Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TRADING INTERNATIONALLY
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Use the resourcebased and institutionbased views to explain why nations trade.
2. Outline the classical and modern theories of international trade.
3. Explain the importance of political realities governing international trade.
4. Identify factors that should be considered when your firm participates in
international trade.
Chapter Summary
This chapter first considers why nations trade and then goes into further depth by
discussing different theories of trade: mercantilism, absolute advantage, comparative
advantage, product life cycle, strategic trade, and national competitive advantage of
industries. Students will learn how to evaluate the different theories of trade. We then turn
to the realities of trade, including tariff barriers and non-tariff barriers. Students will learn
about political and economic arguments against free trade and consider the complexities
of free trade in the current international climate.
Opening Case Discussion Guide
The opening case Why Are German Exports So Competitive? shows how Germany has
used its focus on quality as a means of expanding exports, which in turn have expanded
the German economy. Although the German people were very thrifty (thus limiting the
domestic market), their trading partners were much more willing to spend. However, that
also meant that the German economy was strongly influenced by the extent to which
people in other nations continued to do well. When the trading partners experienced a
downturn, it also affected Germany. Students should be asked what implications they can
draw from the case study. Does it suggest that reliance on trade is a bad thing? Does it
indicate a need for innovation? Does it suggest a need for a wider range of products so as
not to rely so heavily on more expensive exports?
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LESSON PLAN FOR LECTURE
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Brief Outline and Suggested PowerPoint Slides
Learning Outcome PowerPoint Slides
Learning Objectives Overview 2: Learning Objectives
LO1 3: Why Do Nations Trade? Terms to Know
Use the resourcebased and institution 4: Why Do Nations Trade?
based views to explain why nations trade. 5: World Merchandise Exports
LO2 6: Theories of International Trade
Outline the classical and modern theories 7: Theories of International Trade
of international trade. 8: Mercantilism
910: Absolute Advantage
1112: Comparative Advantage
1316: Product Life Cycle Theory
1719: Strategic Trade
20: National Competitive Advantage of
Industries
LO3 2122: Importance of Political Realities
Explain the importance of political realities 23: Arguments Against Free Trade –
governing international trade. Economic
24: Arguments Against Free Trade –
Political
LO4 2526: Factors When Considering Business
Identify factors that should be considered With Other Nations
when your firm participates in international
trade.
Debate 26: Should the US/China Trade Deficit Be
Of Concern?
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
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LO1: Use the resourcebased and institutionbased views to explain why nations
trade.
1. Key Concepts
International trade is a complex phenomenon, reaching across multiple political,
economic and cultural boundaries. So why do firms go through it? The short
answer is that there must be some form of economic gain for both sides; it must
be a winwin deal for both exporters and importers to be willing to engage in
trade. According to the resourcebased view, nations trade because some firms in
one nation generate valuable, unique, and hardtoimitate exports that firms in
other nations find it beneficial to import. According to the institutionbased view,
different rules governing trade are designed to determine how such gains are
shared or not shared.
2. Key Terms
Balance of trade is the countrylevel trade surplus or deficit.
Exporting means to sell abroad.
Importing means to buy from abroad.
Merchandise trade is tangible products being bought and sold.
Service trade is intangible services being bought and sold.
Trade deficit is an economic condition in which a nation imports more than it
exports.
Trade surplus is an economic condition in which a nation exports more than it
imports.
3. Discussion Exercise
To succeed in international trade, it is crucial to know what to sell and how to sell
it. For example, a company that specializes in porkbased products likely would
not find a willing trade partner in Muslim countries, in which the consumption of
pork is outlawed. The cable news outlet CNBC is an example of international
trade done well. The network offers a source of journalism that is unique to
particular regions throughout the world. In addition to the US broadcast, CNBC
offers local channels that focus on the business issues that are pertinent to each
region in the local language. At most times, the only similarity between the
various iterations of CNBC are aesthetic, i.e., the network logo and set design.
Through this approach, CNBC has created an increasing level of awareness of its
brand throughout the world and established a reliable source of revenue within an
industry that is in the midst of a revolution thanks to digital media.
Based on this case, what is an effective way of developing a sense of where to sell
your products? What is an effective way of developing a sense of how to sell your
products? Given the variety of strategies that may be needed to reach multiple
markets, how will you decide which market is worth entering, and which is not?
Are there instances in which you think that successful international trade can
occur by emphasizing American values and norms?
LO2: Outline the classical and modern theories of international trade.
1. Key Concepts
There are two classes of theories that discuss the nature and benefits of
international trade –the classical trade theories, which date to the 18th and 19th
centuries, and the modern trade theories, which date to the 20th century. Of the
classical trade theories, we will consider mercantilism, absolute advantage, and
comparative advantage; of the modern theories, we will examine product life
cycles, strategic trade, and national competitive advantage of industries.
