CT5126 Fatigue

CT5126 Fatigue
Lectures Steel Structures Part 1.
September 2007 Dr. M.H. Kolstein
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Steel- and Timber Structures
~
Ill II I1111111111111111
69316913
Bestelnummer: 06923510002 T U Delft
Contents
Lecture 1 Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Structures
Lecture 2 Good Design Practice for Fatigue Design
Lecture 3 Basic Fatigue design Concepts in Eurocode 3
Lecture 4 Worked examples
Lecture 5 Improvement Techniques in Welded Joints
Lecture 6 Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections

1
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Structures
September 2007 Dr. M. H. Kolstein
Toe
cr
Crack
Butt weld (Full penetration)
Toe
cr
cr
Cracks
Root --+
Fillet weld
.Figure 1 Local stress concentrations at welds
Section Steel- and Timber Structures

CONTENTS
L INTRODUCTION
2. FATIGUE STRENGTH'
3. CLASSIFICATION OF DETAILS
4. STRESS PARAMETERS FOR FATIGUE
5. LOADINGS FOR FATIGUE
6. CALCULATION OF DAMAGE
7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
8. REFERENCES
9. ADDITIONAL READING
Lecture 12.1 Page 1 .#,:p

"'
. '· ..
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To summarize the main factprs affecting fatigue strength, as opposed to static strength,
of welded joints and to illustrate the method of carrying out a fatigue check.
SUMMARY
This lecture gives an explanation of the mechanism of fatigue and the influence of
welding on that mechanism. It summaries the primary factors affecting fatigue strength
and introduces S-N Curves. The classification of .fatigue details is presented and
important details reviewed. The calculation of stress range is summarised .. The principal
types of fatigue loading and the bases for their .calculation are ·presented with an
introduction to cycle counting and damage calculations for mixed amplitude loading. ·
NOTATION
design weld strength parameter

stress range . . .
non-propagating stress, i.e. the constant amplitude stress range below which
cracks will not grow ··
N · endurance number of cycles;
Lecture 12.1 Page 2

#=P
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Fatigue

Fatigue is the mechanism whereby cracks grow in a structure. Growth only
occurs under fluctuating stress. Final failure generally occurs in regions of
tensile stress when the .reduced cross-section becomes insufficient to carry the
peak load without rupture. Whilst the loading on the structure is stationary the
crack does not grow under normal service temperatures. Many structures, such
as building frames, do not experience sufficient fluctuating stress to give rise to
fatigue problems. Others do, such as bridges, cranes, and offst.ore structures,
· where the live loading is a higher proportion of the total load.
1.2 How Welds Fatigue

In welded steel structures, fatigue cracks will almost certainly start to grow from
welds, rather than other detai~s, because:
• Most welding processes leave minute metallurgical discontinuities from

which cracks may grow. As a result, the initiation period, which is
normally needed to start a crack in plain wrought material, is either ·very
· .·short or no-existent. Cracks therefore spend most· of . tlieir life
propagating, i.e. getting longer. . ... :
Most structural welds have a rough profile. Sharp changes of direction

generally occur at the toes of butt welds and at the toes and roots of fillet
welds, see Figure 1. These points cause local stress concentrations of the
type shown in Figure 2. Small discontinuities close to these points will
therefore react as though they are in a more highly stressed member and
grow faster. -· ·· ·· ·
1.3 Crack Growth History

.of
The study. of fracture mechanis~ shows that the growth. raie ··a crack is
proportional to the square root of its len'gth, given the same stress fluctuation and
degree of stress concentration. For this reason fatigue cracks spend most of their
life as very small cracks which are hard to detect. Only in the.fast stages ·of life
does the crack start to cause a significant loss of cross-section area, as shown in
Figure 3. This behaviour poses problems for in-service inspection of structures.
Lecture 12.1 Page 3

#=P
2. FATIGUE STRENGTH
2.1 Definition of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life

Tue fatigue strength of a welded component is defined as the stress range (AuR)
which fluctuating at constant amplitude, causes failure of the component after a
specified number of cycles (N). Tue stress range is the difference between the
maximum and minimum points in the cycle, see Figure 4. The number of cycles
to failure is known as the endurance or fatigue life.
2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life

For practical design purposes there are two main factors which affect the fatigue
life of a detail, namely:
The stress range (AuR) at the location of crack initiation. There are
special rules for calculating this range.
The fatigue strength of the detail. This strength is primarily a function

·of the geometry and is defined by the parameter 'a~, which varies from
joint to joint.
The fatigue life (N), · or endurance, in number of cycles to failure can b~_
calculated from the expression:
a
N = (l)
Au~
or
log N = log d. - m log AaR

'
(2)
... . ~
where mis a constant, which for most welded details is equal to 3. Predictions -
of life are therefore particularly sensitive to accuracy of stress prediction. ··-· _, ·
2.3 S-N Curve

The expression linking N and AaRm can be plotted on a logarithmic scale as a
straight line, Equation (2), and is referred to as an S-N curve. An example .is
shown in Figure 5. The relationship holds for a wide range of endurance. It is .
limited at the low endurance end by static failure when the ultimate material
strength is exceeded. At endurances exceeding about 5-10 million cycles·
the·~ -
stress ranges are generally too small to permit propagation under constant
amplitude loading. This limit is called the non-propagating stress (Aa0 ). Below
this stress range cracks will not grow.
Lecture 12.1 Page 4

#=P
For design purposes it is _usual to use design S-N curves which give fatigue
strengths about 25% below the mean failure values, as shown in Figure 5. a' 4
is used to define these lines.
2.4 Effect of Mean Stress

In non-welded details the endurance is reduced as the mean stress becomes more
tensile. In ·welded details the endurance is not usually reduced in those
circumstances. This behaviour occurs because the weld shrinkage stresses (or
residual stresses), which are locked into the weld regions at fabricati')n, often
attain tensile yield. The crack cannot distinguish between applied and res!dual
stress. Thus, for the purposes of design, the S-N curve always assumes the
worst, i.e. that the maximum stress in the cycle is at yield point in tension; It
is particularly important to appreciate this point as it means that fatigue cracks
can grow in parts of members which are nominally 'in compression'.
2.5 Effect of Mechanical Strength

The rate of crack growth is not significantly affected by variations in proof stress
or· ultimate tensile strength within the range of low alloy steels used for general
-structural purposes. These properties only affect the initiation period, which,
being negligible in welds, results in little influence on ·fatigue life. This
behaviour contrasts with the fatigue of non-welded det:aiis where increased
mechanical strength generally results in improved fatigue strength, as shown in
Figure 6. ·
Lecture 12.1 Page 5

#=P
3. CLASSIFICATION OF DETAILS
3. 1 Detail Classes
The fatigue strength parameter (Kz) of different welded details varies according
to the severity of the stress concentration effect. As there are a wide variety of
detail in common use, details with similar K2 values are grouped together into a
single detail class and given a single K2 value.
This data has been obtained from constant amplitude fatigue ·tests on simple
specimens containing different welded detail types. For the most commonly used
details, it has been found convenient to divide the results into fourteen main
classes. The classes are:
Detail Category
.1. O'c d m
(N/mm2)
160 7,962 10 12 3
140 5,636 10 12 3
125 3,990 10 12 3
112 2,825 10 12 3
100 2,000 10 12 3
90 1,416 10 12 3
80 . 1,002 1012 3
71 0,710 10 12 3
63 0,502 10 12 3
56 • ., 0,356 1012 3
50 0,252 1012 3
45 0,178 1012 3
40 0, 126 1012 3
36 0,089 1012 3
As shown in Figure 7, these classes· can be plotted as a family of S-N curves.

