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Inputs in to blast furnace The CaO formed from this reaction is used to
remove sulfur from the iron.
Ore iron ore;
FeS + CaO + C = CaS + FeO + CO
Fuel coke;
Flux limestone. The CaS [newly married couple] becomes
part of the slag.
Output
The slag is also formed from any remaining
Final product liquid slag, liquid iron (pig Silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3), Magnesia
iron) and gases. (MgO) or Calcia (CaO) that entered with the
iron ore or coke.
Beneficiation = Improve Concentration The liquid slag then trickles to the bottom
of Iron of the furnace where it floats on top of
the liquid iron since it is less dense.
Ore is either Hematite (Fe2O3) or
Magnetite (Fe3O4) and the iron content
Reduction = Remove Oxygen
ranges from 50% to 70%.
Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced
This iron rich ore can be charged directly
(removed) by a series of chemical reactions.
into a blast furnace without any further
1) 3Fe2O3 + CO = CO2 + 2Fe3O4
processing.
2) Fe3O4 + CO = CO2 + 3 FeO
Iron ore that contains a lower iron content
3) FeO + CO = CO2 + Fe
must be processed or beneficiated to
increase its iron content. CO or CARBON MONOXIDE is produced by
burning coke.
[Beneficiation Improves the concentration
of iron ore] So CO and CO2 are the gaseous pollutants
coming out of blast furnace.
Why coke and not coal in smelting?
Pig Iron
To separate impurities, iron needs to be
melted. Pig iron is the intermediate product of
The coke is the fuel that melts iron. smelting iron ore.
Coal has many impurities and the most Iron (Fe) = 93.5 - 95.0%
dangerous one is SULPHUR. Silicon (Si) = 0.30 - 0.90%
Coal is cooked to produce coke. This Sulfur (S) = 0.025 - 0.050%
process is called destructive distillation. Manganese (Mn) = 0.55 - 0.75%
Phosphorus (P) = 0.03 - 0.09% Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent metallic
Titanium (Ti) = 0.02 - 0.06% content.
CARBON (C) = 4.1 - 4.4% [The strength Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock
of steel can be varied by varying the carbon systems of the peninsular India.
content] 80 per cent of haematite reserves are in
Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and
Cast iron Andhra Pradesh. Page
In the western section, Karnataka, | 3
Carbon content greater than 2%. Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.
Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main
alloying elements. Magnetite
Cast iron tends to be brittle.
Applications: automotive industry parts, Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic
cast iron pan. content.
Dharward and Cuddapah systems.
Steel Magnetic quality.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Carbon content is up to 2.1% (by weight). Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
a) Both
b) 1 only
c) 2 only
d) None
Formation of Coal
Bituminous Coal
Karanpura and
Ramgarh coalfields
Auranga coalfield Palamu district inferior quality; used in cement furnaces and brick kilns
Hutar coalfield
Deltenganj
coalfield
Devgarh coalfields inferior quality
Page
| 10
Talcher field Talcher town to Rairkhol Ranks second in reserves (24,374 million tonnes)
in Dhenkanal and after Raniganj;
Sambalpur districts Coal from this field is most suitable for steam and
gas production.
Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power and
fertilizer plants at Talcher.
Rampur-Himgir Sambalpur and Coal occurs here in middle and lower Barakar
coalfields Sundargarh seams.
inferior quality
Ib river coalfield Sambalpur and Much of the coal is of inferior quality.
Jharsuguda district
Gondwana Coalfields in Madhya
Pradesh
Singrauli (Waidhian) Sidhi and Shandol largest coalfield of Madhya Pradesh
coalfield districts Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa and Turra are
important coal seams
Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the
richest coal seam of the country.
thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra
Pench-Kanhan- Chhindwara district Ghoravari seam in Kanhan field is 4.6 m thick and
Tawa contains coking coal
Sohagpur coalfield Shandol district
Umaria coalfield Umaria district inferior quality with high percentage of moisture and
ash.
Page
| 11
Tertiary Coal
Tertiary coal 15 to 60 million years old. Tertiary Coal – Lignite
Carbon content is very low.
Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Jammu and
[Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh etc.] and Puducherry.
Coal generally has low carbon and high Tamil Nadu excels all other states
percentage of moisture and Sulphur.[It regarding reserves and production of Page
takes few hundred million years for the lignite. | 12
carbon content to improve].
Important areas of Tertiary coal include Lignite in Tamil Nadu
parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of 90 per cent of the reserves.
Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and 57 per cent of the production.
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Neyveli Lignite fields of Cuddalore
Kerala, district.