2. Key Terms
Absolute advantage is the economic advantage one nation enjoys because it can
produce a good or service more efficiently than anyone else.
Comparative advantage is the relative (not absolute) advantage in one economic
activity that one nation enjoys in comparison with other nations.
Factor endowments refer to the extent to which different countries possess
various factors of production, such as labor, land, and technology.
Factor endowment theory (or HeckscherOhlin theory) is a theory that
suggests that nations will develop comparative advantage based on their locally
abundant factors.
Firstmover advantages are the advantages that first entrants enjoy and do not
share with late entrants.
Free trade is the idea that free market forces should determine the buying and
selling of goods and services, with little or no government intervention.
Mercantilism is a theory that holds that the wealth of the world (measured in
gold and silver) is fixed and that a nation that exports more than it imports will
enjoy the net inflows of gold and silver and become richer.
Opportunity cost is the cost of pursuing one activity at the expense of another
activity.
Product life cycle theory is a theory that suggests that patterns of trade change
over time as production shifts and as the product moves from new to maturing to
standardized stages.
Protectionism is the idea that governments should actively protect domestic
industries from imports and vigorously promote exports.
Resource mobility is the assumption that a resource used in producing a product
in one industry can be shifted and put to use in another industry.
Strategic trade policy is an economic policy that provides companies a strategic
advantage through government subsidies.
Strategic trade theory is a theory that suggests that strategic intervention by
governments in certain industries can enhance their odds for international success.
Theory of absolute advantage is a theory that suggests that under free trade,
each nation gains by specializing in economic activities in which it is the most
efficient producer.
Theory of comparative advantage is a theory that suggests that a nation gains
by specializing in the production of one good in which it has comparative
advantage.
Theory of national competitive advantage of industries (or diamond theory)
is a theory that suggests that the competitive advantage of certain industries in
different nations depends on four aspects that form a diamond when diagrammed.
3. Discussion Exercise
The theory of strategic trade argues that strategic intervention by governments in
certain industries can enhance their odds for international success. In 2008, the
US government enacted strong interventionist measures in the auto industry. In
December 2008, the US government enacted a bailout package of $13.4 billion
for GM and Chrysler. The following summer, the US government purchased a
majority stake of GM for $50 billion. It also obtained a minority stake in Chrysler,
for $6.6 billion, while also facilitating its reorganization and sale to the Italian
automaker Fiat.
The question is, was this level of government intervention worth the cost? Would
the American auto industry have been better served if GM and Chrysler were
allowed to go out of business? What about the public interest? Would you want
the federal government to take such drastic measures in your firm?
LO3: Explain the importance of political realities governing international trade.
1. Key Concepts
Though international trade brings benefits to both trade partners, nations often
diminish or even ignore these benefits by restricting free trade. These restrictions
can take two forms: tariff barriers, which are essentially taxes on foreign goods,
and nontariff barriers, which are trade restrictions that do not involve taxation.
While certain industries and special interest groups tend to benefit from trade
barriers, most consumers and firms are affected negatively. And yet, trade barriers
remain, primarily for economic and political reasons.
2. Key Terms
Administrative policies are bureaucratic rules that make it harder to import
foreign goods.
Antidumping duties are costs levied on imports that have been “dumped,” or
sold below cost to unfairly drive domestic firms out of business.
Deadweight costs are net losses that occur in an economy as the result of tariffs.
Import quotas are restrictions on the quantity of goods that may be brought into
a country.
Import tariff is a tax imposed on imports.
Local content requirements are rules that stipulate that a certain proportion of
the value of a good must originate from the domestic market.
Nontariff barriers (NTBs) are a means of discouraging imports using means
other than taxes on imported goods.
Subsidies refer to government payments to domestic firms.
Tariff barriers are a means of discouraging imports by placing a tariff (tax) on
imported goods.
Trade embargos are politically motivated trade sanctions against foreign
countries to signal displeasure.
Voluntary export restraint (VER) is an international agreement that shows that
an exporting country voluntarily agrees to restrict its exports.
3. Key Concepts
The intertwined nature of politics, economics and international trade are on full
display in the most recent trade dispute between the US and China. In fulfillment
of a campaign promise to restrict imports that hurt American workers, President
Barack Obama approved a 35% tariff on Chinese tires. In response, the Chinese
government announced that they would launch an investigation into whether the
US was “dumping” (selling below cost) chicken and auto parts in China, a move
that many experts believe will lead to tariffs.
What are the costs and benefits of the US tire tariff? What are the costs and
benefits of China’s response? In your opinion, does the potential of saving some
manufacturing jobs outweigh the risk of angering the US’ largest trading partner?
LO4: Identify factors that should be considered when your firm participates in
international trade.