The difference in stress range between neighbouring curves is usually between
15 and 20%. .
The above table has been taken from Eurocode 3 [1]. It does not include S-N
data for unstiffened hollow tubular joints.
3.2 Detail Types

There are usually a number of detail types within each class. Each type has a
very specific description which defines the geometry both microscopically and
macroscopically. The main features that affect the detail type, and hence its
classification, are:
Form of the member:
Lecture 12.1 Page 6

e.g. plate, rolled section, reinforcing bar.
Location of anticipated crack initiation:
The location must be defined with respect to the direction of stress

fluctuation. A given structural joint may contain more than one potential
initiation site, in which case the joint may fall into two or more detail
types.
Leading dimensions:
e.g. weld shape, size of component, proximity of edges, abruptnc..:-:5 of

change of cross-section.
Fabrication requirements:
e.g. type of weld process, any grinding smooth of particular parts of the
joint.
• Inspection requirements:
Special inspection procedures may be required on higher class details to

ensure that detrimental welding defects are not present.
It should be noted that if fatigue is critical in the design, the extra controls on
fabrication incurred by the last· two requirements may increase the total cost
significantly above that for purely static strength.
Examples of different types of welded detail. and their classes are shown in
Eur?code 3: Part 1.1 [l].
3.3 Commonly Used Detail Types
Figure 8 shows some of the most important details to look out for in welded
steelwork. They are:
Load carrying fillet welds and partial penetration butt welds. These
details are category 36 for failure starting at the root and propagating
through the throat. . ·
Welded attachments .on edges. They are category 45. Note that the .
attachment weld may not be transferring any stress. Failure is from the
weld toe into the member.
Ends of long flat plates, e.g. cover plates are category 50.
Most short attachments in the stress direction are category 80 or 71 as

long as they are not at an edge.
Lecture 12.1 Page 7

#=P
Transverse full penetration butt welds can range from category 12,5 to
36 depending on how they are made.
Long continuous welds on site welded structures are found to be category

100.
It should be borne in mind that most potential fatigue sites on welded structures
are found to be category 80 or below.
Lecture 12.1 Page 8

4. STRESS PARAMETERS FOR FATIGUE
4.1 · Stress Area
The stress areas are essentially similar to those used for static design. For a
crack starting at a weld toe, the cross-section of the member through which
propagation occurs is used. For a crack starting at the root, and propagating
through the weld throat, the minimum throat area is used, as shown in Figure Sa.
4.2 Calculation of Stress Range fl u

The force fluctuation in the structure must be calculated elastically. No plastic
redistribution is permitted.
The stress on the critical cross-section is the principal stress at the position of the
weld toe (in the case of weld toes cracks). Simple elastic theory is used assuming
plane sections remain plane, see Figure 9. The effect of the local stress
concentration caused by the weld profi1e is ignored as this is already catered for
by the parameter 'd .. which determines the weld class.
. .
In the case of throat failures, the vector•;sum of the stresses on the weld throat at-
the position of highest vector stress along the weld is used, as in static desi~n ...
Exceptions to these rules occur in the case of unstiffened joints between slender
members such as tubes. In this case the stress parameter is the Hot Spot Stress.
This stress is calculated at the point of expected crack initiation, taking into
account the tru~ elastic deformation in the
joint, i.e. not ass_uming plane sections
to remain plane. ·
4.3 Effects of Geometrical Stress Concentrations and Other, .

Effects
Where a member· has large changes in cross-section, e.g. at access holes, there ·
will be regions of stress concentration due to the change of geometry. In static
design the stresses are based on the net area as plastic redistribution will normaliy .
reduce these peaks at ultimate load. With fatigue this is not so, and if there. is ..
a welded detail in the area of the geometrical stress raiser the true stress must be ·
used, as shown in Figure 10. ·· ·
4.4 Secondary Effects

Similarly any secondary effects, such as those due to joint fixity in latticed
structures, and shear lag and other distortional effects in slender beams, are
allowed for in calculating the stresses. ·
Lecture 12.1 Page 9

=§,=r
5. LOADINGS FOR FATIGUE
5.1 Types of Loading

Examples of structures and the loads which can cause fatigue are:
Bridges: Commercial vehicles, goods trains

Cranes: Lifting, rolling and inertial loads
Offshore structures: Waves
Slender chimneys: Wind gusting
The designer's objective is to anticipate the sequence of service loading

throughout th~ structure's life. The magnitude of the peak load, which is vital
for static design purposes, is generally of little concern as it only represents one
cycle in millions. For example, highway bridge girders may experience 100
million significant cycles in their lifetime. The sequence is important because it
affects the stress range, particularly if the structure is loaded by more than one
independent load system.
· For convenience, loadings are usually simplified into a load spectrum, which
defines a series of bands of constant load levels, ·and the number of times that ·
each band is experienced, as shown in Figure 11 .
. Slender structures, with natural frequencies low enough to respond to the loading
frequency, may suffer dynamic magnification of stress. This magnification can
shorten the life considerably.
A useful source of information on fatigue loading is Eurocode 1 [2].
5.2 Cycle Cou·nting

In practice most stress histories in real structures are of the variable amplitude
type; shown in Figure 12; as opposed to the constant amplitude shown in
Figure 4. Such histories pose a problem in defining the number.and amplitude
of the cycles •.
The first step is to break the sequence into· a stress spectrum as shown in
Figure 12 using a cycle counting method. There are various methods in use.
The two most used are the Rainflow Method and the Reservoir Method. The
latter, which is easy to use by hand for short stress histories, is described in
Lecture 12.2. The former is more convenient for analysing long stress histories
· . using a computer.
Lecture 12.1 "', Page 10

#=P
6. CALCULATION OF DAMAGE
Under variable amplitude loading the life is estimated by calculation of the total
damage done by each cycle in the stress spectrum. In practice the spectrum is
simplified into a manageable number of bands, as shown in Figure 13.
n
The damage done by each band in the spectrum is defined as N where n is
the required number of cycles in the band during the design life and N is the
endurance under that. stress range, see Figure 14.
If failure is to be prevented before the end of the specified design life, the
Palmgren-Miner's Rule must be compiled with. This rule states that the damage
done ~y all bands together must not exceed unity, i.e.:
n2
+ - + •••••••
N2
It should be noted that, when variable amplitude loading occurs, the bands in the
spectrum with Aa values· less than~a0 may still cause damage. Damage occurs
because the larger amplitude cycles may start to propagate the crack. Once it
starts to grow lower cycles become effective. In this case, the horizontal. constant
amplitude fatigue limit Aa0 shown in Figure 5, is replaced by a sloping line with
a log gradient of
1
m + 2
Lecture 12.1 Page 11

#,=P
• Fatigue and static failure (whether by rupture or buckling) are dependent
on very different factors, namely:
Fatigue depends on the whole service loading sequence (not one

extreme load event).
Fatigue of welds is not improved by better mechanical

properties.
Fatigue is very sensitive to. the geometry of details.
Fatigue requires more accurate prediction of elastic stress.
Fatigue makes more demands on workmanship and inspection.
It is therefor~ important to check early in the design whether fatigue _is

likely to be critical. Acceptable margins of safety against static collapse
cannot be relied upon to give adequate safety against fatigue.
Areas with a high live/dead stress ratio and low_ category 36 details
should be checked first. The check must cover any welded. attachment
to a member, however insignificant, -and not just the main ·structural
connections. Note that this check should include welded additions to the
structure in service.
If fatigue is critical, then the choice of details will be limited. Simplicity.

of detail and smoothness of stress path should be sought.
• Be prepared for fatigue critical structures to cost more.

