support price, value, demand -
market, labor availability, historical
“Indian Agriculture – Major Crops” will
be a cake walk if you have understood
Climatology, Climatic Regions and Indian
Climatology well.
It can still be managed without the
knowledge of Indian Climatology. But it
will take a bit longer to understand.
Green revolution, Bringing Green
Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI),
Sustainable Agriculture, Organic Farming
and Biofertilizers are already included in
my Environment Notes.
This part is a ‘low-cost – High-Benefit’
section for prelims.
Reference: Indian Geography by Kullar
Contents
Cropping Pattern .................................... 1
Major Crops of India ............................... 3
Major Food Crops of India ...................... 6
Major Cash Crops of India .....................12
Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India ........19
India’s edible oil industry ......................22
Plantation Crops in India .......................23
Horticulture ..........................................29
Vegetables .............................................30
Cropping Pattern
 Different crops grown in an area at a
particular point of time is called
cropping pattern.
 Cropping pattern depends on climate
(temperature, rainfall, wind etc.), soil,
setting, etc.
 Climate: Rice is cultivated extensively
when the monsoons are good. But
when monsoons are weak, millets are Page
grown instead of rice.
 Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in | 1
Assam and jute in West Bengal
remain the dominant crops due to
highly favorable conditions for
cultivation.
 Soil: Regur soils are ideal for cotton
cultivation. Cotton is the obvious
choice in such soils when the climate
is favorable.
 Minimum Support Price (MSP): Rice
and wheat which are offered MSP are
preferred by farmers.
 Value: Millets in the hilly areas of HP
and Uttarakhand are replaced by high
value horticulture crops like apple.
 Demand: Rice is the preferred crop in
the densely populated regions as
there is a ready market.
 Historical setting: Sugarcane is grown
more extensively in North India
even though the conditions are most
favorable in South India.
 This is because the sugarcane
cultivation was encouraged by British
as an alternative to indigo which lost
its significance and market in states
like Uttar Pradesh due to introduction
of artificial dyes.
 Diversification of crops due to
surplus food grain production post
Green Revolution has led to
significant changes in cropping
pattern.
 Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds
and pulses also became more
prominent.
 Crop diversification in certain regions
has been negligible. E.g.
1. Rice dominates in well irrigated
parts of south India.
2. Wheat dominates north-western
part of the country.
  Coarse grains like jowar, bajra, maize,  Sugarcane gives good yield in south
barley, ragi etc. are given India than in northern plains. They
comparatively less importance in need warm climates.
these regions.
Rainfall
Factors affecting cropping pattern
Areas of Heavy Rainfall Page
 Geographical Factors: relief, soil,
 More than 150 cm of annual rainfall. | 2
temperature and rainfall.
 East India and the west coastal
 Economic Factors: Irrigation, power,
plains.
size of land holdings, sale price of
 Animal population is fairly high due
crops, income of farmers, insurance
to availability of fodder and grazing
and investment etc.
area.
 Political Factors/Government Policies:
 Rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute
Government can encourage or
etc.
discourage certain crops due to
various reasons like drought, flood, Areas of Medium Rainfall
inflation etc.
 75 to 150 cm.
Relief  150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are
suitable for the cultivation of rice.
 Rice is the main crop on the irrigated
 75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are
hill terraces (terraced cultivation).
suitable for maize, cotton and
 Crops like tea and coffee can be
soyabean.
grown only on well drained slopes
 These areas are rich in natural
that receive good amount of rainfall.
resources. E.g. Eastern part of Uttar
 Rice (tropical crop) and sugarcane
Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, eastern parts
dominates well irrigated regions with
of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha
fairly warm climate.
region of Maharashtra.
 Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in
 Wheat is the principal rabi crop.
plain regions with moderate
 Millets are the natural priority.
temperature and rainfall.
 Wheat, maize, cotton, soyabean,
Temperature millets, etc.

 Most crops require lower temperature Areas of Low Rainfall

at the time of sowing and higher
 25 to 75 cm (Semi-arid stretches of
temperature at the time of ripening.
India).
 Some crops require higher
 Major crops in this belt are
temperature and are sown in the
1. millets, jowar, and bajra in
summer season. Most of the growth
the northern,
period falls under the rainy season.
2. jowar in central and
These are known as kharif crops
3. ragi in the southern part.
(rice, cotton, etc.). [They are sown
 Wheat is the main rabi crop which is
just before the burst of south-west
grown in irrigated areas.
monsoons]
 Mixed cropping is very common in
 There are other crops which require
which pulses are mixed with
lower temperature and moisture
cereals.
and are sown in the winter season
 Cropping has been developed in such
(wheat). These are known as rabi
a way that no one crop dominates.
crops.
  Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, Size of Land Holdings
sunflower, rapeseed and mustard
etc.), pulses etc.  In case of small holdings, the priority
of the farmers would be to grow food
Soil grains for his family members
(subsistence farming).
 Rice is mainly grown in clayey soils Page
 Farmers with large holdings can opt
while loamy soils are best for wheat. for cash crops and help in crop | 3
 The regur soil of the Deccan Plateau diversification, leading to changes in
is ideal for cultivation of cotton. the cropping pattern (commercial
 Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, farming).
maize, ragi, barley etc. are grown in  But in spite of crop diversification
inferior soils (light sandy soils, light potential, large holdings are used
black soils, red and laterite soils etc.) mostly for monoculture of rice, wheat
 Delta soils of West Bengal are etc.
renewed by floods every year and are
very fertile. They are ideal for jute Major Crops of India
cultivation. The farmers grow 2-3
crops in a year.  Cropping patterns can be better
 Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain understood by studying about major
sufficient quantities of humus, iron, crops of India.
potash and phosphorus which are  Indian Geography, types of soils in
necessary for tea bush to grow. India and Indian climatology forms the
foundation for understanding cropping
Irrigation
pattern and major crops of India.
 Rice is a dominant crop in regions
Crop Classification
with reliable irrigation and warm
climate (coastal plains and irrigated Crop Classification based on the type of
belts of south India). produce
 North Indian plain regions are well
irrigated and support 2-3 crops of rice
a year.
Food Crops Rice, wheat, maize, millets — jowar, bajra, ragi; pulses — gram, tur (arhar) etc.
(cereals – grass like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional
value)
Cash Crops Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed,
rapeseed, mustard, etc.
Plantation Crops Tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices — cardamom, chillies, ginger,
turmeric etc.
Horticulture Vegetables — Onion, tomato, etc; and fruits — Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus
fruits, etc..
Crop Classification based on climate
Tropical Temperate
Crops grow well in warm & hot climate Crops grow well in cool climate
E.g. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato, apple etc.
Classification Based on growing season
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops
The crops grown in monsoon months The crops grown in winter season Crops grown in summer
Sown before monsoon and harvested Sown before retreating monsoon and Sown and harvested in
at the end of the monsoon harvested before summer. summer
June to Oct-Nov Oct to March March to June
Require warm, wet weather at major Crops grow well in cold and dry Require warm dry weather for
period of crop growth weather major growth period
E.g. Cotton, Rice, Jowar, Bajara E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc. E.g. Groundnuts,
etc. Watermelon, Pumpkins,
Gourds etc.
The kharif crops include rice, maize,  Fox tail millet, Little millet, Common
sorghum, pearl millet/bajra, finger millet, Barnyard millet etc. Page
millet/ragi (cereals), arhar (pulses),
soyabean, groundnut (oilseeds), cotton etc. |4

The rabi crops include wheat, barley, oats

(cereals), chickpea/gram (pulses), linseed,
mustard (oilseeds) etc.

Source: http://goo.gl/dmLRUz

Cereals

 Rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye and

oats.

