1.

Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy available from
carbohydrates, share among prokaryotes and eukaryotes, aerobes and anaerobes
alike. By your understanding, discuss it and classify the 10enzymes into six categories
as you learnt.
 Prokaryotes: cells have no organelles.

 Eukaryotes: cells process a true nucleus.

 Aerobes: organism that grows in the presence of molecular oxygen.

o Glycolysis function: to convert glucose to pyruvate and ATP. Pyruvate can be burned for energy
(TCA) or converted to fat (fatty acid synthesis)

 Anaerobes: organism that grows in the absence of molecular oxygen.

o Glycolysis function: ATP production. Recycle NADH by making lactate.

 Glycolysis location is in cytosol of all cells.

 Glycolysis is an energy conversion – breaking down glucose to form ATP

+ Splits 1 glucose molecule to 2 pyruvate molecule

+ About 5% amount of energy stored in 2 ATPs molecules & NADH molecule

 The pathway of glycolysis consists of 10 steps, which can be divided into 2 phases: the energy
investment phase and the energy payoff phase.

Phase 1: The energy investment phase includes the first 5 steps

- 1 molecule of glucose is converted into 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate.

- 2 ATPs are used.

Phase 2: The energy payoff phase includes the next 5 steps

- 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate are converted into pyruvate or lactate.

- 4 ATPs and 2 NADHs are produced.

Classification

Hexokinase Transferase
Phosphohexose isomerase Isomerase
Phosphofructosekinase Transferase
Aldolase Lyase
Triosephosphaseisomerase Isomerase
Glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphatedehydrogenase Oxidoreductase
Phosphoglyceratekinase Transferase
Phosphoglyceratemutase Isomerase
Enolase Lyase
Pyruvate kinase Transferase
2. The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completed the oxidative
degradation of fatty acids, amino acids and monosaccharides. By your understanding,
clarify the above statement.
Citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative degradation of fatty
acids, amino acids, and monosaccharides.

 Function: To burn the acetyl – CoA made from fat, glucose or protein in order to make ATP in
cooperation with oxidative phosphorylation.

 Location: All cells with mitochondria

 Fatty acids

- The oxidative degradation of fatty acids is called Beta – oxidation.

- In each round of Beta oxidation, a fatty acid is shortened by two carbon atoms and a release of a
free acetyl-CoA molecule.

- Acetyl-CoA initiates the citric acid cycle.

 Amino Acids

- The oxidative degradation of amino acids is called deamination reaction.

- In all cases, the citric acid cycle plays a large role in breaking down the amino acid skeleton to
carbon dioxide.

- Catabolism of lysine yields carbon dioxide and acetyl-CoA, while glutamate breaks down to a-
ketoglutarate, carbon dioxide, and acetyl-CoA.

- Acetyl-CoA initiates the citric acid cycle.

- In some cases, the remaining carbon skeleton is broken down to acetyl-CoA or to pyruvate, which
is then converted to acetyl-CoA.

 Monosaccharides: During the citric acid cycle that acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide with
the reduction of the cofactors NAD+ and ubiquinone.

3. Oxidative phosphorylation utilizes the chemical energy of these reduced molecules

from glycolysis and C.A.C to produce ATP. How is your opinion and discuss it.
- Oxidative phosphorylation happen in mitochondrion, is the process by which electrons from the
reduced cofactors NADH and ubiquinol are funneled in a stepwise manner to oxygen. Electrons flow
much like electricity through the concomitant formation of a proton gradient. In the end the
investment of reduced cofactors results in the production of ATP.
- Reduced electron carries NADH and ubiquinol are produced during glycolysis and citric acid cycle, as
well as fatty oxidation pathway. During the cellular process of respiration oxidative phosphorylation
utilize the chemical energy of these reduced molecules to produce ATP.
4. You have learnt metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and nucleic acid.
Show your overview by drawing the relation among their metabolism.