8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1:

General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN 1992.
[2] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in

preparation).

9. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Maddox, SJ. "Fatigue Strength of Welded Structures", Cambridge,
Abington Publishing, 1991. ·
2. Gurney, T. R., "Fatigue of Welded Structures'\ 2nd ed., Cambridge

University Press, 1991.
3. Narayanan, R. (ed), "Structures Subjected to Repeated Loading",

London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1991.

.,,:p
Toe
Crack
Butt weld {Full penetration)
Toe
Root
Fillet weld
Figure 1 Local stress concentrations at welds
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Actual
stresses
CJ .
CJ
-~
0
Mean
stress ·- -- -
Figure 2 Typical stress distribution at weld toe
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Crack
size Failure~
Number of cycles N
Figure 3 Typical cra·ck growth curve ..

..
• ··~ f •
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Stress a
-------- Maximum str,ss
Stress
Mean stress
range CJ'r
Minimum stress
I
.I
I
0 .1 2 3 4
Cycles N
Figure 4 Cons·tant amplitude stress history
#=P
.. .
Lecture 12.1
Stress
range
Aar
line
Static
Typical
failure
scatter
in data Non-propagating
stress a0
t
10 7
.. Cycles N
Figure· 5 Typical S-N curve for .. cQn,stant amplitude

tests
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Fatigue strength
N/mm 2
{at 10 6 cycles)
Structural
steels
600 I< >~
400
Plain
Notched
200
I
0
200 · · 400 600 800
Ultimate strength N/mm 2 ·
Figure 6 Effect of mechanical strength
Jt
,,..,sp
Lecture 12.1
Stress range
aa (N/mm2)
1000
500
100
Cut-off limit
50
o....____________.___....____.....,____
~
2 5 ·
10 4 10 5 10 5 ...- 10 6
N Cycles
Figure 7 Family of design S-N curves
,,- .
Lecture 12.1
.
=p
Cat 36
Cat 36
Fillet welded lap joint Partial penetration bu!t

(Cruciform)
Cat 45 Cat 50
t and t c ~ 20"""
Edge attachment Cover plate

..
end
~ ~ .:_
Aa Cat 80 or cat" 11
' Crack in . plate

Cat 71
~
Aa
._
Aa
{ I
~7 r I
Aa
-+-
Short attachments Transverse butt

away from edge weld on backing bar
Lecture 12.1
Cat 112 to Cat 80
Transverse butt weld

(Welded from both sides)
Cat 125 to Cat 100
Longitudinal Welds
Cat 80 Crack in stud

(shear)
Stud connector
Figure Sb Some common detail types

and their classes
#=P
Lecture 12.1
p M
aa = -+-
A Z
M M
_ ·figure ·9 Design stress parame.ter for crack·s

propagating in parent· material · -
# -
-p
.
.
Lecture 12.1
Use this
stress
Welded
-detail _.
~
_.
Aa ._ Hole _. Aa
Figure 10 : Design stress parameter for~- cracks·

initiating at geometrical stress
concentrations
# .
.
.
-=P
Le·cture 12.1
Load
w
Ws
Number of cycles
Figure 11 Typical load - spectrum- for: design
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Stress
a
' y
4 Cycles
.Time
Figure 12 Variable amplitude stress history and,

resulting stress spectrum
#=P
Lecture 12.1
Stress
range aa
iri real life
Simplified spectrum for design
purposes
· Band
n~ ns
Number of cycles
Figure 13 Simplification of stress spectrum
# ..
-p
=
Lecture 12.1
Stress
range csR
I
I
I
-----r-----
1. I
I I
----.!------4----
1 I
'+' :
I I I
----~-----~----+------.
I I I I
----,-----.----,-------
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
------
I I I I
5,10 6
Number of cycles
Figure 14 Determination of endurance-: for each band
# -
-p .
.
Lecture · 12.1
2
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Good Design Practice for Fatigue Design

ECCS EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK
CECM CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DE LA CONSTRUCTION METALLIQUE
E K S EUROPAISCHE KONVENTION FOR STAHLBAU
ECCS - Technical Committee 6 - Fatigue
Good Design Practice

A Guideline for Fatigue Design
FIRST EDITION
2000 N°105
2000. .RePr@ EPFL
CONTENTS
FATIGUE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DETAILS
- General design strategies
- Design of details
FACTORS AFFECTING FABRICATION AND ERECTION
- Fabrication quality
- Weld execution
"'·•
..
Good design practice 25
3 FATIGUE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DETAILS

3.1 GENERAL DESIGN STRATEGIES
3.1.1 Infinite Life Design
In this design approach, all relevant fatigue actions should be less than the fatigue endurance limit or, in a
fracture mechanics assessment, the threshold stress intensity factor.. The requirements resulting from this
design strategy are given in EC3-1-l, Paragraph 9.1.4 in terms of a stress range or stress cycles limit. A
high survival probability can be expected from structures designed in this way and no regular fatigue
monitoring needs to be specified.
3.1.1 Safe life design

This method is based on the calculation of damage during the structure's design life using standard lower
bound strength data and an upper bound estimate of fatigue loading. This wiII provide a conservative
estimate of fatigue life, longer than the design life. Structures designed this way have a high survival
probability, however, lower than those designed for infinite life design, and no regular fatigue monitoring
needs to be specified.
3.1.2 Fail Safe Design
This type of design strategy can be applied only to redundant structural details, which means statically
indeterminate structures (internally and/or externally). In case of a component failure, a redistribution of
forces occurs resulting in a prolonged lifetime. The failure may then be detected and the struciJre repaired.
In this design, there is a significant probability of failure of a component. The failure probability of the
whole structure is, however, very low assuming that the structure is regularly inspected and has proper
maintenance procedures.
3.1.3 Damage Tolerant Design