Millets
Pulses or Legumes
 These are staple food of poor people.
 Pulses are major source of protein.
Major millets  Red gram, Black gram, Green gram,
Cowpea, Bengalgram, Horsegram,
 Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra Dewgram, Soyabean, Peas or
and Finger millet or ragi gardenpea, Garden bean etc.
Minor millets

Oil Seed Crops

 Groundnut or peanut, sesamum,
sunflower, castor, linseed, rapeseed &
mustard etc.
Sugar Crops
 Sugarcane and sugar beet.
Sugarcane
Byproducts of Sugar Industry
 Molasses, bagasse and pressmud.
 Molasses used for alcohol and yeast
formation.
 Bagasse for paper making and fuel.
 Pressmud used as soil amendment.
 Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) — the
waste is used for cattle feed.
Sugar beet
 Sugar beet is grown in temperate
region.
 It is a tuber crop (Tubers are enlarged
structures in some plant species used
as storage organs for nutrients -
carrot, radish, potato are tuber
crops). Sugar is extracted from the
tuber juice.
 Sugar content in sugar beet is quite low
compared to that in sugarcane.
 It is grown in temperate region where it
can be economical compared to sugar
imports.
With reference to the usefulness of the
by-products of sugar industry, which of
the following statements is/are
correct?
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass
fuel for the generation of energy.
2. Molasses can be used as one of the
feedstocks for the production of
synthetic chemical fertilizers.
3. Molasses can be used for the
production of ethanol.
Select the correct answer using the codes
given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ethanol is alcohol.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only Page
Starch Crops or Tuber Crops |5
 Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish
etc.
Fiber crops
 Cotton; Stem fiber: Jute, mesta, sun
hemp, sisal hemp etc.
Narcotics - Stimulates Nervous System
 Tobacco, opium, betelvine and
arecanut.
Plantation Crops
 Tea – leaf, Coffee – seed, rubber
(Ficus elastica) – latex, cocoa – seed,
palm – oil, sugarcane, coconut etc.
Spices
 Ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion,
coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric
etc.
Classification based on life of
crops/duration of crops
 Seasonal crops: A crop completes its
life cycle in one season (3-4 months).
E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
 Two seasonal crops: Crops complete
its life cycle in two seasons (6-8
months). E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
 Annual crops: Crops require one full
year to complete its life cycle. E.g.
sugarcane.
 Biennial crops: Crops requires two
year to complete its life cycle E.g.
Banana, Papaya.
 Perennial crops: crops live for several
years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava
etc.
Classification based on water
availability
 Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly
based on the availability of rain water.
E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
 Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with
the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili,
sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Classification based on length of
photoperiod required for floral
initiation
Photoperiodism: Most plants are
influenced by relative length of the day &
night, especially for floral initiation.
 Short-day plants: Flower initiation
takes place when days are short less
than ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, green
gram, black gram etc.
 Long day's plants: require long days are
more than ten hours for floral
initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc.
 Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does
not have much influence for phase
change for these plants. E.g. Cotton,
sunflower, etc.
Major Food Crops of India
Rice
Three crop seasons (year round irrigation)
E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta, parts of UP, Bihar etc.
Crop season Sowing
Kharif crop (Rainy season) May-June
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Sep-Oct
Summer dry Mar-Apr
Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)
South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc.
Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan
Single crop season (rice not grown in dry summers and cold winters)
E.g. North Western states
Kharif crop July-Sep
Rabi season is dominated by wheat.
Climatic Conditions for Growth
 Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and
labor.
 Preferred staple food in Southern and
North-Eastern India.
 Making quick inroads into North-
Western Plain.
 Rice growing areas are well suited for
Mixed farming (Crops + Livestock).
Page
(Don’t get confused between mixed | 6
farming and mixed cropping).
 Unpolished rice has high nutritional
value. It is rich in Vitamin A, B and
calcium. Polished rice lacks these
vitamins.
Crop Season
 Rice is a kharif crop (wet and warm
climate is ideal for rice cultivation).
 It is grown only in well irrigated areas
in rabi season.
 Most of the rice growing regions lie
barren during summer (April-May).
 It can be grown as summer crop in
deltaic regions where water and
irrigation is available through the year.
E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal,
Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
 3 crop seasons → rice is grown as
kharif, rabi and summer crop. E.g.
Deltaic regions of West Bengal,
Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
Harvesting
Aug-Sep
Feb-Mar
Jun-Jul
Oct-Nov
Mar-Apr
Nov
 It can be grown between 0 to 2,500
meters above sea level.
 Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate
that exists above 2,500 meters.
 Tropical and kharif crop:
1. requires warm climate
 Rice is grown almost throughout
the year (2-3 crops) in hot and
humid regions of eastern and
southern parts of India.
 In the northern and hilly parts of
the country, the winters are too
cold for rice cultivation and only
one crop is grown (in summer) in
those areas.
2. requires semi-aquatic conditions
(rainfall or irrigation throughout the
season; the soil should never be
dry during the growing season).
 The fields must be flooded under
10-12 cm deep water at the time
of sowing. This requirement of
rice makes it primarily a crop of
plain areas.
 Rice grown in well watered
lowland plain areas is called wet
or lowland rice.
 Rice can be grown in areas just
below sea level like in Kuttanad
region of Kerala.
 Terraced cultivation of rice in
followed in sloped regions. E.g.
Hills of NE states (shifting
cultivation or jhumming).
 The supply of water to the hill
terraces is low and the rice grown
in hilly areas is called dry or
upland rice.
 Average annual rainfall above 150 cm
is good for the crop.
 The 100 cm isohyet (imaginary line
joining the points of equal rainfall)
forms the limit of rice in rainfed areas.
 Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and
western U.P (rainfall less than 100 cm)
with the help of intensive irrigation.
Soil condition for growth
 Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys,
flood plains, deltas and coastal plains
(plains can be easily flooded with the
help of irrigation).
 Loamy soils require frequent irrigation
and more water as the water holding
capacity is low. E.g. Delta regions,
Punjab, Haryana and North Indian
plains.
 Clayey soils on the other hand have Page
good water holding capacity. E.g.
Coastal plains of south India, irrigated | 7
regions of Karnataka, Telangana etc.
