Archaeological Prospection

Archaeol. Prospect. 7, 231±240 (2000)

Investigation of Underground
Resistivity Structures using
the VLF±MT Method
TADASHI NISHITANI*
Institute of Applied Earth Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science,
Akita University, Akita 010-8502, Japan

ABSTRACT The very low frequency, magnetotelluric (VLF±MT) is a widely used technique for investigating
underground structures. This method utilizes an arti®cial electromagnetic ®eld of very low
frequency range for the purpose of investigating the resistivity of an underground structure. The
measurement is simple, and can provide details on electric ®eld intensity, magnetic ®eld
intensity, apparent resistivity and phase difference promptly on the spot. In this study I inspected
the effectiveness of the VLF±MT method in archaeological prospecting. I applied it to keyhole-
shaped mounded tombs to de®ne the position of the stone chamber. From the survey of the
Nishi-Norikura mounted tomb, located in Tenri city, I clearly show the position of a high resistivity
area. This position may be the stone chamber. A VLF±MT survey is an effective method to
obtain a view of the position of a high resistivity area or a stone chamber in a mounded tomb.
Copyright * c 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: VLF±MT method; resistivity; underground structure; mounded tombs; stone
chamber

Introduction VLF radio fields. The magnetotelluric (MT)

The very low frequency (VLF) wave has been
defined as a wave with a frequency from 3 kHz
to 30 kHz. An electromagnetic wave in the VLF
band is used for submarine communication, as
this band displays little scattering and few decay
characteristics as it propagates through seawater.
Very low frequency signals are monitored for the
purpose of predicting earthquakes (Rodger, 1996;
Molchanov, 1998), predicting volcanic eruption
(Kauahikaua et al., 1996) and monitoring under-
ground nuclear explosions (Mikhailov et al., 1998).
The effect of the VLF on organs also has been
studied (King and Sandler, 1996). Mcneill and
Rabson (1991) describe geological mapping using
*Correspondence to: Dr Tadashi Nishitani, Institute of
Applied Earth Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Resource
Science, Akita University, Akita 010-8502, Japan. E-mail:
nishitani@ipc.akita-u.ac.jp
method utilizes two mutually vertical compon-
ents, an electric field and a magnetic field. The
VLF±MT method is a form of the MT method.
Whereas the general MT method uses the natural
electromagnetic field, VLF±MT utilizes an artifi-
cial electromagnetic field. Very low frequency
transmission centres are distributed widely
throughout the world and they constantly trans-
mit high power radio waves. Consequently, when
we investigate underground resistivity structures,
artificial VLF waves can be used more easily than
natural waves.
The frequency 22.2 kHz is available in Japan. It
is transmitted from Ebino highland (32.05N,
130.87E) in Miyazaki Prefecture. Measurement
equipment is small and operation is easy. We can
obtain the necessary information promptly on the
spot, that is, the electric field intensity, the
magnetic field intensity, an apparent resistivity
and a phase difference between the electric and