In damage tolerant design it is assumed that cracks that are big enough for detection with non-destructive
testing method can be present in the structure. Since it is difficult to detect small cracks, the use of highly
crack tolerant, i.e. tough materials, is recommended. The lifetime of the structure can be computed using
probabilistic fracture mechanics methods, thus aliowing for determination of inspection intervals. The
inspection intervals are a function of the level of failure probability considered. Since the consequence of
failure is included in the analysis, this design strategy can be applied to both redundant and non-redundant
structures, which is not the case with a fail safe design. Once a crack is detected, a decision is taken. The
influence of the decision on the failure probability can be modelied by updating the probabilistic fracture
mechanics model used. Examples of decisions are (non-exhaustive list) : to take no action at all, to increase
inspection intervals, to repair the crack, to change the component.
3.2 DESIGN OF DETAILS
3.2.1 General observations
Fatigue loaded structures should be designed with· the aim of avoiding severe stress concentration details
[L3, L21, L26]. Stress concentrations depend on the shape of the component and on the manufacturing
process. They occur at comers, loading positions, abrupt section changes, etc. (refer to Fig. 3.1 ). In many
cases, they can be avoided or their negative effects reduced through adequate design, as shown in Figs. 3.1
and 3.2. Moreover, designers should avoid structural discontinuities-such as welds-in highly stressed
regions.
Good fatigue resistant design includes the following precautions :
• Change detail from a welded to a bolted shear connection.
• Put details in zones near the neutral axis.
ECCSN° 105
26 Good design practice
• Design details where bending moment" is minimised, for instance by avoiding misalignment or offset,
which causes secondary bending stresses (example: converging axes of truss diagonals and chords).
• Avoid the combination of several stress concentrations in the same region, like welds in zones affected
by holes (Fig. 3.2), tapering, attachments, etc., as this increases further the stress concentration factor.
• Specify full penetration welds in all highly loaded joints.
• Put details in regions where the mean stress is compressive.
• Do not hesitate to avoid using a stiffener, except at supports, if the self-weight increase of the panel
without stiffeners is only 10 to 15 % more than the weight of the original stiffened panel (web and
flanges); this design will, in the end, be more economical and fatigue resistant.
• Ensure that support stiffeners are at the axes of the supports.
Improved solution ►
D
I- --1
1:4 to 1:5
~ ~- --1
I
II
~1- I-~------
---- 1-
---
Figure 3.1: Ways of improving tlze design by reducing tlze structural stress concentrations [L21]
i1 le---- Ii
l
◄
:
Improved solution
t
►
Figure 3.2: Improving the design by moving the weld outside the stress concentration area [L21]
When considering the local geometry of welds, it should be noted that high local stress peaks are essentially
produced by non-smooth transitions between the plate surface and the weld flank (refer to Fig. 3.1 ). In the
case of transverse joints, high local peak stresses can also result from large joint w~dths (see Fig 3.5). For
longitudinal joints, the start-stop points due to the welding process are always sites of local stress peaks and
therefore possible crack initiation sites. Local stress peaks also occur at notches in gas cut plates (drag
lines). These local notches can remain even after a,gas cut plate has been welded to another member, for
example, in the gap between longitudinal fillet welds in a web to flange joint (refer to figure 4.1 b ).
3.2.2 Parts welded longitudinally or transverse to stress direction

3.2.2:1 Non-load-carrying parts
It can be seen in the classification tables in EC3-1- l [SI] or in [S2, L15, L16] that (non-load-carrying)
attachments should be connected by a weld transverse to the force flow rather than by a_ weld parallel to the
force flow, as shown in Fig. 3.3. This is because the deflection of the stress lines is smaller if a short
ECCS N° 105
'\.,..
distance between start and end of the stress deflection exists. The length of a longitudinal attachment (the
longest dimension parallel to the force flow) should be not exceed 50 mm to be classified in the best detail
category [SI, S9, L15, L16].
Preferred!
Figure 3.3: Non-load carrying attachments
For vertical T stiffener connections on the bottom flange, for example in bridge girders, the stiffener flange
should be cut according to Fig. 3.4.
·---.A A-A
, lr:_ao mm t
• .. 60°
a) Rolled T stiffener
8-8
t
___ ____. B ~~20 mm
b) Built-up T stiffener
Figure 3.4: Connection of a vertical T stiffener on bottom flange
For transverse joints, the overall joint width should be minimised as much as possible, for example, by ·
using partial penetration welds instead of fillet welds when multi-pass welds are needed (refer to Fig. 3.5).
ECCSN° 105
For longitudinal attachments, significant improvement in the fatigue strength can be achieved by shaping
the ends of the gusset and grinding properly the weld toe as well, see Section 3.2.6.
Preferred
L ... <L ►
►
Figure 3.5: Minimisation of transverse joint width
3.2.2.2 Load carrying parts
Load carrying fillet and partial penetration welds should be classified in class 36 of EC3- l- t [St]. To
ensure equal probability of failure from the weld toe or the weld root, the following critetj!1 should be
applied [L33] (refer also to Fig. 3.6) :
• For fillet welds, the weld leg length should be at least 1,2 times the plate thickness of the loaded plate.
• For partial penetration welds, the total weld throat size (of both welds) should be at least 1,7 times the
plate thickness of the loaded plate.
~ 1.7/2 t
, t ~ 1.2 t
:t t
a) Fillet welds b) Partial penetration welds
Figure 3.6: Load carrying parts
ECCSN° 105
3.2.3 Cover plates

Cover plates are generally used for the strengthening of flanges.
To avoid corrosion problems and achieve better fatigue
resistance, cover plates on beams and plate girders should be
designed with end welds (see EC~-1-1 and EC3-2, Table 9.8.5).
The width of the cover plate should be less than the width of the
flange. If the thickness of the cover plate is more than the
thickness of the flange, the ends of the cover plate should be
tapered at a slope of 1/4 (Fig. 3.7). Cover plate ends can also be
tapered in width for a smoother stress transition, but no increase
in the detail category can be made for the improved shape. Since
cover plates have a low fatigue strength [L13], it is recommended Figure 3.7: Cover plate tapering
not to use cover plates if possible, but instead, plates of varying
thickness.
When strengthening a structure, the cover plates should be
designed in the following way :
The end of the cover plate should not be welded on its ends but
connected with HSFG bolts (Fig. 3.8). The number of bolts is to
.be calculated according the actual force in the cover plate. The
fillet welds along the sides of the cover plate should be executed
with equal thickness and· drawn up to the last bolt line, but not
further. The end of the plate shall not be welded. Warning: This
type of connection does not conform to [S2] and [S3].
Fig.3.8: Cover plate with HSFG bolts
3.2.4 Welding near plate edges

Free edges of plates should be kept free of welding if
possible. Weld ends should be distanced at least 10 mm
from an edge to avoid local stress concentrations (Fig. 3.9)
and edge defects induced by welding. See EC3- l- l,
Table 9.8.3 and 9.8.4 [Sl]. Welds may, however, be
placed closer to free edges as they have been shown not to
reduce fatigue strength as long as they are well executed
with, in particular, no undercut. These welds shall be
controlled and any edge defects shall be ground to result Figure 3.9: Welding near plate edges
in a smooth transition.
,3.2.5 Lap joints

3.2.5.1 Single lap joints
Unsymmetric overlapping joints (one shear plane, without additional elements to stiffen the joint) should be
avoided whenever possible. This type of joint is not permitted in components of bridge structures subject to
fatigue (Fig. 3.10). The reason is the non-negligible bending stresses that occur in addition to the normal
stresses. The fillet welds have the tendency to peel off from the plate due !O stresses perpendicular to the
plate surface. [S2, S9].
ECCSN° 105
3.2.5.2 Double lap joints
Such joints should be avoided due to their low fatigue category and also because efficient protection against
corrosion of these joints is very difficult or impossible to ensure (see Figure 3.10).
·Avoid
Corrosion
protection !
a) Single lap joints b) Double lap joints
Figure 3.10: Lap joints
3.2.6 Transition corners