 Rice can tolerate acidic as well as
alkaline soils.
Labor requirement
 Rice cultivation is traditionally labor
intensive.
 Rice is primarily grown in areas of high
population density (labor and ready
market).
 In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation
mainly depends upon the migrant
laborers from Bihar and eastern U.P.
Methods of Rice Cultivation
Broadcasting method
 Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.
 Practiced in
1. dry and/or less fertile soils, and
2. areas with labor shortages.
 Easiest method requiring minimum
input.
 Yields are minimum.
Drilling method
 One person ploughs the land and the
other person sows the seeds.
 Confined to dry regions of peninsular
India.
 Yields are low.
Transplantation method
 Advanced method of rice cultivation in
India.
 Less scope for mechanization and is
labor intensive.
 Practiced in areas of fertile soil with
abundant rainfall or irrigation.
 Seeds are sown in nursery and  Weeding and fertilizing are fully
seedlings are prepared. mechanized.
 After a month the seedlings are  Heavy dose of fertilizers are required.
uprooted and transplanted to a  Very high yields are obtained.
different field.
 This is a difficult method that requires Production and productivity
Page
heavy inputs.
 India (18%) is the 2nd
largest producer | 8
 But, it gives some of the highest
and consumer of rice in the world after
yields.
China.
Japanese method  Low productivity: The average yield of
rice in India is 2.3 tonne/ha as against
 Highly mechanized and most advanced the global average of 4.374 tonne/ha.
rice cultivation. China (6.5), Australia (10), US (7.5)
 Mostly followed in developed countries lead in productivity.
like Japan, South Korea etc.
 Seedlings are transplanted in rows with Distribution
the help of machines.
Position +ve factors -ve factors
West Bengal 1st  Large scale alluvial deposits  Floods
 Good water resources  Yield is low
 Abundant labor force
 3 crops can be grown a year
Uttar Pradesh 2nd Same as above Same as above
Punjab 3rd  full use of Green Revolution  Land degradation –
[traditionally wheat growing  perennial irrigation water by salinity, alkalinity &
region.][Cropping pattern has canals and tube wells desertification
undergone an unprecedented  HYV seeds and fertilizers  Ground water depletion
change due to irrigation]  Highest yield (3,989  Wheat dominates
kg/hectare)
Andhra Pradesh 4th  Godavari-Krishna Delta and  Cyclone prone area.
the adjoining coastal plains.  Floods in delta regions
 Full use of Green Revolution.
 High yield (3,126 kg/hectare)
[Punjab (3,989 kg/ha) and
Haryana (3,262 kg/ha)].
 The other major producers are Odisha,  Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Bihar (2,258 kg/hectare), Chhattisgarh Pradesh produce best qualities of
(low yield - 1,749 kg/hectare), Assam Basmati rice.
(Brahmaputra valley), Tamil Nadu  Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
(Cauvery delta)(2,785 kg/hectare), Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are surplus
Telangana, Haryana, Karnataka, states.
Jharkhand, etc.  They supply to deficit states – West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala
Trade and Delhi.
 Domestic rice production meets the Wheat
domestic demand. There is very little
surplus for external trade.  Second most important staple food for
 India now occupies second position in Indian population.
rice exports, next only to Thailand.  It is a rich source of calcium,
 India is the biggest exporter of basmati thiamine, riboflavin and iron.
rice.
 Preferred staple food in northern and  It shows great adaptability & can be
north-western parts of the country. grown in tropics as well (yields are low
in tropics).
Climatic conditions for wheat  It is a rabi crop (winter crop – requires
cool and less moist climate).
 Wheat is a temperate crop which
requires a cool climate with Page
moderate rainfall. |9
Regions Sowing months Harvesting months
1. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and September-October January-February
West Bengal [central and southern (peninsular) agro climatic
regions]
2. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan [North- October-November February-March
eastern plain and North-western plain agro climatic regions]
3. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir November-December April-May
 75 cm of temporally (time) well Production
distributed rainfall is ideal.
 100 cm is the highest limit.  India is the second largest producer of
 The isohyet of 100 cm separates wheat wheat in the world next only to China.
growing areas from rice growing areas.  Wheat is grown on 13 per cent of the
 In the kharif season, rice replaces cropped area of India.
wheat in the ‘winter wheat belt’ region  India has done better in wheat by
– Punjab, Haryana etc.. achieving an yield closer to the global
 Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. average. It has recorded an average
Weather brought by Western yield of 2.9 tonne per hectare as
Disturbances) at the time of ripening against the global benchmark of 3.0
help in increasing the yield. tonne/ha.
 Frost at flowering time can cause heavy  However, it's still far from countries
damage. like France (7.0 tonne), US (3.11 tonne)
and China (4.8 tonne).
Soil requirement
Distribution
 Well drained fertile, friable barns
(mostly alluvial) and clay loams (good  Wheat production is mainly confined to
proportion of sand) are the best for North-Western parts of the country.
wheat cultivation.  Punjab, Haryana and the western parts
 It also grows well in the black soil of of U.P. have earned the distinction of
the Deccan plateau. being called the ‘Granary of India’.
 So, wheat cultivation is more flexible
than rice cultivation as the limiting
factors are low.
State +ve factors -ve factors
Uttar Pradesh 1st  Fine alluvial soil deposited by the Wheat production to the east of
[one-third of area and mighty Ganga and its tributaries Varanasi declines due to high
production of wheat of  close network of canals, rainfall
the country] supplemented by large number of [Questions in Mains are asked
tube wells based on this kind of logic]
 the doabs are the best wheat
producing areas. E.g. Ganga-Ghagra
doab and Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Punjab 2nd  Green Revolution was utilized to the  Land degradation
[17.42 per cent of the fullest.  Ground water depletion
wheat production and  Excellent irrigation system provided
11.88 per cent of wheat by a close network of canals and the
area of India] tube wells.
 Light rainfall associated with the
western disturbances in winter.
 Fertile alluvial soil brought by the
rivers.
 Punjab farmers are progressive and
willing to adopt the new farm
technologies.
Page
 Highest yield of 4577 kg/ha in India. | 10
Madhya Pradesh 3rd  Climate well suited for wheat  Less fertile soils
cultivation in winter.  Less developed irrigational
facilities
 Low yield – 2477 kg/hectare.
Haryana 4th  Same as in Punjab Same as in Punjab
 Highest yield of 4448 kg/hectare.
Rajasthan  Indira Gandhi Canal has made  Vast stretches of sandy
wheat cultivation possible in many desert
parts of Rajasthan.  scarcity of rainfall
 paucity of irrigation facilities
 land degradation
 Other important wheat producing  The cultivation of maize in India is
states are Bihar (2423 kg/hectare), characterized by inter-culture i.e.
Gujarat, West Bengal, Maharashtra, along with pulses, vegetables and oil
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. seeds.