Tamil Nadu and the union territory of These are the largest deposits of lignite in
Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal reserves south - east Asia.
[exceptions]. Neyveli mines suffer from the artesian
structure [mining goes deep and deep].
Tertiary Coalfields in Assam Mining in Lignite coalfields is risky due to
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of lignite.
Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore
and Lakhuni. Lignite in Gujarat and Rajasthan
Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is the
most developed field. Kachchh district and Dharuch district;
Assam coals contain very low ash and poor quality.
high coking qualities but the sulphur Rajasthan == Palana in Bikaner district;
content is high, as a result of which this The 250 MW thermal plant at Bikaner
coal is not suitable for metallurgical wholly depends upon lignite as the basic
purposes. fuel.
But these coals are best suited for
hydrogenation process and are used for Tertiary Coal – Peat
making liquid fuels.
Confined to a few areas only.
Tertiary Coalfields in Arunachal Occurs in Nilgiri hills.
Pradesh Kashmir valley, peat occurs in the
alluvium of the Jhelum.
Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards In West Bengal peat beds are noted in
as Namchick-Namrup coalfield. Kolkata and its suburbs.
High in volatiles and in sulphur. In the Ganga delta, there are layers of peat
which are composed of forest and rice
Tertiary Coalfields in Meghalaya plants.
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| 14
Supergiants
Russia has the largest natural gas Natural Gas in Middle East
reserves in the world (1,680 Trillion Cubic
Feet (tcf)). There is an enormous gas potential in the
It periodically changes place with the Middle East associated with the major oil
United States as the world’s largest or fields in the Arabian-Iranian basin.
second largest producer. Iran and Qatar have the second and third
Some of the world’s largest gas fields occur largest natural gas reserves in the world,
in a region of West Siberia and east of the behind Russia.
Gulf of Ob on the Arctic Circle.
Natural Gas in Asia
The world’s largest gas field is Urengoy.
Volga-Urals region also has significant gas The largest gas field in Asia is in the North
reserves. Sumatra basin of Indonesia.
Upstream Sector
Oil exploration, prospection and Rangarajan Committee Recommendations
extraction/production from oil wells.
Suggested linking gas price to price of
New Exploration Licensing Policy, 1997 imported gas and gas prices prevailing in
exchanges of USA, UK and Japan
Promote exploration by providing a level (weighted average) so as to bring it at
playing field to private players against parity with international prices. Page
public enterprises. This would result in increase of price from | 27
Oil blocks are allotted under ‘Production $ 4.2 mmbtu to$ 8.4 mmbtu, this formulae
Sharing Contracts’. was not implemented (it will do serious
In ‘Production Sharing Contracts’, damage to vote bank).
investment and revenues is shared with
government. Midstream sector
The private companies exaggerated or
inflated their investment accounts and This sector involves transportation of oil
gobbled up public funds. and gas from blocks to refineries and from
refineries to distribution centers.
Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) Most cost effective way is through
pipeline, in comparison to road and
There are demands to replace NELP with railways which higher economic and
OALP. environmental costs.
Under OALP, oil blocks will be available Current pipeline infrastructure is skewed
throughout for sale. [government makes in favor of North and West India, which
money by selling oilfields] accounts for 60% of gas pipelines and 80
It allows ample time for explorer to study % of gas consumptions.
the fields and bid for block of his choice. To remedy this, central government has
‘National Data Repository’ is prerequisite proposed to set up National Gas Grid
for functioning of OALP. under which additional 15000 km of
It will be a ‘hydrocarbon data center’ which pipelines will be laid down.
facilitate prospection of resources. It will be executed under PPP model and
will be eligible for ‘Viability Gap Funding’.
Revenue Sharing Contracts
Further, Gas Distribution networks are
Seen as a better alternative to OALP available in only few cities. In most of cities
and NELP. gas is transferred through bottling plants
Government gets share in revenue from the and distribution agency. This result in
very beginning. wastage by leakages and theft.
In contrast PSC (Production Sharing Viability Gap Funding
Contracts), allows government to have
revenue share only after costs are In some PPP projects in India, Central and
recovered by the explorer. state governments undertake to provide
In PSC, explorers inflate investment by support funding to successful bidders.
classifying revenue expenditure (salaries, Projects are awarded to those whose
maintenance etc.) as capital expenditure requirement for state funding is least.