Transition comers should be as smooth as possible and have the largest possible radius. The ends of gusset
plates_ welded on or to the edge of a plate can be shaped so as to create transition comers thus reducing
stress concentration and eliminating weld toe defects. Tra~sition comers should be built up by welding
prior to grinding and including the weld toe in the final radius (see Fig. 3.11 ). The mi!}imum radius to
which transition comers can be applied (in order to achieve significant fatigue strength improvement) is
15 mm [L33]. In the case of a gusset welded to the edge of a plate, the best detail category is obtained if the
radius is larger than 1/3 of the width of the flange or plate. See EC3-1-l, Table 9.8.4 [Sl].
Corner built up by
Ensure smooth transition between
welding prior to full penetration and fillet welds
grinding including
weld toe
·◄-- •.
·-=~--Grinding extension Preferred
- . ·--"'·
'
-► ◄·· t-------....--,
20mm
Corner built up by Weld type, see above
welding prior to
grinding including
weldtoe ~
_-1r--,,i::-~~~==~:....i,..-....
~
.
---------------
I
~ '~-------
"Figure 3.11 : Rounding of corners Figure 3.12: Notches in I-beams
ECCS N° 105
\
Notches in rolled I-beams should be rounded in such a way that the straight edges will be tangent to the
rounding radius, but not radial running to the centre of the rounding circle (Fig.3.12) [L 12]. Gas cut corners
should be ground to eliminate surface defects (drag lines); grinding should be extended 20 mm beyond the
ends of the transition radius.
3.2.7 _Bolted connections.
Bolted connections in fatigue loaded structures should be executed either with fitted bolts or with HSFG
bolts (preloaded bolts). Bolted connections - especially if the bolts are in tension - should be designed to
avoid the occurrence of prying forces. Bolts loaded in tension shall be fully preloaded [SI]. Compared to
tension connections, shear connections are less susceptible to fatigue, especially when the forces are always
acting in the same direction. Thus, in the case of shear connections with forces always acting in the same
direction, normal bolts may also be used.
Care should be taken with preloaded ·bolt connections where the total thickness of the assembled plates is
less than 40 mm since a significant loss in pretension may occur with time. These connections should be
regularly inspected. Moreover, the application of zinc paint as corrosion protection before connection of the
plates is not advised, because it results in an increased loss in pretension.
3.2.8 Cables and anchoring of cables

Cables are understood in this document to be elements made out of cold drawn steel (high strength grade)
and able to take tension forces only. Any compression force will reduce tension and thus result in
increasing sag and slackening of the element. Since fluctuating loads on cables only produce tension
stresses, the stress ratio R is positive in any case.
As it is laid down in Section 2.4.2, any defect like a notch or crack has a major influence on the fatigue
strength, especially in the case of high strength steels used for wires of cables Therefore, it is esse~tial to
avoid any factor that may cause such defects. Pressure on cables from sharp edges, tools or similar during
erection also has_ to be prevented by means of constructional detailing (sufficient rounding of anchorage,
sockets, saddles, clamps) or appropriate tools. Special care should be given when lifting and dragging or
hauling cables not to demolish the smooth wire surface of the strands.
Furthermore, special care is needed with respect to the socket filling process. In many cases the zinc coated
wires are cleaned by aggressive acids before being placed into the socket and cast. If spots of such acid are
not washed away, especially in the socket neck, this will cause rusting and corrosion notches. The socket
outlet region of the strands should be therefore examined very carefully. Nevertheless, adequate corrosion
protection must be applied and maintained over the total length of the cable.
Defects of cable wires cannot be repaired in most cases. As one wire in a cable is a very small part of the
whole cross section, rupture of one wire weakens the total strength of the cable by only a small percentage.
However, it is postulated that no chain reaction of ruptures occurs, and that the force of the broken wire can
be transmitted to the surrounding wires by friction. In the case where more than one wire is ruptured, the
entire cable strand must be replaced [S2].
3.2.9 Tie rods and prestressing rods
_Tie rods and prestressing rods are designed to carry tension forces only. If compression forces are acting,
the total effective tension is reduced. Due to the stiffness of such elements, compression forces can be
resisted as long as no buckling occurs. For fatigue design, the principles that were presented in the previous
section on cables should be also followed for rods.
For rods with threaded parts, the threads shall be milled and not cut-out. Prying effects should be avoided in
rods as bending causes additional stress variations especially· in fatigue critical zones. Rods should be
loaded axially and not eccentrically.
ECCSN° 105
3.2.10 Orthotropic decks

The plates used in orthotropic decks should not be thin nor too slender to avoid fatigue problems. Stiffness
criteria to avoid fatigue cracking are given in EC3-2, Annex G [S2]. More information can also be found in
a recent guide for detailing orthotropic decks written for the Gennan Ministry of Transport [L39].
3.2.11 Hollow Section Structures

For structures or parts of structures made from hollow sections, for example trusses, special literature
exists. CIDECT (Comite International pour le Developpement et l'Etude des Constructions Tubulaires) has
produced a series of design guides. A new guide for designing hollow sections joints under fatigue loading
(Guide N° 8) is in preparation, see reference [L40] for more infonnation.
A summary of the most classical hollow section joints and their detail categories can be found in the tables
of EC3-1- l. Special care should be taken to the welding procedures and sequence of welding, to preheating
and fitting tolerances. In these joints, the stress concentration factor ~s mainly due to geometry, not to weld
notch effects. Full penetration welds should be executed preferably, however these can result in fabrication
and inspection difficulties. For example, cutting an elliptical opening in a hollow section in order to allow
access to the inside to facilitate welding and inspection of the but welds, and closing this opening with a
weld after fabrication is complete, can result in poor fatigue resistance.
In cases where fillet welds are used, the weld size shall be equal to the wall size of the attached elements.
ECCS N° 105
',"'
4 FACTORS-AFFECTING FABRICATION AND ERECTION

4.1 FABRICATION QUALITY
Welds should meet the requirements of the different parts of Eurocode 3 (the chapters concerning fatigue,
information found in the detail category tables) or of existing guides on quality levels for various features
(defects, flaws, imperfections), fof example EN 25817 for arc-welded joints in steel [S24]. Any fault in
workmanship may potentially reduce the fatigue strength of a detail. Good workmanship, on the contrary,
will result in an increase in the fatigue strength, often above the characteristic S-N curves given in the
codes. These curves correspond to lower bound test results obtained from average fabrication quality
details. Even though good workmanship cannot be quantified in order to be used in fatigue assessments-
S-N curves refer to failure from undetectable defects/flaws--it can be considered a welcome supplementary
safety margin.
The good workmanship criteria, however, on which the weld quality specifications of the codes and
standards are based are sometimes not directly related to the effect of the feature specified on fatigue ·
strength (or any other strength criteria) [L33].
Faults in workmanship proven to be detrimental to fatigue strength include the following [L21, L26]:
• Weld spatter.
• Accidental arc strikes.
• Unauthorised attachments.
• Corrosion pitting.
• Weld flaws, particularly in transverse butt welds.
• Poor fit-up.
• Notches, sharp edges.
• Eccentricity and misalignment.
• Distortion.
These workmanship faults should be eliminated through continual education of the welders, their superiors
and adequate inspection.
As some of the weld requirements may be irrelevant to fatigue, or indeed insufficiently stringent to meet
the fatigue strength represented by the relevant fatigue design S-N curves, an approach for quantifying the
consequences of not meeting the requirements from the codes exists. The approach is called fitness-for-
purpose and is described in section 7 .1.
4.2 WELD EXECUTION

4.2.1 General observations
The execution of welding should follow Eurocode 3 and ENV 1090 - execution of steel structures - rules.
Part 1 of ENV 1090 [S 16] covers both general rules and rules for _buildings, but does not cover steel
structures susceptible to fatigue. Hence, execution requirements for welding of runway beams and elements
of buildings that support cranes are not covered~ For welds subjected to fatigue, Part 5 of ENV I 090 covers
requirements for the weld execution of bridges and, by extension, all steel structures susceptible to fatigue.
In all cases the following princjples are deemed as minimum standards [Ll6] :
• Butt welds with partial penetration (as opposed to full penetration welds) shall be treated as fillet welds.
• In butt welds, welds smaller than the plate thickness are not advised.
• Leg size of fillet welds should not vary by more than IO % along the weld length.
• Transverse butt welds may have concavity of weld surface if:
- length of concavity in weld direction is not longer than plate thickness, t,
ECCSN° 105
- depth of concavity is not more than 0, 1 t,