Maize Distribution

 Maize is often known as Indian corn.  Two-third of the maize is produced in

 It is used as both food and fodder. states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
 [USA produces maize mainly to beef up Karnataka, Bihar, Maharashtra and
the cattle. Very little is used as food Rajasthan.
(Climatic regions: Gulf type)]  Karnataka is the second largest
 Maize can be grown under varied producer. This is followed by
climatic and soil conditions. Maharashtra.

Conditions for Growth Millets

 Maize is a rainfed kharif crop.  Millets are short duration (3-4

 Mostly grown in regions with semi-arid
conditions (25 – 75 cm) where rice and
wheat production is not possible.
 It cannot be grown in areas of more
than 100 cm rainfall.
 In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is
sown a few weeks before the onset of
winter rainy season in Sept. and Oct
[because the rains occur mostly in
November and December in eastern
TN][Prelims point].
 Well-drained and fertile loams free from
coarse materials and rich in nitrogen
are ideal.
months;) warm weather grasses.
 They are grown in less fertile areas.
 They provide food for the poor people.
 Jowar, bajra, ragi, etc.
Jowar (Sorghum)
 Jowar has a high nutritional value.
Conditions for Growth
 Jowar is a rainfed crop of dry farming
areas.
 Jowar is grown both as kharif as well
as a rabi crop.
 It does not grow where the rainfall
exceeds 100 cm.
 Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the
best suited soils for jowar.
 It can also be raised on gentle slopes
upto 1,200 meters height.
Production and Distribution
 Maharashtra (37%) and Karnataka
(26%) are largest producers.
 MP, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Rajasthan, are other important
producers.
Bajra (bull rush millet)
 Bajra is the second most important
millet.
 Just like jowar, it is also used as food
and fodder in drier parts of the
country.
Conditions for Growth
 Bajra is a rainfed kharif crop of dry
and warm climate.
 It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of
annual rainfall. Upper limit is 100 cm.
 Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy
soils, black and red soils.
 It is sown either as a pure or mixed
crop with cotton, jowar and ragi.
Production and Distribution
 Rajasthan (1st), Uttar Pradesh (2nd),
Gujarat and Haryana are the important
producers.
 Rajasthan accounts for 44.39 per cent
of the total production.
Ragi
 Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of
south India (Mostly drier parts of
Karnataka).
 It requires warm climate and 50-100
cm rainfall.
 It is raised on a variety of soils. [Red,
light black, sandy, well drained alluvial
loams].
 It is a rainfed kharif crop which is
sown between May and August and
harvested between September and
January.
 Karnataka is the largest producer
(73.23 per cent). Page
 Uttarakhand is the second largest
producer (tricky point for prelims). | 11
 Tamil Nadu is the third largest
producer.
 Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh are
some other important producers.
Barley
 Besides food, it is used for
manufacturing beer and whisky.
Conditions for Growth
 It does not tolerate high heat and
high humidity.
 Grows in areas with rainfall range of 75
cm to 100 cm.
 It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great
Plains and valleys of the western
Himalayas.
 It can be grown up to an altitude of
1,300 meters as in Uttarakhand.
Production and Distribution
 Production has declined over time (just
like most of the millets).
 Rajasthan is the largest producer (40
per cent). Uttar Pradesh is the second
largest.
Pulses
 Pulses include a number of crops
which are mostly leguminous.
 Pulses have the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Gram
 Gram is the most important of all the
pulses.
 It prefers mild cool (20°-25°C) and
comparatively dry climate (40-50 cm).
 It is a rabi crop.
 It grows well on loamy soils.
 It is cultivated as pure or mixed with
wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
 Mixed cropping helps to check the
gram blight to some extent.
Production and distribution
 Gram like millets has suffered a lot at
the hands of wheat.
 Most of the gram comes from Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
 Madhya Pradesh is the largest
producer (40%).
 Andhra Pradesh (Rayalseema region),
UP, Karnataka, are other major
producers.
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram)
 Tur is the second most important
pulse.
 It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop.
 In areas of mild winters it is grown as a
rabi crop.
 It is grown as a dry crop mixed with
other kharif crops like jowar, bajra,
ragi, maize, cotton, groundnut, etc. and
is seldom grown as a single crop.
 Its conditions of growth are more or
less similar to those of other pulses
and millets.
Distribution
 Maharashtra is the largest producer of
tur in India (29%).
 Madhya Pradesh is the second largest
producer.
 Bihar has the distinction of giving
highest yield per hectare.
Major Cash Crops of India
 Cash crops: crops that are grown for
sale in the market. E.g. cotton, jute,
sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds etc.
 Cash crops are the major contributors
to agricultural GDP of India.
 They occupy only 15 per cent of the
cropped area but account for over 40
per cent of the agricultural production
by value.
Cotton
 Cotton is the most important fiber crop.
 Its seed is used in vanaspati industry Page
and as part of fodder for milch cattle. | 12
Conditions for Growth
 Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-
tropical crop.
 Requires uniformly high temperature
(21°C to 30°C).
 It grows well within the average annual
rainfall range of 50-100 cm.
 Most of the irrigated area under cotton
is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
 High amount of rainfall in beginning
(helps in sprouting of seeds) and sunny
and dry weather at ripening time (moist
weather during ripening leads to pest
attacks) are very useful for a good crop.
Unfavorable factors
 The growth is retarded below 20 °C.
 Frost is enemy number one of the
cotton plant.
 It is grown in areas having at least 210
frost free days in a year.
 Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the
time of boll-opening and picking (rains
lead to fiber damage) are detrimental to
cotton as the plant becomes vulnerable
to pests and diseases.
 Almost 65 per cent of the area under
cotton is rainfed with erratic and poorly
distributed rains. It is also subjected to
severe attack of pests and diseases.
Crop season
 Cotton is a kharif crop which requires
6 to 8 months to mature.
 Its time of sowing and harvesting
differs in different parts of the country.
Region Sowing time
Punjab and Haryana Apr-May
Peninsular region up to Oct
Tamil Nadu Before the onset of
[both as a kharif and retreating monsoon
as a rabi crop] (Oct)
Jan-Feb in the
regions of irrigation
 Most of the crop is grown mixed with
other kharif crops (maize, jowar, ragi,
sesamum, castor, groundnut etc.).
Soil
 Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of
the Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau and
those of Gujarat are best suited for
cotton cultivation.
 It also grows well in alluvial soils of the
Sutlej-Ganga Plain and red and
laterite soils of the peninsular region.
 Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of
soil.
Labor
 Since picking of cotton is not yet
mechanized, a lot of cheap and efficient
labor is required.
 Normally the picking season is spread
over a period of about three months.
Types of Cotton
 Three broad types of cotton are
generally recognized on the basis of the
length, strength and structure of its
fiber.
Long staple cotton
 It has the longest fiber whose length
varies from 24 to 27 mm.
 The fiber is fine and lustrous and is
used for making superior quality cloth.
 It fetches the best price.
 About half of the total cotton produced
in India is long staple.
Harvesting time Note
Dec-Jan To prevent crop damage
due to winter frost
Jan-May There is no danger of
winter frost
April-May Adequate amount of Page
rainfall for sprouting of
seeds. | 13
Aug-Sep TN remains dry during
Aug-Sep. So the picking
period is free of rains
 It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
Medium staple cotton
 The length of its fiber is between 20
mm and 24 mm.
 About 44 per cent of the total cotton
production in India is of medium
staple.
 Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra are its
main producers.
Short staple cotton
 This is inferior cotton with fiber less
than 20 mm long.
 It is used for manufacturing inferior
cloth and fetches less price.
 About 6 per cent of the total production
is of short staple cotton.
 U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Haryana and Punjab are its main
producers.
Distribution
 India has the sole distinction of
growing all the three cultivated species
of cotton.
 In India, cotton is grown in three
distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
1. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan),
2. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh) and
 3. Southern zone (Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
State Position
Gujarat 1st in production (25%)
Maharashtra 2nd in production (22%)
Andhra Pradesh 3rd in production (21%)
 Haryana is the fourth largest producer
of cotton in India.
 India exports inferior quality cotton
mainly to U.K., where it is mixed with
superior quality cotton there.
 India has been a big importer of
superior quality long staple cotton
mainly from the USA, Russia, Sudan
and Kenya.
Production
 India has the largest area under cotton
cultivation in the world.
 But in production it is world's third
largest producer after China and the
U.S.A.
Bt Cotton
 Maharashtra has the largest area
under Bt cotton, followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
 In North, Punjab and Haryana are
known for Bt cotton cultivation.
 Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis (not biotechnology).
 Bacillus thuringiensis produces a
toxin called bt toxin which is
detrimental for certain kind of pest
(bollworms) that infects cotton crop.
 This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is
induced into cotton by genetic
modification.
 And the genetically modified cotton
that has the ability to produce bt toxin
is called as bt cotton.
 The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A.
and it to cultivation there in 1995.
 China (1997) and India (2002) also
followed the cultivation of Bt cotton.
Karnataka).
Factors
 Regur – black cotton soil
 80-100 cm annual rainfall
 Regur – deep black cotton soil Page
 suffers from low productivity
 Conditions not as favorable as in | 14
Gujarat and Maharashtra
 The initial field trials were encouraging
as the crop required less pesticides and
insecticides. The production and the
area under cotton also increased
considerably.
 But with time yields decreased sharply
due to other pest population which
could not be controlled by bt cotton. [Bt
toxin controls only bollworm. Cotton
attracts more than 100 different
species of pests].
 Other concern with Bt cotton is that
the bollworm may develop resistance
like it happened in China.
Jute
 Jute is the second most important fiber
crop of India after cotton.
 It is used for manufacturing gunny
bags, ropes, carpets, rugs, tarpaulins,
etc.
 There was great demand for jute
because of its low price, softness and
strength.
 The introduction of synthetic
alternatives has resulted in decline of
demand for jute.
Conditions for Growth
 Jute is the crop of hot (24°C to 35°C)
and humid climate (120 to 150 cm)
with 80 to 90 per cent relative humidity
during the period of its growth.
[Relative humidity:
http://goo.gl/vtDK19]
 Lot of water is required for growing the
crop.
 Sowing and raising of saplings are
carried out in the pre-monsoon season
 with 25 cm to 55 cm of rainfall. This is
done to take full advantage of the
monsoon season.
 Jute is generally sown in February and
harvested in October (crop takes 8-10
months to mature).
 Alluvial (light sandy or clayey barns)
are considered to be best suited soils
for jute.
 Just like cotton, jute also exhausts
the fertility of soil rapidly.
 It is necessary that the soil is
replenished annually by the silt-laden
flood water of the rivers.
Processing of Jute
 Large supply of cheap labor and lot of
water are necessary for processing the
jute fiber post-harvest.
 The plants bundles (Sheaf) are
immersed in stagnant water for about 3
weeks for retting (soak in water to
soften it).
 High temperature of water quickens the
process of retting.
 After retting is complete, the bark is
peeled from the plant and fiber is
removed.
 Stripping, rinsing and cleaning of the
fiber is done.
 Fiber is dried in the sun and pressed
into bales (a large wrapped or bound bundle).
West Bengal (75% of India’s jute 
production)
Bihar (18.5 %)
Assam (Brahmaputra and Surma 
valleys)
 Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and
Odisha are other important producers.
Trade
 India imports raw jute from
Bangladesh as the local produce is not
sufficient to feed the jute mills. It
exports jute hessian to Bangladesh.
Sugarcane
 All the processes mentioned about are
done by human hand. Therefore jute is
cultivated only in areas of high
population density.
Production
Page
 After partition, 75 per cent of the jute | 15
producing areas went to Bangladesh.
 But, most of the jute mills remained
in India.
 There had been rapid increase in area,
production and yield between 1950 to
1980.
 Negative trends were observed in area,
production and yield from 1981 till
present.
 This is due to changes in weather
conditions, increase in rice cropped
area, introduction of synthetic
alternatives to jute etc.
 Currently India accounts for about 56
per cent of world jute production.
 Bangladesh is second with 25 per cent.
Distribution
 Over 99 per cent of the total jute of
India is produced in just five states of
West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra
Pradesh and Odisha.
hot and humid climate
 alluvial, loamy soil
 cheap abundant labor
enough jute mills located in the Hugli
basin
 Largest value of production among all
the commercial crops in India.
 It is the first choice of the farmers
wherever geographical conditions favor
its growth.
 Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It
belongs to bamboo family.
 Thickened sugarcane juice is used to
make sugar, gur (jaggery) and
khandsari.