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 6 July 1999
Accepted 2 November 1999
232
the magnetic fields. The VLF±MT method is
commonly used for study around 100 m depth,
and it is possible to find subsurface water, to
reveal geological structures, and to find active
faults (Goldman and Neubauer, 1994; Guerin
et al., 1994). The main purpose of this paper is to
reveal the position of a stone structure using the
VLF±MT method. The subject of inspection is a
mounded tomb. This study deals mainly with
estimating the position of the inside structure in
the mounded tomb.
Theory of the VLF±MT method
The VLF±MT method surveys a subterranean
structure by means of a horizontal electric field
and a horizontal magnetic field at right angles
to each other, in the same manner as the MT
method, which uses natural electromagnetic
fields. We measure the intensity of the electric
and magnetic fields, and phase difference
between the two fields. Apparent resistivity can
be obtained according to the equations derived by
Cagniard (1953).
T. Nishitani
of a deeper layer is smaller than that of the
surface layer, the phase difference is greater than
458. The phase difference has the potential to
estimate the outline of an underground structure.
A standard depth of investigation is skin depth
and it can be expressed by the expression
r
r
d ˆ 503
f
where d is skin depth in metres, r is the resistivity
in ohm-m, and f is the frequency in Hz. This
expression shows that the skin depth depends on
the frequency and resistivity of the ground. In
the case of a frequency of 22.2 kHz, skin depth
becomes 35 m if r is 100 ohm-m and 107 m if r is
1000 ohm-m.
Measurement method
We can receive VLF waves in many parts of the
world, as shown in Figure 1. A frequency com-
ponent of 22.2 kHz, abbreviated designation JJI,
dominates in Japan. In the field we initially
 2 specify the direction of the transmitter of VLF
E waves and establish electrodes for an electric field
r ˆ 0.2T  
H in this direction (Figure 2). An electrode interval
where r is an apparent resistivity in ohm-m, T is
period in seconds, E is an electric field in
mV km ÿ1, and H is a magnetic field in nT. We
can express underground structure using this
resistivity value. Apparent resistivity becomes a
true resistivity if the underground structure is
uniform. If some part has a resistivity different
from uniform inside the area surveyed, a change
appears in the electric and magnetic fields. As a
result, apparent resistivity shows a change. Con-
sequently, if we map the pattern of apparent
resistivity, it will show the distribution of under-
ground structures. A phase difference between
the electric and the magnetic fields is also an
effective way of estimating the detail of a sub-
surface resistivity structure. If an underground
structure is homogeneous and uniform, a phase
difference of 458 is indicated. When the resistivity
of the deep layer is large compared with the
surface layer, the phase difference indicated is
less than 458. On the other hand, if the resistivity
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
of 10 m is set as a standard. We measure a
magnetic field component, which is at right
angles to the electric field component. The
measuring instrument, VL-101 made by Tierra
Tecnica Co., shows the intensity of the magnetic
field in picotesla, and the intensity of the electric
field in microvolt per metre, the apparent resist-
ivity in ohm-m and the phase difference in
degrees (Nishitani, 1998). There is an advantage
that we are able to find anomalous components
immediately on the spot. Special skill is not
necessary for measurement and observed values
are provided by digital numbers. Therefore any-
one can measure and acquire reliable and stable
data everywhere.
Reproducibility
Noise is naturally included in the measure-
ment and it is necessary to remove it in the
data processing. However, we cannot always
Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
The VLF-MT Method
Figure 1. Location of VLF stations.
distinguish between measurement noise and a
true signal. To judge a signal or a noise, it is
desirable to compare the values observed, which
are measured at the same point, with the same
condition many times. Figure 3 is an example
measured at Imashirozuka mounded tomb in
Takatsuki City, Osaka Prefecture. I performed a
VLF±MT survey along N10 lines, the solid line
shown in Figure 3, twice with the same measur-
ing condition in order to compare the results
obtained. Figure 3a shows the apparent resist-
ivity of N10 lines measured in autumn of 1994,
and measured again in the summer of 1995
(Figure 3b). Change tendencies of the apparent
resistivity and the position of peaks are almost
the same in both. The reproducibility therefore
is extremely good, even though the second
measurement was performed 1 year later. It is
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
233
concluded that the pattern shown in Figure 3 is
not the effect of noise but a faithful reflection of
the underground information. Therefore the
results of the VLF±MT method reflect the under-
ground structure. There is no correlation between
resistivity changes and the topography and the
resistivity variation appears more pronounced.
From this fact, the effect of the topographic
change on the resistivity may be disregarded in
the VLF±MT survey.
Exploration of mounded tombs
Iwatoyama mounded tomb
Iwatoyama mounded tomb is the largest keyhole-
shaped mounded tomb in the Kyusyu area of
Japan. It is located in Yame city in Fukuoka
Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
234
Figure 2. Schematic VLF waves.
Prefecture. The total length is approximately
135 m. The diameter of the rounded rear part of
the keyhole tomb is approximately 60 m with a
height of approximately 18 m: the width of the
square front part of the keyhole tomb is approx-
imately 92 m, with a height of 17 m. There is a
moat surrounding the mounded tomb, which is
situated in a greenbelt area. Haniwa and many
anthropomorphic stone images of horse were
excavated from the burial mound. It is written in
the literature that Iwatoyama mounded tomb
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
T. Nishitani
was built for Iwai in Tsukusi-no-kuni at the
beginning of the sixth century (Iwatoyama Hist-
orical Museum, 1988).
I explored this Iwatoyama mounded tomb
using the VLF±MT method. The main purpose
of this investigation is to find the position of the
stone chamber. Figure 4 represents an example of
the data recorded. The line profile of apparent
resistivity and its position is shown by a solid line
in the top figure. The positions of the rounded rear
part and the square front part of a keyhole tomb
Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
The VLF-MT Method 235

Figure 3. Reproducibility check at Imashirozuka mounded tomb. (a) Measured in the autumn of 1994; (b) measured in the
summer of 1995.

are shown on the x-axis at the base of the figure. indicate a high value around 65 m in the square
We can see low resistivity parts around 12 m and front part of the keyhole tomb, and the same
25 m. Flat part of the curve between them takes tendency can be seen in the electric component.
the attention. In addition, apparent resistivity data As a result of compilation with another 21 lines, I

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
236 T. Nishitani

Figure 4. The VLF±MT survey of Iwatoyama mounded tomb.