- remaining weld thickness is not less than t.
• Undercut:
- for transverse welds : visible undercut not permitted for detail categories higher than 56. For detail
categories not more than 56, depth of undercut shall not exceed 0,05 t or 0,5 mm.
- for longitudinal welds : undercut depth shall not exceed 0, I t or 1 mm.
• Depth of slag inclusions appearing at weld surface should be treated like undercut. Size of hidden slag
inclusions should not exceed double size of permitted undercut depth. Clear distance between
inclusions should be not less than nine times the size of the longest inclusion.
• Cracks detected by non destructive testing (NDT) methods are not advised and must either be shown to
be harmless by a fitness-for-purpose assessment or be repaired (refer to Chapter 7).
• Lack of fusion in full penetration butt welds is not advised.
• Small, distributed gas pores can be left without assessment or reparation, providing that the maximum
diameter of the largest pore does not exceed 0,25 t or 3 mm, and that the conditions in Table 4.1 .are
observed [LI 6] .....
Table 4.1: Limitations in pore sizes
Detail category Max. % of projected surface area

below 71 5%
71-90 3%
above 90 Gas inclusions not permitted
Weld execution is verified using NDT methods. Different methods exist; these methods are described
briefly in Section 4.3.
4.2.2 Drag lines in gas cut material
As drag lines in gas cut edges with depth exceeding 0,3 mm reduce the fatigue strength, they shall be
ground to result in a smooth transition (Fig. 4.la). Drag line flaws shall not be filled up with weld material
without reconsidering a new detail category [S9].
Drag lines can remain even after a gas cut plate has been welded to another member. In case of severe drag
lines, a reduction of the original fatigue strength of the detail is possible. A typical example is the web to
flange joint made with longitudinal fillet welds (Fig 4.1 b ).
a) Plate b) Web to flange joint
Figure 4.1 :Drag lines in gas cut material
ECCSN° 105
4.2.3 Stop/start positions of welds

Start-stop positions of continuous welds are only permitted
if such points are melted and sealed correctly at new start
(Fig. 4.2) [S9]. Start-stop positions are to be avoided in
high stress concentration zones,, for example ends of
longitudinal attachments.
Stop-Start-
Positions to be
melted and sealed
Fig.4.2: Stop/start positions of welds

4.2.4 Cope holes
Cope holes, also called mouse holes, are often used in web to flange joints. This detail has been shown to
result in a reduction in fatigue strength when the loading produces significant shear as well as bending
stress [L33]. Therefore, this detail can be used in slender beams (L/h > 12) subjected to bending, but should
be avoided in beams with significant shear. Also, the cope hole radius should be made as small as possible.
Refer to [L15] for more information.
Generally speaking, cope holes in highly stressed regions such as longitudinal fillet or butt welds should be
avoided if possible, since start-stop positions are needed and often become points of crack initiation.
Moreover, good quality corrosion protection cannot be achieved in cop·e holes. Current knowledge shows
that weld crossings resulting from the suppression of copes holes may contain welding flaws, but that such
joints are relatively tolerant to embedded flaws and that adequate welding quality can be produced without
cope holes.
4.2.5 Backing strips

Backing strips are often used for butt welds, especially in hollow section joints, and can be classified into
two groups according to their direction :
l. Transverse running butt welds with backing strips: where possible, removable backing strips should be _
used, i.e. made out of ceramics or a similar material (Fig. 4.3a). Copper backing strips can reduce the
fatigue strength, because during a long lasting welding procedure the copper may intrude into the base
material. Alternatively, permanent steel backing strips should be used.
2. Longitudinal running backing strips: removable or permanent (steel) backing strips can be used. With
permanent backing strips, problems can be encountered when the length of the weld is greater than the
length of one backing strip. Indeed, two backing strips should be joined with full penetration butt welds
in order to avoid a lack of penetration and th~ risk of cracking ~hen welding over the space between
backing strips [L33]. When properly used, permanent strips have a negligible effect on fatigue strength.
Even though_ some codes require a tight fit-up between backing bars and the plates joined, it has been
shown that this is not necessary [L33]. The positioning tack welds and fillet weld between backing strip and
base plate should lie within the butt weld (see Fig. 4.3b). Sealing welds executed on the backing bar are to
be avoided and sealing should be done using coatings.
+I_____\_[/______I+ +I__---~-...),,,_-_-~I+
C=:J
· .... tack weld executed before welding
a) Removable backing strip ~) Steel backing strip
Figure 4.3: Backing strips
ECCSN° 105
·4.2.6 Changes in width or thickness

Plates with changes in width or thickness (Fig. 4.4) should be tapered with a slope not.greater than 1:4 as
indicated in EC3-f-l, Table 9.8.3 [SI].
1:4
v~1----
1:4
Figure 4.4 : Changes in plate width or thickness
4.2. 7 Crossing of welds

Crossing of welds is allowed and even recommended for suppressing cope holes in highly stressed regions
(refer to Section 4.2.4). Start-stop positions at weld crossings is not advised.
In the case of an attachment onto a beam, the attached part should be either fitted tightly to the first weld
(Fig. 4.5a and 4.5b) or a circular cut-out should be made (Fig. 4.5c). The radius of the cut-out should be as
large as possible, minimum 35 mm, (the thicker the attached plate, the larger the radius) in order to enable
continuous welding. Fitting ~etween the plates is recommended for thick attachments.
a) View of attachment b) l'' solution c) 2nd solution
Figure 4.5: Crossing of welds for attachments
4.2.8 Fit of stiffeners

In order to have an economical detail and a better detail category for details attached to girder flanges, the
welds between the stiffeners and the flange (Fig. 4.5a) can sometimes be avoided if the end of the stiffener
is fitted to the flange (Fig. 4.6a). Another method uses a fitting plate between the stiffener and flange, fixed
to the stiffener, but not to the flange (Fig. 4.6b). These solutions are only' valid for· double-sided stiffeners.
ECCS N° 105
\ \
fitted, no weld fitted, no weld
a) Directly to the flange b) With intermediate fitting plate

Figure 4.6: Fit of stiffeners
For one-sided stiffeners and where the contact between flange and stiffener is not needed, for example if
the stiffener is only provided to avoid web buckling, a gap length of 4 times the web thickness or 60 mm,
the lesser of the two, should be left between the stiffener end and the flange (Fig. 4.7) [S9, L29].
_ _1---......_ _ ]:4t I
,,-i i',,
Figure 4.7: Stiffeners with gap
4.2.9 Welds made from one side only

Fillet welds made from one side should be executed in such a way to minimise lack of fusion-a minimum
of 80% fusion should be ensured (Fig. 4.8a). Partial penetration should be avoided whenever possible
(Fig. 4.8b). On the other hand, sagging of th~ root must be also avoided (Fig. 4.8c ). If possible, a removable
or permanent backing strip should be used [S9], see Section 4.2.5. The same goes for single side butt welds
wit~out backing strips; they should be avoided due to the asymmetry of the stress flow and presence of a
sharp notch (Fig. 4.9) [S9]. Refer also to guidelines in [L39].
a) recommended
avoid avoid
b) c)
Figure 4.8: Example offillet welds weldedfrom one side due to trapezoidal stiffener
ECCSN° 105
+-i_:_____P_:- - - - - ~ ~.__ __ ___.
\Notch
Notch/
Figure 4.9: Example of single side butt welds between two plates or hollow sections
4.2.10 Minimisation of residual stresses