 Two-thirds of the total sugarcane
produced in India is used for making
jaggery and khandsari and the rest
goes to sugar factories.
 Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are
the byproducts of sugar industry.
 Molasses provides raw material for
manufacturing alcohol (ethanol).
 It is also an efficient substitute for
certain petroleum products.
 Bagasse (cane residue) is used for
manufacturing paper and also as fuel
in the mills.
 Bagasse is more useful if it is used in
paper manufacturing rather than as
fuel. [it can help to save trees; as fuel,
it is very inefficient]
 Pressmud is used as soil amendment
(compost) to increase fertility of the
soil.
Conditions for Growth
Climate
 Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical
crop.
 Requires hot (21°-27°C) and humid (75-
150 cm) climate.
[Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate
alternative for sugarcane]
 It requires 10 to 18 months to mature Page
depending upon the geographical
| 16
conditions.
 Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar
content & deficiency in rainfall
produces fibrous crop.
 Temperature above 20°C combined
with open sky in the second half of the
crop season helps in acquiring juice
and its thickening.
 Short cool dry winter season during
ripening and harvesting is ideal.
 Frost is detrimental to sugarcane.
 It must be harvested before frost
season in northern parts where frost is
a common phenomenon.
 On the other hand, hot dry winds like
“Loo” are hostile to sugarcane. (Both
frost and loo are absent in South
India. So south is ideal)
 Coastal plains and western side of
western ghats are generally avoided as
the gusty winds (monsoon winds)
damage the crop.
Soil
 Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil
that can retain moisture.
 Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the
soil.
 Flat plain or level plateau is an
advantage for sugarcane cultivation
(facilitates irrigation and transportation
of cane to the sugar mills).
Labor
 Cheap abundant labor is a prerequisite
for successful cultivation of sugarcane.
Production
 India has the largest area under
sugarcane cultivation in the world.
 But in production India lags behind left over in the field from the first crop.
Brazil – world's largest producer of [Prelims point]
sugarcane.
 Productivity is quite low compared to  In this system the sugarcane is cut
Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, Egypt, etc. leaving the root intact in the soil. This
 Shortages of fertilizers, improper and is widely practiced in different parts of
the country. Page
untimely us of fertilizers, uncertain
weather conditions, inadequate  Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of | 17
irrigation, poor varieties of cane, small production, relatively shorter
and fragmented holdings and backward maturation period, low cost inputs and
methods of cultivation are some of the time is saved as there is no need for
major causes of low yields in India fresh sowing and growing of roots.
(This is common for rice and  However, productivity decreases with
sugarcane). each passing year and ratooning
 Sugarcane Research Institute, becomes uncommercial after one or two
Coimbatore introduced the system of years.
ratooning to reduce the costs of Distribution
sugarcane cultivation.
 Three distinct belts of sugarcane
Ratoon crop is the second or any other
cultivation can be identified in India.
successive crop obtained from the roots
1. Sutlej-Ganga plain Low yield
from Punjab to Bihar  High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to 35°C leads
(51 per cent of the to low growth and fibrous crop.
total area and 60 per  Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating
cent of the country's effect) hampers the normal growth of the cane.
total production)  In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely
to be damaged by severe cold and frost.
 Crushing cannot be done in winter. [only 8 month crushing
season. Factories remain idle for 4 winter months]
2. Black soil belt from High Productivity
Maharashtra to Tamil  No winds like ‘loo’ during the summer.
Nadu along the  Reasonably high temperature during winter.
eastern slopes of the  Frost free climate throughout the year.
Western Ghats (to  Yearlong crushing. [factories keep running throughout the
protect from high year]
speed monsoon
winds).
3. Coastal Andhra and  Maritime winds in the coastal areas moderate climate and
the Krishna Valley lead to better sugar content. + all points of (2)
South India offers more favorable  With the introduction of cheap aniline
climatic conditions for the growth of dyes, indigo lost its market by the time
sugarcane, but the most important of WW I.
sugarcane belt lies in north India. What  Consequently, indigo’s place was taken
is the reason for this paradoxical by sugarcane cultivation in the north.
situation?
Other factors
 Before the World War I, the northern
plain area was mainly used for growing  Sugarcane needs good irrigational
indigo. facilities throughout the year. Such
 facilities were available in the north
due to perennial river systems.
 On the other hand, south has only
non-perennial rivers. Also, irrigational
facilities were previously nonexistent in
most parts of the south.
 In the southern states, sugarcane had
to face tough competition for land from
a number of other cash crops such as
cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut,
etc.
Do you agree that there is a growing
trend of opening new sugar mills in
southern states of India? Discuss with
justification (5 marks) (100 words)(2013
GS1)
Uttar Pradesh  36 per cent of production
 Western part of the state
[Ganga-Yamuna Doab] forms
the core of sugarcane
production
Maharashtra  24 per cent of the production
Karnataka  10.7 per cent of the
production and over 8 per
cent of the area
TN  10.69 per cent of the
production and nearly 7 per
cent of the area
Andhra Pradesh
 Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31
per cent of sugar is one of the highest
among the major sugar cane producing
states of India), Haryana, Uttarakhand
(mostly hilly and mountainous – not
much suitable. However, parts of
Haridwar, Nainital and Dehra Dun
districts are plain areas or areas
located at the foothills), Punjab (wheat
took over the sugarcane regions) are
other important producers.
Tobacco
More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar
mills.
 Most favorable weather conditions (loo
and frost absent).
 Development of extensive irrigational
facilities in the past few decades. Page
 Yearlong crushing season. (In north, | 18
winter = very cold = There is no
Crushing period in winter)
 High maritime influence = moderate
climate = doesn’t reduce sugar content
(very high temperature and low rainfall
leads to fibrous crop).
 Vast alluvial plains
 Large scale use of irrigation and
fertilizers
 Suitable climate (but not as
suitable as south Indian climate)
 There is no Crushing period in
winter.
 Superior sugar recovery due to
year round crushing period.
 Yields are high compared to that
in UP.
 Most of the sugarcane is grown
with the help of irrigation.
 High productivity (coastal region).
 Coastal areas having fertile soil.
 Tobacco was brought to India by the
Portuguese in 1508.
 Tobacco is mainly used for smoking
and also for manufacturing
insecticides.
 Returns from this crop are high.
Conditions for Growth
Climate
 Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-
tropical climates.
 It can withstand a wide range of
temperature varying from 16° to 35°C.
 As a result it can be grown in many Nicotiana Nicotiana Rustica
agro climatic regions of India. Tobacum
 Tobacco needs fairly well distributed Tropical climate Needs relatively
rainfall with an annual average of is ideal cool climate
about 100 cm. Widely grown in Mainly grown in
 It can be grown from low lying plains many regions of northern and north- Page
up to a height of 1,800 meters. India eastern parts of the
 Frost is injurious to its growth. country | 19
 Bright rainless weather is helpful at the Tall and has long Comparatively
curing stage. broad leaves shorter and has
round and puckered
Soil (contract into wrinkles)
leaves
 For tobacco, soil is the most
Good quality Low quality
important geographical distribution
compared to
factor rather than the climate.
Nicotiana Tobacum
 Well drained friable sandy loams are
Used for cigarette, Used for chewing and
ideal for cultivation.
hookah etc. snuff
 Soils should be rich in mineral salts
90 per cent of the 10 per cent of the
(facilitate full development of roots) but
total tobacco total production
not in organic matter.
production in
Labor India
Production
 Cheap and abundant labor is required
at all stages of its cultivation.  India is the third largest tobacco
producing country after China and
Types of Tobacco Brazil.
 India is followed by USA, Malawi,
 Mainly two types of tobacco are grown Indonesia and Argentina.
in India.
1. Nicotiana Tobacum Distribution
2. Nicotiana Rustica
Gujarat 65 per cent of the production
90 per cent of Gujarat's tobacco comes
from Kheda and Vadodara districts.
Andhra Pradesh 31 per cent of the production Yield is higher than the yield of Gujarat
and much lower than that of Uttar
Pradesh
 The other tobacco producing states in  Only 20 per cent of the total production
India are Uttar Pradesh (15%), of India is traded externally.
Karnataka (13%) Bihar (2%), Tamil  Bulk of India's tobacco export consists
Nadu, and Maharashtra. of unmanufactured tobacco.
 Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield  Russia and U.K. purchase about two-
– more than two times the national third of our total tobacco exports.
average.  About 90 per cent of the tobacco export
trade is handled by Chennai alone.
Trade