1. Key Concepts
Managers should discover and leverage the comparative advantage of worldclass
locations. Further, managers need to monitor and nurture the competitive
advantage of a location and take advantage of new, promising locations. Finally,
managers need to be politically active. Free trade, in fact, is not “free” as it
requires constant efforts and sacrifices to demonstrate, safeguard and advance the
gains from international trade.
Debate: Classic Theories versus New Realities
1. Key Concepts
Should the United States’ trade deficit with China be of concern? Those who
argue that it should not contend that the US and its trading partners gain mutual
benefit based on comparative advantage. Those who argue that is a grave concern
contend that international trade is essentially about competition.
Closing Case
Closing Case Discussion Guide
The closing case can be used to help students understand one of the reasons why
the ideas of Smith and Ricardo are not fully implemented. Free trade may benefit
the overall country but it may at times harm some groups within the country and
those groups may use the government to accomplish something that they cannot
accomplish in a free market. One unfortunate outcome is that when government
action is taken to restrict what others send to us, the other government may
respond with action to restrict what we sell to them. The result is that a particular
group within a country may win but overall both countries lose.
Closing Case Discussion Questions
1. Why do Canada and the United States have the largest bilateral trading
relationship in the world?
Student answers will vary: some will point to the fact that these countries with
similar language and culture (similar, not identical) border on each other and the
presence of certain comparative advantages such as raw materials in Canada
and the variety of forces such as climate that enables the U.S. to be a desirable
source of goods and services to Canada.
2. Based on the resourcebased and institutionbased views, explain why
Canadian products have such a large market share in the United States.
Students will likely repeat part of their answer to question one. The vast need for
natural resources in the U.S. and the abundant source bordering on the north
creates an obvious impact on trade. Also, a variety of institutional arrangements
(military alliances, trade agreements such as NAFTA, etc.) help to establish a
favorable environment for trade.
3. Some argue that the Canadians have overreacted. Even with controversial US
tariffs, Canadian lumber still has 34% of the US market and lumber represents
only 3% of Canada’s exports. What do you think?
This is a question in which the answer is not as important as the thought process
and the ability to clearly articulate.
Video Case
Watch “New Ventures” by John Stewart of McKinsey & Company
1. Stewart discusses how difficult it may be to successfully get into a new venture or
industry. Why are there such difficulties?
There are differences in the resources and capabilities required in different
industries. Simply because one has what is needed to succeed in one industry
does not mean that one will have what is needed in another.
2. Explain the connection between shifting into a new venture and the considerations
of cost, time, quality, and function.
Each industry may have its unique requirements and tradeoffs in each of those
four areas. A firm or individual with experience in a given industry may not have
developed the capabilities to deal with those tradeoffs in a different industry.
3. Stewart discusses a friend who worked for an oil company. The friend began in
oil exploration, then moved into petrochemicals, and finally into plastics. Each
type of business had different demands upon that friend and required major
adjustments. Do you think that entire countries have a similar problem in terms
of having an absolute or comparative advantage in various industries? Why or
why not? To what extent could that be used to support the concept of comparative
advantage?
Students may have varying responses to this question. The key thing is the
thought put into the response, particularly as it demonstrates an understanding of
absolute and comparative advantage.
4. Stewart pointed out that there are many instances of firms that have failed in new
ventures. Why? Governments often seek to develop new industries to compete in
global trade. Do his comments suggest anything they may keep in mind?
Just as a firm’s expertise in a given industry might not enable it to be successful
in an industry requiring a different expertise, over time an entire nation may have
developed capabilities that could be valuable in a certain industry or industries
but not in all industries.
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ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION MATERIAL
*Review Questions
*Critical Discussion Questions
Review Questions
1. Why do nations trade? Why do some people argue that this question may be a bit
misleading?
Reason: economic gains from trade. More important, such gains must be shared
by both sides; otherwise, there will be no willing exporters and importers. Saying
that ‘nations’ trade can be misleading; a more accurate expression would be that
‘firms’ from different nations trade.
2. Summarize the three classical theories of international trade.
Classical trade theories: the major theories typically studied consist of
mercantilism, absolute advantage, and comparative advantage
Theory of mercantilism: the belief that held that the wealth of the world
(measured in gold and silver) was fixed and that a nation that exported more and
imported less would enjoy the net inflows of gold and silver and thus become
richer.
Theory of absolute advantage: the economic advantage one nation enjoys that is
absolutely superior to other nations.
Theory of comparative advantage: the relative (not absolute) advantage in one
economic activity that one nation enjoys in comparison with other nations.
3. Compare and contrast the three modern theories of international trade.
Product life cycle theory: an economic theory that accounts for changes in the
patterns of trade over time.