Constraints in fixed parts of the structure cause residual stre~ses. It is one of the most important tasks of the
designer to minimise as much as possible all shrinkage obstacles. Guidelines are given for example in
reference [S9], Section 5.2.
In this respect, structures should be designed as flexible as possible, with a low degree of indeterminacy.
The welding procedure should be planned carefully regarding sequence and direction of runs, preheating,
tack welds, counter-curving and pre-setting. Only the minimum thickness of the welds necessary for
ultimate limit state or serviceability should be executed to avoid excessive shrinkage. However, it must be
noted that a minimum weld size dependent on the thickness of the parts to be welded is required due to the
thermal flow [S9]. Special care should be taken when austenitic steels are used.
4.2.11 Weld pre-preparation by machining

Weld edge pre-preparation by grinding or machining brings no increase in the detail category as this zone is
remelted during welding. Simple gas cutting by hand or machine is sufficient [S9].
4.2.12 Weld run-on/off pieces

The use of run-on and run-off pieces is required if the static design relies on the full strength of the weld
over the full thickness and length of the elements being joined together. This should be extended to all
elements susceptible to fatigue since these pieces secure smooth endings of weld. The temoval of run-on
and run-off pieces is to be executed carefully. These are to be cut off after welding and the remaining plate
edges ground flush.
4.2.13 Mechanical damages

Special attention should be given to damage caused
by careless handling during fabrication, transport
and erection. All notches caused by transport
chains, by marking, hammer blows, etc. shall be
removed by grinding in fatigue critical zones. As Notch by chain
general rule, no ignition prints or spatters of not permitted
electrodes are permitted on components (Fig. 4.10)
[S9].
Figure 4.10: Examples of meclza11ical damages
ECCSN° 105
\
4.2.14 Erection devices

Erection devices and details like ears, holes, Temporary lifting ear
welded attachments, and tack welds should be
treated as important as the permanent structural
details (Fig. 4.11 ). With every case the engineer
shall be informed of the proposed devices and
shall approve them before fabrication.
Such devices shall be categorised according to

Eurocode 3 if they are not r~moved after
erection. If they have to be removed after
erection, due care shall be used. Whenever
Figure 4.11: Example of erection device
possible, they are to be cut off after erection of
the element and the remaining plate edges ground flush. The removed device locations shall be examined
for cracks and any other surface defects. Those found should be repaired keeping in mind the guidelines in
Chapter 7.
Cases where part of the device remains shall be investigated according to the detail categories of
Eurocode 3.
All the same, holes drilled in elements during
erection as well as misplaced holes can cause
problems if they are filled with weld material
(Fig. 4.12). Recommendations given in Section 7.2,
repair during · fabrication or erection of new
structures, should be followed. No welding of holes
if not re-categorised!
Figure 4.12: Fill up of holes
4.3 CONTROL OF WELDING

Control of welding is performed with various techniques using the properties of magnetic materials,
penetrating dyes, radiography or ultrasounds. Each technique is described below. It should be noted that the
technique using Eddy currents cannot be applied to steel structures, as it is only valid on non-ferrous
conducting materials (aluminum, titanium). The techniques, generally more than one, to be used depend
upon the type of welded joint. For fillet welds, a complete control should include: a visual test, dimensional
measurements, a magnetic test and a ultrasonic test.
4.3.1 Visual Test (VT)
Visual testing implies careful inspection of the welded surface and surrounding zones in order to detect all
visible flaws, discontinuities, corrosion marks, big cracks, surface porosity, weld splatter etc. For better
results, good lighting and a magnifying glass (from 2 - IO x magnification) should be used.
The results of inspection should be recorded by writing and, in some cases, by micro-photography.
4.3.2 Magnetic Test (MT)
Magnetic particle testing requires application of a magnetic sensitive media on the detail, then subjecting
the detail to a magnetic field and looking for field anomalies. This method can only be applied to fe.rrous
materials. With this method, cracks and pores at the weld surface (with AC or DC current) or up to 2 mm in
ECCSN° 105
depth (only with an AC current) can be detected but not the ones located in the depth of the material. The
minimum detectable size of flaw depends markedly on the surface conditions.
The results of testing should be recorded by writing. .
4.3.3 Dye penetration Test (PT)

Dye penetration testing involves applying a dye to the detail that penetrates into the flaws, carefully wiping
off surplus dye from the examination zone surface, then either. applying developer powder that soaks dye
from flaws, or using a UV lamp to detect fluorescent penetrated locations. Only surface defects can be seen
with this method, but it is applicable to all non-porous. materials, such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Detectable flaw sizes are similar to the MT method and also depend markedly on the surface conditions.
The results of testing should be recorded by writing. As surface discontinuities are decisive for fatigue
lifetime, VT, MT and PT are very important NDT methods.
4.3.4 Radiographic Test (RT)

Radiographic methods involve placing a source of X-rays or gamma;rays on one side of the detail and a
photographic film on the other side, thereby getting a 2D picture of the internal structure. One important
difference between these two methods is that the X-rays source is an electrical machine whereas the
gamma-rays source is a radioactive substance. They both are used to detect volumetric defects inside the
material. The limitations are their poor ability to detect tight cracks, small cracks and other planar defects
lying at an angle to the radiation beam. As the contrast between parent material and defects dirriinishes with
thickness, these methods cannot be used for thick plates. Considering cost, portability, reliability, they
should not be used on steel welds thicker than about 30 mm. Some difficulties, especially on site work,
arise from the use of ionising radiation sources. This requires special safety precautions such as : lead
shielding, warning signs, barrier around the working area, radiation monitoring devices, etc.
After testing, the results recorded on a photographic film can be compared to reference records. The film
must be placed directly on the plate or weld surface whereas the radiation source can be located at some
distance from the detail.
4.3.5 Ultrasonic Test (UT)

Ultrasonic testing is done by sending a beam of ultrasound in the detail using a small probe (the transducer)
coupled to the surface by a layer of liquid. The pulse of the ultrasound reflected back from flaws or surfaces
is picked up by the same probe and displayed -on an oscilloscope screen. Different probes exist, but not all
types of weld geometry can be examined with UT. Ultrasonic testing is used to detect planar defects inside
the material ; it is less efficient in detecting volumetric defects because of the dispersion in the reflected
ultrasound. For thin plates, thickness below ca. 10 mm, this test gives poor results. Application of UT
requires experience in interpreting the oscillogram .screen display. The surface of the plate or weld where
the transducer is to be placed has to be prepared (deaned or ground). Ultrasonic inspection of austenitic
steels welds is more difficult compared to other steel welds, because of the microstructure of such welds.
In most case, the results are documented by writing~
ECCSN° 105
3
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Basic Fatigue Design Concepts in Eurocode 3
Stress range
Ao(N/mm ~
1
r
~ ·
Detail category
Consteint eimplitude
fatigue limit
Cut-off limit
50
m=8
0 -+-----,------,-r~-...__,------+--------
10 4 10 5 101$2 51oe 10"
N Cycles
Figure 7 Family of design S-N curves