 India is world's fourth largest

Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in
exporter of tobacco. India
 Major oilseeds include groundnut,
linseed, sesamum, castor seed,
rapeseed, mustard, sunflower and
soyabean.
 Oil extracted from oilseeds is used in
diet and as raw material for
manufacturing paints, varnishes,
hydrogenated oil, soaps, etc.
 Oil-cake which is the residue of
oilseeds forms an important cattle-feed
and manure.
 India has the largest area (18-20 % of
the net sown area) and production of
oilseeds in the world.
 There had been a gradual increase in
area, production and yield of oilseeds,
with the passage of time.
 The production of oilseeds has always
fallen short of our demand and India
has always been a net importer of
oilseeds.
 There is a very little scope for bringing
additional area under oilseeds.
Increasing productivity is the only way
to meet the domestic demand.
 Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra & Gujarat are the main
producers of major oilseeds accounting
for over two-third of the area and three-
fourths of the production.
 Other producers include Andhra
Pradesh, UP, Haryana, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu (gives maximum yield in
oil seeds) West Bengal, Odisha, Assam,
etc..
Groundnut
 Groundnut is the most important
oilseed of India.
 It accounts for nearly half of the major
oilseeds produced in India.
 Groundnut kernels are rich in proteins
and vitamins and have high calorific
value.
 It contains 40-50% oil which is used
as edible oil or hydrogenated vanaspati.
 The oil is used for manufacturing
margarine, medical emulsions, soap
etc.
 Its oil cake is used as an important rich
cattle feed.
 It is often a rotation crop because of its
atmospheric nitrogen fixing abilities.
Conditions for Growth
Page
 It is a tropical crop that requires 20°- | 20
30°C temperature and 50-75 cm
rainfall.
 Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper
limit for groundnut cultivation.
 It is mainly a kharif crop but it also
cultivated during rabi season.
 It is highly susceptible to frost,
prolonged drought, continuous rain &
stagnant water.
 Dry winter is needed at the time of
ripening.
 Well drained sandy loams, red, yellow
and black cotton soils are well suited.
Production and Distribution
 India (17.4%) is the second largest
producer of groundnut. [China 40%].
 Unlike rice and wheat, there is no fixed
cropping area for groundnut.
 Groundnut is a rainfed crop and
fluctuations in its production is usual.
 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
and Rajasthan are the four main
producers.
 These four states together account for
over 70% of total production of India.
 Andhra Pradesh (23%) is the largest
producer of groundnut in India.
 Tamil Nadu (18%) is the second largest
producer.
 Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and
Maharashtra are the other important
producers.
Trade
 India's exports have drastically fallen
due increased domestic consumption.
Sesamum

 Sesamum contains 45 to 50 per cent
oil.
 Sesamum oil is used for cooking and
for manufacturing perfumery and
medicines.
Production and Distribution
 India accounts for one-third of the
world production and is the largest
producer.
 Since it is a rainfed kharif crop the
production fluctuates greatly with time.
 Sesamum is produced in almost all
parts of the country.
 West Bengal is the largest producing
state (one-third of the total production
of India).
 The other major producers are Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.
Rapeseed and mustard
 The oil content of rapeseed and
mustard is 25-45%.
 It is used for cooking, as preservative
for pickles and lubricants.
Conditions for Growth
 They are mainly grown as rabi crop in
pure or mixed form with wheat, gram
and barley.
 Like wheat and gram, they thrive only
in cool climate of the Sutlej-Ganga
plain. Page
 Very small quantity is grown in the
peninsular India. | 21
 Rajasthan with 46 per cent production
stands first in India.
 Haryana is the second largest
producer. Madhya Pradesh is the third.
Linseed
 Linseed has 35 to 47 per cent oil
content.
 Linseed oil has a unique drying
property and is used for manufacturing
paints, varnishes, printing ink, oilcloth,
and water-proof fabrics.
Conditions for Growth
 It is a rabi crop.
 This crop can be grown under varied
geographical conditions.
 But it prefers cool (20°C) and moist
climate (75 cm).
 It can be cultivated up to a height of
800 meters above sea level.
 Madhya Pradesh (1st - 29%), Bihar
(2nd), Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Maharashtra are the main producers.
Castor seed
  Advantages of dalda: Good
shelf life of foods, quite cheap
compared to edible oils.
 Disadvantages of dalda:
saturated fats are very bad
for health
Page
(http://www.pmfias.com/fats
-lipids-fatty-acids-healthy- | 22
fats-unhealthy-fats/).
 Oil seeds = Yellow Revolution
 Castor seed contains 50 per cent oil. [National Dairy Development Board
 The oil is used as hair oil, for lighting, (NDDB) played an important role].
manufacturing soap, leather tanning
In 1970s
etc.
 Oil-cake is used as manure and leaves  groundnut accounted for almost 60
of the plant are fed to silk worms. per cent of India’s edible oil
consumption.
Conditions for Growth
 groundnut was followed by mustard,
 It is a rainfed kharif crop in the north cottonseed, coconut, sesame, etc.
and a rabi crop in the south. (industry was based totally on
domestically produced oilseeds).
 Gujarat, Rajasthan and Telangana are
the main producers. Present