Strategic trade theory: a theory that suggests that strategic intervention by
governments in certain industries can enhance their odds for international
success.
Theory of national competitive advantage of industries (or diamond theory). The
theory that the competitive advantage of certain industries in different nations
depends on four aspects that form a “diamond”
4. What are the major political and economic arguments against free trade?
The four major political arguments include (1) national security, (2) consumer
protection, (3) foreign policy, and (4) environmental and social responsibility.
First, national security concerns are often invoked to protect defenserelated
industries. Second, consumer protection has frequently been used as an argument
for nations to erect trade barriers. Third, foreign policy objectives are often
sought through trade intervention. Fourth, environmental and social concerns
may limit trade with countries that pursue policies opposed by activist groups.
Critics make the economic arguments that international trade is about
competition (which is unfair or based on lower wages than the U.S.) and its
negative impact on markets, jobs, and incomes. Critics also focus on the trade
deficit with particular countries.
5. Are theories of international trade still valid given the new realities of world
trade?
The old debate between mercantilism and free trade still exists particularly in the
area of trade deficits. Free traders argue that the deficit is not a grave concern
and that international trade is not about competition, and the United States and
its trading partners mutually benefit by developing a deeper division of labor
based on comparative advantage. Critics argue that international trade is about
competition—about markets, jobs, and incomes as much as merchandise.
6. How is the concept of opportunity cost related to the theories of absolute
advantage and comparative advantage?
Opportunity cost: given the alternatives, the cost of pursuing one activity at the
expense of another activity.
Theory of absolute advantage: the economic advantage one nation enjoys that is
absolutely superior to other nations.
Theory of comparative advantage: the relative (not absolute) advantage in one
economic activity that one nation enjoys in comparison with other nations.
7. Is it possible for all of a country’s resources to be completely mobile? Why or
why not?
Resource mobility: the assumption that a resource removed from one industry
can be moved to another. That is not always possible. A human resource may not
be easily shifted from washing cars to doing brain surgery.
8. Devise your own examples that demonstrate your understanding of tariff and
nontariff barriers.
The important thing is not so much the answer as the extent to which the student
demonstrates thought in providing the answer but note the following.
Nontariff barriers (NTBs): laws, selective enforcement of laws, government
purchasing policies and other means used intended to place products and
investments of companies based in other countries at a competitive disadvantage
compared to local companies.
Tariff barriers: taxes intended to result in products produced overseas to be
priced higher than products produced locally.
9. Do you agree with economist Paul Krugman that international trade is not about
competition? Explain your answer.
The important thing is not so much the answer as the extent to which the student
demonstrates thought in providing the answer.
10. What are some of the contemporary debates that affect international trade theories
and policies?
Smith and Ricardo’s free trade versus mercantilism debate 200 years ago is being
repeated today with the current concern about the trade deficit and the loss of
unskilled manufacturing jobs as well as jobs in the service trade and highskill
jobs in high technology.
11. What are some of the factors managers might need to consider when assessing the
comparative advantage of various locations around the world?
This can be summarized by noting that comparative advantage is constantly
changing: a nation that once had an advantage in one area may lose it to another
country and gain an advantage in a different area.
12. Why is it necessary for business people to monitor political activity concerning
international trade?
Managers need to be politically active if they appreciate the gains from trade.
Although managers at many uncompetitive firms have long mastered the game of
twisting politicians’ arms for more protection, managers at competitive firms,
who tend to be profree trade, have a tendency to shy away from “politics.”
13. Name and describe the two key components of a balance of trade.
Exporting: selling abroad. Importing: buying from abroad.
Critical Discussion Questions
1. Is the government of your country practicing free trade, protectionism, or
something else? Why?
This is a question in which the answer is not as important as the thought process
and the ability to clearly articulate.
2. ON ETHICS: As a foreign policy tool, trade embargoes are meant to discourage
foreign governments. Examples include US embargoes against Cuba, Iraq (until
2003), and North Korea. But embargoes also cause a great deal of misery among
the population of the affected countries (such as shortage of medicine and food).
Are embargoes ethical?
This is a question in which the answer is not as important as the thought process
and the ability to clearly articulate. It should be noted that embargoes are only
one instrument of coercive power in international relations and another involves
the use of military force. The question might be asked as to which is less likely to
cause misery. Sometimes military power may be targeted toward those directly
involved in the enemy’s leadership and forces unlike economic coercion that
tends to affect all – with the possible exception of those controlling the enemy’s
government.
3. ON ETHICS: While the nation as a whole may gain from free trade, there is no
doubt that certain regions, industries, firms, and individuals may lose their jobs
and livelihood due to foreign competition. How can the rest of the nation help the
unfortunate ones cope with the impact of international trade?
This is a question in which the answer is not as important as the thought process
and the ability to clearly articulate.