(equipment, technology etc.). Indian Oil Corporation and Gas Authority
This resulted in lower government share. It of India are involved in this sector.
delays revenue to the government by
decades. Storage
Zinc
Australia (31.34%),
China (18.41%),
Brazil (13.93%),
Guinea (8.36%), etc.
insecticides, fungicides and for vulcanizing
rubber
Pyrites occur in Son Valley in Bihar, in
Chitradurga and Uttar Kannada districts of
Karnataka and the pyritous coal and shale
of Assam coalfields.
It is widely distributed and scattered Page
across the country. | 34
Kerala
Odisha (44%),
Karnataka (22%),
Madhya Pradesh (13%),
Maharashtra (8%),
Andhra Pradesh (4%)
Jharkhand and Goa (3% each),
Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal
(remaining 3 per cent).
Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Madhya Pradesh
Graphite
Graphite is a naturally-occurring form
of crystalline carbon.
It is also known as plumbago or black and pressure.
lead. Metamorphism produces marble, schist
The carbon content in Graphite is never and gneiss that contains tiny crystals and
less than 95%. flakes of graphite.
Graphite may be considered the highest Some graphite forms from the
grade of coal, just above anthracite. metamorphism of coal seams. This
graphite is known as “amorphous
Carbon content in Peat < Lignite < Bituminous graphite”.
< Anthracite < Graphite < Diamond Graphite is a non-metal and it is the only
non-metal that can conduct electricity.
It is not normally used as fuel because it is
difficult to ignite. Applications of Graphite
It is found in metamorphic and igneous
rocks. Natural graphite is mostly consumed for
Graphite is extremely soft, cleaves [splits refractories, batteries, steelmaking,
into layers] with very light pressure. expanded graphite, lubricants etc.
It is extremely resistant to heat and is A refractory material is one that retains its
highly unreactive. strength at high temperatures.
Natural and synthetic graphite are used to Graphite is not mined in the United States.
construct the anode of all major battery U.S. substitutes graphite with synthetic
technologies graphite.
The lithium-ion battery utilizes roughly
twice the amount of graphite than lithium Diamonds
carbonate.
Natural graphite in this end use mostly Diamond is the hardest naturally Page
goes into carbon raising in molten steel. [to occurring substance found on Earth. | 41
make steel stronger] Diamonds are formed in mantle. They
Natural amorphous graphite are used in brought to the earth’s crust due to
brake linings for heavier vehicles, and volcanism. Most of the diamonds occur in
became important with the need to dykes, sill etc. [Volcanic Landforms].
substitute for asbestos. Diamond is the Diamonds are used in
Graphite lubricants are specialty items for ornaments, polishing the surfaces of
use at very high or very low temperatures. metals and in gem cutting.
Modern pencil lead is most commonly a The most important industrial use of
mix of powdered graphite and clay. diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used
for exploration and mining of minerals
Major Producers of Graphite – India & [Diamond is the hardest substance and it
World can break other substances without itself
getting broken].
India is a major global producer of flake
graphite. Diamonds in India
Graphite Diamond
Graphite contains 95% or more carbon. Diamond is 100% carbon.
Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that forms Diamond is also a non-metallic mineral that
when carbon is subjected to extreme heat and forms when carbon is subjected to extreme heat
pressure in Earth’s crust and in the upper and pressure in the mantle.
mantle.
Graphite is one of the most stable substances Diamond (one of the most stable) is less stable
on earth. than graphite.
The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a In contrast, the carbon atoms in diamond are
hexagonal network that forms sheets that are linked into a frameworks structure. Every
one atom thick. These sheets are poorly carbon atom is linked into a three dimensional
connected and easily cleave or slide over one network with strong covalent bonds. This
another if subjected to a small amount of arrangement holds the atoms firmly in place and
force. This gives graphite it’s very low make diamond an exceptionally hard material.
hardness, its perfect cleavage and its slippery
feel.
[Pencil Lead is not made of lead as we
normally beleive. It is made of graphite. You
know why?]
5. Bihar (2 per cent) Page
Non-Metallic Minerals
6. Jharkhand (Less than 1 per cent) | 43
Andhra Pradesh
Rajasthan
Thorium
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| 55
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| 56
Thorium Distribution
Obstacles
Page
The U.S. could perhaps emerge as the | 61
greatest obstacle to plutonium commerce.
U.S. cannot prevent countries from trading
in plutonium, it has the power to make it
uncomfortable for them via sanctions,
reduced scientific cooperation, and other
mechanisms.
The strong non-proliferation lobby in the
U.S. would not like a non-signatory of the
NPT [India] to open and regulate trade in
plutonium.
The challenge for Delhi is to convince
Washington to sponsor rather than oppose
such a venture.
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