India’s edible oil industry  groundnut oil’s share declined –

hardly 1 per cent
 Indians used broadly these edible oils  mustard’s share declined to 10 per
1. ‘vegetable’ oils obtained from cent.
crushing local oilseeds  Palm, soyabean and sunflower
 mustard in northern and dominated (industry shifted towards
eastern India; imported oilseeds and oil).
 groundnut in Gujarat, 1. palm oil (45 per cent)
Maharashtra, Karnataka and 2. soyabean (20 per cent)
Andhra Pradesh; 3. sunflower (rest).
 sesame and groundnut in
Tamil Nadu; and
 coconut in Kerala
2. ‘animal’ fat – ghee from milk.
3. dalda – hydrogenated vegetable
oil.
 hydrogenation — adding
hydrogen to convert
“unsaturated” liquid fats
into “saturated” solid fats.
 hydrogenation is done to
harden or raise the melting
point of the oil.
 Just as ghee, dalda has
higher melting and smoke
point (at which the molecules
start breaking down).
Imported Oil
 Virtually the whole of the country’s
palm oil consumption is imported.
 Sunflower (92 per cent) and soyabean
(71 per cent) are also imported.
 Solvent extraction is replaced by
refineries importing crude palm,
soyabean oil etc.
 Most of the refineries are located at
Mundra, Kandla, Mangalore, Chennai,
Krishnapatnam, Paradip and Haldia.
All port cities. Why?
1) Easy to import oil – the main
reason,
2) Refining and discarding the waste
reduces transportation cost
 The future for indigenous production
lies only in
1) mustard (because of its high oil
content),
2) cotton-seed (thanks to the Bt
revolution) and
3) rice bran (extensive rice cultivation).
Edible oil consumption
 India is the world’s second largest
consumer of edible oil next to China.
Palm oil
 Most of it is used predominantly by the
food industry. Why? Because it’s cheap
and suits all types of frying.
 Vanaspati manufacturing, too, is now
entirely based on palm oil.
 Being cheap also makes palm oil ideally Page
suited for adulterating other oils (palm
oil is a neutral oil, with no aroma of its | 23
own and can easily mingle with other
oils).
Plantation Crops in India
 Plantation crops are those crops which
are grown on plantations covering large
estates.
 They take 3-5 years to bear returns
after they are sown.
 They continue to bear returns for the
next 35-40 years after the first harvest.
 They cover small area in India but are
of high economic value.
 Tea, coffee (beverage crops) & rubber
are the principal plantation crops.
 Spices, palm plantations and coconut
plantations are the other important
ones.
Tea
 Tea is the dried leaf of a bush. It
contains theine (stimulant).
 Tea bush is indigenous to China. It was
introduced in India in 1840.
 The first commercial tea plantations
were set up in the Upper Assam (upper
Brahmaputra valley).
 Lower Assam and Darjeeling were also
opened up to tea plantations few years
later.
 Later on, tea plantations were set up in
Nilgiri Hills of South India, Terai
along the foothills of the Himalayas
and in some places in Himachal
Pradesh.
Conditions of Growth
 Tea bush is a tropical and sub-tropical
plant.
 Most of the tea plantations in India are
found at elevations ranging from 600
to 1,800 meters above sea level.
 Climate and soil drainage are the
determining factors for tea cultivation.
Climate
 Yield and the quality of tea are greatly
influenced by the climatic conditions.
 It thrives well in hot (20°-30°C) and
humid climate (150-300 cm).
 The rainfall should be well distributed
throughout the year.
 High humidity, heavy dew and
morning fog favor rapid development
of young leaves.
 Temperatures above 35°C and below
10°C are harmful for the bush.
 Alternate waves of warm and cool
winds are very helpful for tea leaves.
 Tea is a shade-loving plant and
develops more vigorously under shade.
Soil
 Tea bush grows well in well drained,
deep, friable loams.
 Virgin forest soils rich in humus and
iron content are considered to be the
best.
 Relatively large proportion of
phosphorus and potash in the soil
gives special flavor to tea as is the case
in Darjeeling.
 Stagnant water or waterlogging is
injurious to its roots. It is, therefore,
grown on hill slopes.
 However, it grows equally well in the
valleys if the drainage is good.
Tea cannot be grown on plains (T/F) –
Answer ‘F’
Labor
 Tea requires abundant supply of cheap
and skilled labor at every stage.
 It is one of the largest employers of
women among the organized industries
of India.
 Pruning (trim by cutting away dead or overgrown
branches or stems) of the plant is an
essential part of tea cultivation. It helps
in maintaining the proper shape and
height of tea bush.
 The aim of pruning is to have new Page
shoots bearing soft leaves and to
facilitate the plucking of leaves by | 24
women laborers from the ground.
Production and distribution
 India (17%) is the third largest
producer of tea in the world, next to
China and Turkey.
 Tea cultivation in India is highly
concentrated in a few selected pockets.
1. North-East India.
2. South.
3. North-West India.
North-Eastern India
 It is more or less a triangular area
mainly in Assam and West Bengal.
 This is the most important tea
producing region of India.
 About three-fourth production of
India’s tea comes from here.
 Tea plantations are small in number
but fairly large in size.
 Some tea gardens are also found in
Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and
Manipur.
Assam
 Assam (51%) is the largest producer of
tea in India.
Brahmaputra Valley
 The area provides the most ideal
conditions for tea cultivation.
Favorable conditions
1. Summer temperature of 30°C and
winter temperature never falling below
10°C.
2. Frost free weather throughout the year.
3. 300-400 cm annual rainfall extended
over 9 months.
 The Brahmaputra Valley extending
from Sadiya to Goalpara comprises the
main tea producing belt. It accounts for
44 per cent of India's tea.
 Tea estates are located on the raised
grounds (upto 450 meters) so that
annual inundations and stagnant
water during the rainy season do not
harm the crop.
Surma Valley
 Surma Valley lying in Cachar district
produces about 5 per cent of country's
tea.
 The climates here is not as favorable as
in the Brahmaputra valley.
 The tea gardens are scattered over
small mounds or well drained flats
along the Brahmaputra river and its
tributaries.
 Here the rainfall is 300-400 cm and no
month is completely dry.
West Bengal
 West Bengal (23%) is the second
largest producer.
 Entire tea of WB is produced in
Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Koch
Bihar.
 These districts are contiguous to the
main tea producing belt of Assam.
Duars in Koch Bihar and Jalpaiguri
districts
 16 km wide strip at the foot of the
Himalayas.
Darjeeling district
 Darjeeling tea is the most valued tea
because of its special aroma.
 Annual rainfall of 300 cm, moderate
temperature, soils rich in potash and
phosphorous give a special flavor.
 But the yields are quite low compared
to other tea producing areas in the NE.
 Tea estates are found within 900-1,800
m elevation.
 The temperature beyond 1,800 m
elevation is low and does not support
tea cultivation.
South India
 Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palani and Page
Anaimalai hills in TN, Kerala and | 25
Karnataka extending from 9°N to 14°N
latitudes are the important tea
producing areas.
 This region accounts for 25%
production and about 44% of area
under tea in India.
 Tea gardens are located on the hill
slopes of the Western Ghats between
300 and 1,800 m altitude.
 The tea estates are quite large in
number but quite small in size.
 The temperatures are uniformly high
and the annual rainfall exceeds 400
cm.
 There is no fear of frost in south India
and weather conditions are quite
congenial.
 Therefore, the productivity is higher,
although the quality of tea is inferior.
 In South India, Tamil Nadu is the
largest producer of tea.
 Kerala is another important producer.
Some tea is produced in Hassan and
Chikmaglur districts of Karnataka.
 Karnataka has the distinction of giving
the highest yield of over 25 quintals per
hectare.
North West India
 Some of tea is produced in Dehra Dun,
Almora and Garhwal districts of
Uttarakhand and in Kangra Valley and
Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh.
 Green tea is produced in Kangra
valley of Himachal Pradesh.
 Tea in small quantity is also produced
in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts of
Chota Nagpur plateau in Jharkhand.
Trade
 India is also one of the leading
exporters of tea in the world.
 India’s exports are falling due to
increasing domestic consumption and
competition.
 90 per cent of the tea bushes are in the
age group of 40-50 years, and are not
capable of giving high yields.
 India is facing tough competition from
Sri Lanka, China, Kenya etc..
 Russia, U.K., the USA, are major
importers of Indian tea.
 Tea exports to West Asia—North Africa
region jumped mainly due to increased
exports to Iraq under the 'Oil-for-Food
Programme'.
 Kolkata is the chief port of tea export
from India.
 The other major ports through which
tea is exported are Chennai, Mangalore
and Kochi.
Coffee
 Coffee is the next important beverage
crop after tea.
 It is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau
(Ethiopia).
 Its seeds were brought to India by Baba
Budan from Arabia in the 17th
Century.
 Coffee was first raised in the Baba
Budan Hills of Karnataka.
 British planters established large coffee
estates in 1820s near Chikmagalur
(Karnataka), Waynad, Shevoroys and
Nilgiris in TN.
Conditions for Growth
 Coffee plant requires hot (15°C and
28°C) and humid climate (150 to 250
cm).
 It does not tolerate frost, prolonged
drought, high temperature (>30°C) and
strong sun shine.
 Like tea, it is also generally grown
under shady trees.
 Stagnant water is harmful. So, this
crop is grown on hill slopes at
elevations from 600 to 1,600 meters
above sea level.
 Northern and eastern aspects of
slopes are preferred as they are less
exposed to strong afternoon sun and
the south-west monsoon winds. Page
 Well drained, rich friable loams rich in
humus and minerals like iron and | 26
calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.
 Coffee cultivation requires plenty of
cheap and skilled labor.
Production and Distribution
 India (3.5%) is the seventh largest
producer of coffee.
 Brazil (25%), Colombia (15%) and
Indonesia (7%) are the important
producers.
 Coffee Arabica (49%) and Coffee
Robusta (51%) are the two main
varieties grown in India.
 Coffee plantations are confined to
small area in south India comprising
hill areas around Nilgiris.
 Almost the entire production is shared
by three states namely Karnataka
(71%), Kerala (22%) and Tamil Nadu
(6.5%).
 In Karnataka, plantations are about
1,370 meters above sea level where
rainfall is 125-150 cm. Kodagu and
Chikmagalur account for over 80% of
the state's total output.
 Most of the coffee plantations in Kerala
are at an altitude of 1,200 m where
annual rainfall is over 200 cm.
 About half of Tamil Nadu's coffee is
produced in Nilgiri district.
