  gives: valent resistance R is given by:
2×2 4 1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 1 10
= =1 = + + = =
2+2 4 R 3 6 18 18 18
18
Hence R = = 1.8 
10

The circuit is now equivalent to four resistors in series

Figure 5.16 and the equivalent circuit resistance

(c) Three in parallel, in series with one (see = 1 +2.2 + 1.8 + 4 =9 

Figure 5.17), since for the three in parallel,
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= + + = , i.e. R =  and  in 5.4 Current division
R 1 1 1 1 3 3
series with 1  gives 1 13 
For the circuit shown in Figure 5.20, the total circuit
resistance, RT is given by:
R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
 
R1 R2
and V = IRT = I
Figure 5.17 R1 + R2
   
(d) Two in parallel, in series with two in series (see V I R1 R2 R2
Current I1 = = = (I)
Figure 5.18), since for the two in parallel R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
 42 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

The current flowing through R3

Part 1

   
R2 6
= I= 25
R2 + R3 6+2
= 18.75 A
Figure 5.20
(Note that the currents flowing through R2 and R3
Similarly, must add up to the total current flowing into the
    parallel arrangement, i.e. 25 A)
V I R1 R2 R1
current I2 = = = (I) (c) The equivalent circuit of Figure 5.21 is shown in
R2 R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 Figure 5.22.
Summarizing, with reference to Figure 5.20 p.d. across R1 , i.e. V1 = IR1 = (25)(2.5) = 62.5 V
    p.d. across Rx , i.e. Vx = IR x = (25)(1.5) = 37.5 V
R2 R1
I1 = (I) and I 2 = (I) p.d. across R4 , i.e. V4 = IR4 = (25)(4) = 100 V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Hence the p.d. across R2 = p.d. across R3 = 37.5 V

Problem 11. For the series-parallel arrangement

shown in Figure 5.21, find (a) the supply current,
(b) the current flowing through each resistor and
(c) the p.d. across each resistor.

Figure 5.22

Problem 12. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.23

calculate (a) the value of resistor Rx such that the
total power dissipated in the circuit is 2.5 kW, and
(b) the current flowing in each of the four resistors.

Figure 5.21

(a) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in

parallel is:
6 × 2 12
Rx = = = 1.5 
6+2 8
The equivalent resistance RT of R1 , Rx and R4 in Figure 5.23
series is:
RT = 2.5 + 1.5 + 4 = 8 
V 200 (a) Power dissipated P = VI watts, hence
Supply current I = = = 25 A 2500 = (250)(I )
RT 8
(b) The current flowing through R1 and R4 is 25 A 2500
i.e. I = = 10 A
The current flowing through R2 250
   
R3 2
= I= 25 V 250
R2 + R3 6+2 From Ohm’s law, RT = = = 25 , where
I 10
= 6.25 A RT is the equivalent circuit resistance.
Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws state:
(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing towards that
junction is equal to the total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. 𝛴𝐼 = 0
Thus, referring to Figure below:

(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e.
products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in
that loop.
Thus, referring to Figure below:

E1−E2=IR1+ IR2+IR3
 156 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Figure 13.2

Problem 1. (a) Find the unknown currents Figure 13.4

marked in Figure 13.3(a). (b) Determine the value
of e.m.f. E in Figure 13.3(b).

Procedure
1. Use Kirchhoff’s current law and label current direc-
tions on the original circuit diagram. The directions
chosen are arbitrary, but it is usual, as a starting
Part 2

point, to assume that current flows from the posi-

tive terminals of the batteries. This is shown in
Figure 13.5 where the three branch currents are
Figure 13.3 expressed in terms of I1 and I2 only, since the
current through R is I1 + I2 .
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:
For junction B: 50 =20 + I1 . Hence I 1 = 30 A
For junction C: 20 +15 = I2 . Hence I 2 = 35 A
For junction D: I1 = I3 + 120
i.e. 30 = I3 + 120. Hence I 3 = −90 A
(i.e. in the opposite direction to that shown in
Figure 13.3(a))
For junction E: I4 + I3 = 15 Figure 13.5
i.e. I4 = 15 −(−90).
Hence I 4 = 105 A 2. Divide the circuit into two loops and apply Kirch-
For junction F: 120 = I5 + 40. Hence I 5 = 80 A hoff’s voltage law to each. From loop 1 of
Figure 13.5, and moving in a clockwise direction
(b) Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law and moving as indicated (the direction chosen does not matter),
clockwise around the loop of Figure 13.3(b) start- gives
ing at point A:
E 1 = I1r1 + (I1 + I2 )R, i.e. 4 = 2I1 + 4(I1 + I2 ),
3 + 6 + E − 4 = (I)(2) + (I)(2.5) + (I)(1.5)
i.e. 6I1 + 4I2 = 4 (1)
+ (I)(1)
= I (2 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 1) From loop 2 of Figure 13.5, and moving in an anti-
clockwise direction as indicated (once again, the
i.e. 5 + E = 2(7), since I = 2 A choice of direction does not matter; it does not have
Hence E = 14 −5 = 9 V to be in the same direction as that chosen for the first
loop), gives:
Problem 2. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine
the currents flowing in each branch of the network E 2 = I2r2 + (I1 + I2 )R, i.e. 2 = I2 + 4(I1 + I2 ),
shown in Figure 13.4.
i.e. 4I1 + 5I2 = 2 (2)
 D.c. circuit theory 157

3. Solve equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2 . 1. Currents, and their directions are shown labelled in
Figure 13.8 following Kirchhoff’s current law. It is
2 × (1) gives: 12I1 + 8I2 = 8 (3) usual, although not essential, to follow conventional
3 × (2) gives: 12I1 + 15I2 = 6 (4) current flow with current flowing from the positive
terminal of the source.
2
(3) – (4) gives: −7I2 = 2 hence I2 = −
7
= −0.286 A
(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that
shown in Figure 13.5.)
From (1) 6I1 + 4(−0.286) =4
6I1 = 4 + 1.144
5.144
Hence I1 = = 0.857 A Figure 13.8
6
Current flowing through resistance R is
2. The network is divided into two loops as shown
I1 + I2 = 0.857 + (−0.286) = 0.571 A in Figure 13.8. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Part 2
gives:
Note that a third loop is possible, as shown in
Figure 13.6, giving a third equation which can be For loop 1:
used as a check:
E 1 + E 2 = I1 R1 + I2 R2
E 1 − E 2 = I1r1 − I2 r2
i.e. 16 = 0.5I1 + 2I2 (1)
4 − 2 = 2I1 − I2
2 = 2I1 − I2 For loop 2:

E 2 = I2 R2 − (I1 − I2 )R3

Note that since loop 2 is in the opposite direction

to current (I1 − I2 ), the volt drop across R3 (i.e.
(I1 − I2 )(R3 )) is by convention negative.

Thus 12 = 2I2 − 5(I1 − I2 )

Figure 13.6 i.e. 12 = −5I1 + 7I2 (2)

3. Solving equations (1) and (2) to find I1 and I2 :
[Check: 2I1 − I2 = 2(0.857) −(−0.286) =2]
10 × (1) gives 160 = 5I1 + 20I2 (3)
Problem 3. Determine, using Kirchhoff’s laws,
each branch current for the network shown in 172
Figure 13.7. (2) + (3) gives 172 = 27I2 hence I2 =
27
= 6.37 A

From (1): 16 = 0.5I1 + 2(6.37)

16 − 2(6.37)
I1 = = 6.52 A
0.5
Current flowing in R3 = I1 − I2 = 6.52 −6.37
= 0.15 A
Figure 13.7