a. State how airworthiness can be defined in relation to aero-structures.

Sets Policy, standards and procedures to ensure flight safety

b. What 2 principles set the set the severity of airworthiness standards?

Safe Conditions

Allowable limits

And possession of necessary requirements

c. What does continued airworthiness involve in relation to aero-structures and systems?

• Instructions prepared by applicant (MRO) in the format of a type-specific maintenance

manual

• Maintenance instructions: In-date and includes scheduling, inspections, testing and fault-
finding

• Airworthiness limitations identified/embraced

d. How are the 4 aero-structure and aero-system failure conditions defined within an
airworthiness safety assessment philosophy?

• Minor - Probable

• Major - Remote

• Hazardous - Extremely Remote

• Catastrophic - Extremely improbable

2. MANDATORY (12 marks)

a. Explain the concepts of single load path structures and multiple load path structures.

• Single load path – Safe Life structure; low probability of damage

• Multiple load path – Fail Safe structure; in-built damage tolerance

b. Explain the role that the flight (manoeuvre) envelope plays in airworthiness.

Sets allowable limits of loads and airspeeds for aircraft manoeuvrability.

c. Sketch a typical flight envelope and fully label all the features.

Diagram annotations;-

Axes – Load Factor; Airspeed

Envelope boundaries – positive stall; negative stall; max design load factor (n1); max negative load
factor (n3); max cruise speed; max design (diving) speed Ultimate Load Factor; Proof Load Factor

3. MANDATORY (12 marks)

a. What are the prime loading categories that aircraft can be subjected to?

• Airloads

• Inertia/manoeuvre loads

• Atmospheric loads – gusts/turbulence/pressurisation

• Fatigue loads

• Ground loads

• Propulsion loads

• Impact loads

b. Briefly explain the possible modes of failure of aircraft structural components

• Direct

• Shear

• Bending

• Torsion

• Buckling

• Bursting

• Cracking

• Corrosion

c. Sketch a typical load-distortion variation for each of the following materials: steel,
aluminium alloy and a polymer. Label the axes and salient points on your sketches.

Load – Deformation; or Stress – Strain curves:-

d. What is meant by the term “abnormal load” in an aircraft context? What common
occurrences fall into the abnormal load category? What maintenance implications do abnormal
load occurrences have?

• Loads that are not expected during the normal course of aircraft operation are deemed to be
abnormal occurrences which may produce loading effects that exceed allowable limits.

• Ground collision

• Bird strike

• Severe weather including lighting strike

• Heavy landing

• Maintenance inspection and testing with occurrence report.

4. MANDATORY (12 marks)

1. What is meant by each of the terms “Strength, Stiffness, Toughness and Hardness” in
relation to engineering materials?

2. Contrast the material properties of steel, aluminium alloy and composite materials in
relation to aircraft structural applications.

3. Complete the table below in respect of material selection for particular aircraft structure
applications
5. MANDATORY (18 marks)

The diagram below shows a simply-supported beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load
(UDL)and a Concentrated load.

a. Sketch the form of the spanwise shear-force distribution for this loading configuration.

b. Sketch the form of the spanwise bending moment distribution for this loading
configuration.
c. Explain the application of the fundamental equation to calculate the maximum bending
stresses within the beam. Write down the relevant equation and define all the terms within the
equation.

Bending Moment:-
Fundamental Bending Equation:-

M is Applied Bending Moment

I is Second Moment of Area

R is radius of curvature of deflected beam

E is Modulus of Elasticity

y is distance from Neutral Axis to surface of beam

σ is bending stress

σ = My

6. MANDATORY (12 marks)

a. Explain, with the aid of a labelled diagram, the loading arrangement on a helicopter rotor
blade assembly with the aircraft in forward flight.
b. Explain, with the aid of a labelled sketch, the loading arrangement on an aircraft main
landing gear during take-off ground roll.

7. MANDATORY (12 marks)

a. Explain the contributing factors that produce corrosion damage of airframe structures.

• Electro-chemical reactions (Galvanic - Anode/Cathode/Electrolyte)

• Material composition

• Internal stress concentrations between material crystals (intergranular)

• Erosion corrosion - external surface stress concentrations between components

• Temperature and other environmental effects

• Aeration

• Poor husbandry
b. Explain the possible failure conditions produced by corrosion.

• Surface deposits

• Surface pitting

• Surface cracking

• Internal cracking

• Corrosion fatigue

c. Explain how maintenance practices can reduce the impact of airframe corrosion.

• Design

• Inspection and testing of protective systems

• Maintenance

1. Cleaning

2. Treatments

– anodic/cathodic protection

– protective coatings

3. Repairs
4. Replacement

8. MANDATORY (12 Marks)

a. State the two main methods of joining composite structures and contrast the 2 prime
advantages and 2 prime disadvantages for each method between these 2 methods.

• Bonding

• Bolting

b. Explain how in-service damage can be sustained by composite structures

• Delaminations/dis-bonds

• Surface damage – dents and cracks

• Abrasions

• Mis-drilled holes

• Surface oxidation

• Moisture penetration

• Surface swelling

c. Explain main types of repair technology for damaged composite airframe structures

Maintenance Criteria for Composite Components

• “Need to repair” assessment

• Negligible damage – no repair

• Cosmetic or sealing repair

• Strength reduced – structural repair

• Replacement – repair not economic

Repair Categories

• Non-patch repairs:

o filler

o injection

o fusion

• Patch repair

o external bonding

o bolted

o bolted & bonded