Trade
 India exports coffee to a large number
of countries including U.K., the U.S.A.,
Russia, Australia, Iraq and a large
number of countries of continental
Europe.
Rubber
 Rubber is obtained from the latex of
Hevea brasiliensis and many other
tropical trees.
 Hevea brasiliensis is a quick growing
tall tree (20-30 meter height).
 It begins to yield latex in 5-7 years after
planting.
 The first rubber plantations were set
up in Kerala in1895.
Conditions for Growth
 Hevea brasiliensis requires hot (25°-
35°C) and humid climate (200 cm).
 The rainfall should be well distributed
throughout the year.
 Deep well drained loamy soils are best
suited for rubber plantations.
 Suitable soil and climatic conditions
occur on the hill slopes at elevations
ranging from 300 to 450 meters above
sea level.
 The yields decline at higher elevations
due to fall in temperature and less
mature soils.
 Practically no rubber plantations are
found above 700 m elevation.
Production and Distribution
 India (9%) lags behind Thailand and
Indonesia in natural rubber
production.
 Small holdings account for 88 per cent
of area and production of rubber in
India.
 The average productivity realized by
small holders is much higher than that
produced by the large estates.
 Almost entire rubber is produced in
Kerala (92%), Tamil Nadu (3%) and
Karnataka (2%). Tripura (2%) is the
fourth largest producer. Andaman &
Nicobar Islands also produce small
quantities of rubber.
Arecanut
 Arecanut is used for chewing with betel
leaves and in pan masala (supari).
Areca stem is used for construction
purposes and leaves for thatching.
 It is a tropical tree which, on maturity,
attains a height of 20-25 meters.
 It flourishes well in warm (15° to 35°C)
and humid climates (200-300 cm). Page
 It grows on a variety of soils ranging
from well-drained laterite, red loamy to | 27
alluvial soils. Its cultivation can be
done from sea level to 1,000 meters.
 India is the largest producer of
arecanut in the world.
 Kerala (37%), Karnataka, Tripura,
Assam and Meghalaya are the major
producing states.
 Assam produces about one-fourth of
India's arecanut.
 Most of the arecanut is consumed
within south Indian states and only a
small quantity is exported mainly to
Nepal, UAR, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia
etc.
Coconut
 Coconut is a perennial crop. It has a
long period of economic life span of
more than 60 years. It also has a long
gestation period of 5-7 years.
 Coconut is predominantly a tropical
crop.
 It requires warm (25° to 30°C) and
fairly moist (125 to 130 cm) climate.
 It is predominantly grown under
rainfed condition in Kerala (26.6%)
and parts of coastal Tamil Nadu
(20%), Karnataka (12%) and Andhra
Pradesh.
 Well drained rich loamy soils are best
suited for its cultivation.
 It grows well on sandy loams along sea-
coasts and in adjoining river valleys.
 India is the third largest coconut
producing country next to Philippines
and Indonesia.
Spices
 Pepper, cardamom, chillies, turmeric,
ginger etc. are some of the important
 spices produced in India. They are used
for flavoring foodstuffs.
 Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams
and laterites are best suited soils for
the cultivation of most of the spices
mentioned above.
 These soil conditions exist
predominantly in the hilly regions of
Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 India is a an exporter of spices. There
has been a constant increase in area
and production of spices in India.
Pepper
 Black pepper, “the king of spices” is the
most important dollar earning spice.
 Warm (10°C-30°C) and humid (200-300
cm) climate is required for its
cultivation.
 The plant grows as a vine and needs
support of other trees for its growth.
 The plant can be grown on a variety of
well drained soils.
 It thrives well on deep, friable, well
drained loamy soils.
 It can be grown from almost sea level to
an altitude of 1,200 m.
Production and Distribution
 India is the second largest producer of
pepper in the world after Indonesia.
 Its distribution is highly concentrated
in Kerala (94%), Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu.
Cardamom
 Cardamom – ‘queen of aromatic spices’
– is mainly used for medicines.
 It grows well in hot (15°C-32°C) and
humid (150-300 cm) climates.
 Well drained forest loams, red & laterite
soils with plenty of humus are ideal.
 Tropical rain forests at an altitude of
800-1,600 meters above sea level
provide the most congenial
environment for its growth.
 It is a shade loving plant and is grown
under shady trees.
Production, distribution and exports
 India produces a major part of the
world's total cardamom.
 The entire production comes from three
states viz., Kerala (53%), Karnataka
(42%) and Tamil Nadu. Page
 In Kerala, the crop is largely | 28
concentrated in the Cardamom hills.
 India stands second after Guatemala in
export of cardamom.
Chillies
 Chilli requires temperatures ranging
from 10° to 30°C and moderate annual
rainfall of 60 to 125 cm.
 Too scarce or too heavy rainfall is
harmful.
 It can be grown on a wide variety of
soils including black cotton soil, and
different types of loamy soils. It can be
grown upto elevations of 1,700 metres.
 Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the
largest producers of chillies.
 Guntur, East Godavari and West
Godavari in are the major chilli
producing districts in AP.
Ginger
 It is grown in tropical and sub-tropical
climates.
 It requires 10° to 25°C temperature and
125-250 cm rainfall.
 Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams
and laterites are best suited soils for its
cultivation.
 It can be grown from sea level to an
altitude of 1,300 m above sea level.
 India (80%) is the largest producer of
ginger in the world.
 Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
etc. are the main producers.
Turmeric
 Turmeric is native to tropical South-
East Asia.
 India is an important producer of
turmeric in the world.
 Andhra Pradesh (more than half) is the
largest producer.
Horticulture
 India is the second largest producer of
fruits and vegetables in the world after
China.
 Horticulture sector contributes about
25-30 per cent of GDP from
agriculture.
 India is the largest producer of
bananas and mangoes.
Cashewnut
 Cashew kernel is used as a dry fruit.
 Cashew requires average temperature
(16°C and 25°C).
 It can grow in regions with a wide
range of rainfall (50 to 350 cm).
 It is grown widely on the poor laterite
soils on the west coast and on sandy
soils on the east coast.
 At present, India holds first position in
the world in the production of cashew.
 Coasts of Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra
Pradesh (15.7%), Odisha, Kerala,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the
major producers.
 India is the largest exporter of
cashewnut kernel in the world.
Mango
 Mango is the native to the Indian
monsoon lands.
 More than half of the world’s mangoes
are produced in India. It is also the
largest exporter.
 Alfonso mango is an important export
variety.
 Mangoes are grown in areas with
temperature from 20°C-30°C & rainfall
75-250 cm.
 It can grow in almost all soils of India.
 It is largely grown in groves near towns
and villages where it has a ready
market [Mango is a highly perishable
fruit].
 Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, Odisha, are the main
producers.
Apple
Page
 Apple is a temperate fruit crop.
 It requires sunny climate with gentle | 29
winds. Partial sun reduces yields.
 It requires average temperature (~22°C)
during the growing season.
 In the non-growing season, apple crop
can tolerate very low temperatures.
 Low temperature, rain, fog and cloudy
weather hampers growth at the time of
maturity.
 Well distributed 100-125 cm rainfall
throughout the growing season is
optimal.
 Apple orchard regions should be free
from hail storms and frost.
 Well drained loamy soils rich in humus
are most suitable for apple cultivation.
 These soil and climatic conditions are
found on hill slopes at altitudes
ranging from 1,500-2,700 m.
 In most areas apple orchards have
replaced millet crops which are of low
value.
 Kullu and Shimla districts in Himachal
Pradesh, the Kashmir Valley and hilly
areas of Uttarakhand are important
apple growing areas.
Banana
 Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical
crop.
 It requires average temperature (~25°C)
throughout in growth period.
 The rainfall should be fairly above 150
cm.
 Although cultivation is spread all over
India. But peninsular India provides
ideal conditions for its cultivation.
 Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account
for about half of total production.
Orange
 Orange is widely grown both in north
and south India.
 Soil is the important factor for
orange than climate.
 Most of orange orchards are rainfed.
 They are located at heights from 600 to
1,500 m.
 Well-drained sandy soils which permit
root penetration up to 2-4 meters are
best suited for orange cultivation.
 Although orange is grown in almost all
the states, its cultivation is more
prominently concentrated in the hilly
region of Uttarakhand.
 Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh,
Darjeeling in W. Bengal, Khasi and
Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Kodagu
district of Karnataka are the important
orange growing regions.
Grape
 Grape is a sub-tropical vine plant.
 It requires long summer and short
winter
 Moderately fertile well drained soil is
required.
 Relatively low water supply during the
growing period is good for the crop.
 Bright sunshine during maturity is
essential.
 In northern India, it is grown in
summer only.
 In south India the plant grows
throughout the year and gives two
crops a year.
 Grapes can be grown anywhere in
India.
Peach
 Peach is temperate fruit that is highly
perishable (more than apple).
 The main areas of peach cultivation are
in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
Kashmir Valley.
Pear
 Pear is another temperate fruit,
mainly grown in Kashmir, Kumaon
region of Uttarakhand and Himachal
Pradesh in the north and the Nilgiri
hills in the south.
 These areas offer suitable conditions of Page
cold winters, cool summers, moderate
rainfall, high percentage of cloudiness | 30
and mist.
Apricot
 Apricot is also a temperate fruit which
requires 130 to 200 cm rainfall.
 It is mainly grown in Kashmir valley,
Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon region
of Uttarakhand.
Strawberry
 Strawberry, almond and walnut are
other important temperate fruits.
 The hilly areas of J & K., H.P. and
Uttarakhand are the main producers.
 Strawberry fields are under semi-
aquatic to aquatic conditions for at
least three months.
 Nainital district is the largest producer
of strawberry.
Vegetables
 India and China are the most
important vegetable producers in the
world.
 As most of the vegetables are
perishable, they are grown around
areas where there is ready market.
 Cereals are preferred over vegetables
cultivation in regions with labor
shortages.