5. Gluconeogensis is the pathway to form new glucose from simpler molecules, called
noncarbohydrate precursors, happening mainly over in liver (90%) and kidneys from
pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, amino acids and TCA cycle intermediates. The purpose is to
make glucose when blood glucose level is low. By what you have learnt, choose one
precursor and discuss how to result in glucose.
- Gluconeogenesis is the pathway to form new glucose from simpler non – carbohydrate precursors,
happening mainly in liver and kidney.
- The Gluconeogenic pathway converts pyruvate into glucose. Noncarbohydrate precursors of
glucose are first converted into pyruvate or enter the pathway at later intermediates such as
oxaloacetate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
- Lactate as a precursor ~ 40% contribution. Lactate is formed by active skeletal muscle when the rate
of glycolysis exceeds the rate of oxidative metabolism. Lactate is readily converted into pyruvate by
the action of lactate dehydrogenase.
- Lactate is transported back to the liver where it is converted into pyruvate by the Cori cycle using
the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. Pyruvate, the first designated substrate of the gluconeogenic
pathway, can then be used to generate glucose. Glucose then enters the blood and is taken up by
skeleton muscle.
 6. Fatty acids are an important energy source, for they yield over twice as much energy
as an equal mass of carbohydrate or protein. The two main pathway of fatty acid
metabolism are β oxidation and fatty acid synthesis. β oxidation result in the
formation of reduced cofactors and acetyl-CoA molecules, which can be further
catabolized to release free energy. By what you have learnt, discuss around of β
oxidation and focus on the changing of each reaction, the energy yield, name of
enzymes.
The activated fatty acid is called a fatty acyl-coenzyme A, or fatty acyl-CoA.
-In the first step of β oxidation, an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the acyl group,
resulting the formation of a double bond between carbons two and three. The two electrons
removed from the acyl group are transferred to an FAD prosthetic group. These electrons are
transferred to ubiquinone through a series of electron transfer reactions.
-In the second step of β oxidation, a hydratase adds a molecule of water across the double bond
produced in the first step.
-In the third step of β oxidation, another dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the hydroxyacyl
group. In this case, NAD+ is the cofactor. The fourth and final step of β oxidation is called thiolysis. In
this step, a thiolase catalyzes the release of acetyl-CoA from the ketoacyl-CoA.
Energy yield:
One round of β oxidation yields three products—one ubiquinol cofactor, one NADH cofactor, and
one molecule of acetyl-CoA.
During oxidative phosphorylation, 1 ubiqunol -> 2 ATP; 1 NADH -> 3ATP, 1 actyl-CoA -> 12ATP =>
total 17 ATP, and the net ATP is 15 (2 was used for fatty acid activation)

7. Call the name of below fatty acids and calculate the energy yield followed by equation
of β oxidation

Name : acid panmitic

Calculate the energy yield of this fatty acid:

- There are 16 carbon in this fatty acid (n=16), so the round number of it is: (n/2)-1 = (16/2) – 1 = 7
(rounds)
- One round of β oxidation produces the equivalent of 17 molecules of ATP.
- In the 1st round, 2 ATP molecules were used for activation step.
- The final product of complete β oxidation is an additional molecule of acetyl-CoA, which are
equivalent to12 molecules of ATP.
- The total energy yield of this fatty acid is: (16/2 – 1 ) x 17 + 12 – 2= 129 ATP molecules.
Name: The name of this fatty acid is Linoleic acid (Linoleoyl-CoA)

Calculate the energy yield of this fatty acid:

- There are 18 carbon in this fatty acid (n=18), so the round number of it is: n/2 – 1 = 18/2 – 1 = 8
- One round of β oxidation produces the equivalent of 17 molecules of ATP.
- Double bonds at odd-numbered position cost 2 ATP molecules.
- Double bonds at even-numbered position cost 3 ATP molecules.
- In the 1st round, two ATP molecules were used for activation step.
- The final product of complete β oxidation is an additional molecule of acetyl-CoA, which are
equivalent to12 molecules of ATP.
- The total energy yield of this fatty acid is: 8 x 17 + 12 – 2 – 2 – 3 = 141 ATP molecules.

8. What do you know about the photosynthesis? Role of the photosynthesis in the living
world

Introduction

- Photosynthesis is the process of plants using light energy to rearrange CO2 and H2O into
carbohydrates
- Plants use carbohydrates to supply their cell with energy
- Plants remove O2 from the air and replace it with which animals use to breath
- Photosynthesis devided into 2phases: light-dependent reaction and light-independent reaction

Role of the photosynthesis

- Producers: all of the energy that we eat comes from organisms that are photosynthetics, whether
we eat these plants directly or whether we eat something that itself eats these plants, such as cows
or pigs.
- Base of Food Chain: ưithin aquatic systems, plants and algae also form the base of the food chain.
Without photosynthesis in the aquatic environment, life would not be possible there.
- Carbon Dioxide Removal: In today’s world, where carbon dioxide levels are increasing at
unprecedented rates, any process that removes excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is
ecologically and environmentally important in nature.
- Nutrient Incorporation: Plants incorporate nutrients into their tissues via phhotosynthesis..
Nitrogen in the air is fixed in plant tissues and becomes available to create proteins
- Photosynthetic Dependence: Photosynthesis depends on the intensity and quality of the light. On
the equator, where sunlight is plentiful all year and water is not a limiting factor, plants have high
growth rates and can get quite large.