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
The VLF-MT Method
Figure 5. High resistivity parts in the Iwatoyama mounded tomb.
have determined the resistivity anomalies shown
in Figure 5. The high resistivity part in the
southwest of the rounded rear part of the keyhole
tomb is possibly a stone chamber. The ground sur-
face in this anomalous part is depressed slightly. It
may be evidence to suggest a stone chamber. A
sharp rising curve of apparent resistivity in the
square front part of the keyhole tomb indicates
that the cause of anomalous resistivity comes from
a comparatively shallow portion. Consequently, a
high resistivity object or space exists at the centre
of the square front part of the keyhole tomb to the
southwest direction. This result is consistent with
the findings of Mizunaga and Ushijima (1996).
They applied the Schlumberger electric sounding
method to the rounded rear part of the Iwatoyama
mounded tomb and showed a high resistivity
anomalous part in almost the same position and
direction as the present result.
Nishi-Norikura mounded tomb
Nishi-Norikura mounded tomb is situated in
Tenri city of Nara Prefecture, Japan. It is a
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
237
keyhole-shaped mounded tomb. The total length
is approximately 118 m and the diameter of the
rounded part of the tomb is 66 m, with a height of
15.5 m. The width of the square front part of the
tomb is 88 m, with a height of 16 m. The burial
mound is surrounded by a moat and another bank
was established on the outside. In the narrow
waist of the keyhole-shaped mounded tomb there
are square projections. This mounded tomb was
constructed at the beginning of sixth century or in
the first half of the sixth century. Figure 6 is a
surveyed map of Nishi-Norikura keyhole
mounded tomb.
Because a stake that was used at the actual
survey was not left, I set a new coordinate. The
x-axis is defined as the principal axis direction to
the square front part of the keyhole tomb and the
y-axis is defined as the direction that crosses at
right angles to the x-axis. This mounded tomb
was explored previously by ground-penetrating
radar, but it did not show the position of a stone
chamber. I applied the VLF±MT method within a
survey area of 15 m  15 m. Measurement was
performed at 0.5 m intervals, on the crossing
Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
238 T. Nishitani

Figure 6. Nishi-Norikura mounded tomb.

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
The VLF-MT Method
Figure 7. Change of apparent resistivities. Top: west±east direction. Bottom: south±north direction.
points of 0.5 m-mesh lines. Figure 7 is a change of
apparent resistivity along the line of x ˆ 8 m,
and lower part shows the results at y ˆ 4 m.
The position of stone chamber is estimated
synthetically considering all observed data. Mesh
data at 0.5 m intervals were smoothed by the
kriging method and shown in Plate 1. Therefore
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
239
the resolution of estimation is about 0.5 m. The
size of stone chamber is probably 2 m wide and
5 m long and it is a corridor-style stone chamber.
Near this mounded tomb is the Higashi-
Norikura mounded tomb, which has been exca-
vated and a corridor-style stone chamber was
confirmed. It is thought that the construction
Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
240
age for both mounded tombs is almost the same.
The direction of the major axis of the stone
chamber is east to east-southeast. The end of the
stone chamber is almost the centre of the rounded
rear part of the keyhole tomb. As for the circum-
ference of the Nishi-Norikura mounded tomb, it
is situated in a sparsely populated area and there
is no power line in this neighbourhood. This area
has advantageous conditions for VLF±MT
survey. Consequently, we think that the resist-
ivity change indicates the response of the stone
chamber.
Summary
I applied the VLF±MT method to keyhole-shaped
mounded tombs and made clear the position of
resistivity anomaly areas. We can specify in plan
view the high resistivity area or stone chamber by
mapping resistivity anomalies. I confirmed that
the VLF±MT method is effective for investigating
a large structure in a comparatively deep
position. Measurement equipment is small, and
operation is easy. We can obtain the necessary
information promptly in situ. This method could
become an indispensable technique for archaeo-
logical prospecting.
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Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
T. Nishitani
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Archaeol. Prospect., 7, 231±240 (2000)
Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Archaeol. Prospect., Vol. 7, (2000)
Plate 1. Estimation of high resistivity area in Nishi-Norikura mounded tomb.