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRACTICAL IMPLICATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA
3. DESIGN STRESS SPECTRUM
4.FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES CLASSIFICATION CONCEPT
5. FATIGUE TEST RESULTS
6. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE RULE, EQUIVALENT STRESS RANGE CONCEPT
7. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECT
9. REFERENCES
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
This lecture contains the background information of the basis of the Eurocode 3 rules
concerning the fatigue design of structural elements.
SUMMARY
The lecture discusses the main fatigue design rules contained in Eurocode 3 [1]. These
fatigue design rules are based on fatigue test results obtained mainly under constant
amplitude loading. The classification of a given detail, either welded or bolted, results
from a statistical evaluation of the fatigue test data with a 95 % probability ofsurvival for
a 75% confidence interval. The evaluation is compared with a set of equally spaced S-N
curves with a slope constant of m = 3.
Explanation is given on the choice of a normalised double-slopes S-N curve. Then

several factors, introduced in Eurocode 3 (1), ·aff~g ·the fatigue strength are also
discussed.
Lecture 12.8 Page2

#=P
1. INTRODUCTION
The principal objective of this lecture is to review the main rules which are the
basis for Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3 [ 1] concerning the fatigue strength assessment
of steel structural details.
The main provisions of Eurocode 3 [l] rely upon a set of fatigue resistance
curves, equally spaced, upon which are classified a set of constructional details.
The concept for fatigue strength design follows the Recommendations of the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS). The
Recommendations [2] define a set of equally spaced fatigue strength curves with
a constant slope of m = 3 (for normal stress), or m = 5 (for shear stress, hollow ·
section joints, and some particular details).
In addition to this approach another concept supported mainly by recent

developments and research in the field of fatigue for "offshore" structures is
referred to in Eurocode 3 as the geometrical stress concentration concept (also
called the "hot spot stress'" method).
To determine the fatigue strength provisions given in Eurocode 3, a compilation

of fatigue data of various sources was carried out. This work has provided an
opportunity to re-evaluate existing fatigue test data and allowed for a more
consistent approach to the classification of detail categories.
Lecture 12.8 · Page 3 -=§,=p·

2. PRACTICAL IMPLICATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA
2.1 Main Factors Affecting the Fatigue Strength

Fatigue of steel structural components, especially welded steel details, is a
particularly complex problem, and many factors may exert an influence on the
fatigue life. Table 1 lists a non-exhaustive inventory of these various factors and
those which are taken into account either explicitly or implicitly in Chapter 9 of
Eurocode 3 are indicated.
Whilst some factors are dealt with in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3, other factors,
particularly those related to fabrication are considered in an implicit manner
through defined discontinuities or weld defects acceptance criteria and quality
control requirements. These general requirements will be defined in a standard
concerning the "Execution of steel structures".
'
Lecture 12.8 Page4

.,,:p
Table 1 The main factors affecting fatigue strength
Designation of the factors affecting the fatigue strength Taken into

account in
Eurocode 3
Stress
• Stress or strain range *

• Stress sequence
• Frequency (no significant effect when < 40 Hz in a
non corrosive environment)
• Mean stress (no effect in heat affected zone due to *
residual stresses)
• Residual stresses *
Geometry
• Nominal or geometrical stress *

• Local stress concentration *
• Small discontinues *(implicit)
- scratches
- grinding marks
- surface pittings
- weld defects or misalignments
• Size effect (or scale effect) *
Material Properties and Fabrication
• Stress-strain behaviour of materials

• Hardness
• Chemical composition of steels
. Metallurgical homogeneity
• Electrical potential
• Micro structural discontinuities (grain size, grain
boundaries)
• Welding process
• Weld heat treatment
• Weld surface treatment
Environment
• Corrosive atmosphere *(implicit)

• Temperature *(implicit)
. Humidity (hydrogen embrittlement)
• Irradiation
Lecture 12.s Page 5

#=P
2. 2 Fatigue Failure Criteria
In the preparation of Eurocode 3, classification into detail categories was
established from a statistical analysis of fatigue test data obtained from various
laboratory sources. To obtain more homogeneous samples of the test results,
particular attention was paid to failure criteria considered in these tests.
Several failure criteria may be adopted to characterize the experimental failure

condition at the end of a fatigue test in the laboratory. Three criteria are
generally considered:
First appearance of a crack either detected visually or detected by means

of a physical measure, e.g. by the record of a change in the local strain
condition.
Through-thickness crack: the fatigue crack starts from the front surface
and grows through the thickness of the test piece and reaches the back
surface. '
Complete fracture of the tested specimen or large. displacement of the
tested structural element such that the displacement becomes so important
that the apnlied "jack load" cannot be maintained. When performing a
fatigue test on a beam, the failure may be conventionally defined as the
a
point when the mid-span deflection reaches certain limit.
Generally for small scale specimens, the difference between the fatigue life at
complete fracture and at a more realistic tolerable fatigue crack size is negligible.
However, in a large scale structural element tested in fatigue the difference may
be highly significant.
In Eurocode 3, the fatigue strength refers to the complete failure of the structural
element. This condition corresponds, usually, to the criterion generally adopted
by structural laboratories or reported in literatur~.
2.3 Design Stresses for Fatigue A~sessment

Different stresses may affect the fatigue strength classification of a structural
detail. For a particular detail, the various origins of stresses have to be identified
in order to define more precisely the design stresses for the fatigue assessment
concepts involved in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3.
a. Nominal Stress
Consider a uniform structural member subjected to a simple axial force

or to a bending moment. The nominal stress is the stress resultant
calculated according to the basic strength of material (Figure 1).
. Lecture 12. 8 Page6 =176:p

The nominal stress of a member under uni-axial stress is:
N
= A
(2.1)
where N is the normal force and A the gross section area.
For a prismatic member section under a bending moment, the stress

resultant is:
M. V
= "(2.2)
I
where:
M is the applied bending moment

I is the moment of inertia of the section
v is the distance from the neutral axis to the outmost fibre.
b. Stress concent~ation effect due to geometrical discontinuities
There are three main sources which can create a state of stress
concentration in a structural detail:
• The global geometry of the structural element which contains the

structural detail, e.g. attachments on a beam web or gusset plates
on a beam flange.
The local stress concentration due to local disturbance of the

weld geometry, bolt holes, local variation in stiffness, etc... For
example, if a hole is drilled in a plate, the stress distribution
across the section containing the hole will be different from the
nominal stress distribution existing in the plain plate cross-
section. An important stress gradient will occur in the vicinity of
the hole. This geometrical stress concentration is due to both the
decrease. from the gross section to the net section and to the
stress "raiser" (concentrator) caused by the presence of the hole
(Figure 1).
The local stress concentration due to local discontinuities

occurring during fabrication (misalignment, surface scratch,
pitting, weld defect, etc).
In many cases, and by simplification, the geometric stress concentration

is usually calculated on the basis of the nominal stress applied to the
gross section area and the stress concentration factor lea, as:
= {2.3)
Lecture 12.8 Page 7

=#=P
This structural geometrical stress concentration, which is defined as the·
maximum principal stress existing in the vicinity of the detail, may be
evaluated from experimental tests or from finite element methods.
The local stress concentration is present in addition to the structural

geometric stress concentration and may be due to local disturbances of
the local geometry of the detail such as:
local cross-section change (geometry of welds for example).
local geometrical imperfections such as misalignment.
small local discontinuities inherent to the action of the

· environment or of the fabrication process such corrosion pits,
surface scratches, drag lines due to flame cutting, grinding
marks, welding process defects such as undercut, lack of
penetration, lack of . fusion, slag inclusions, porosities,
hydrogen-induced cracking, etc. These very small discontinuities
are present in every element of engineering structures. Their
presence determines a potential location for initiation of a fatigue
crack.
Local stress concentrations are taken into account in an implicit manner

in the derivation of the S-N curve from fatigue test results. Great care
must be taken when assessing fatigue strength from tests on small scale
specimens instead of large scale specimens. The scale effect due to weld
geometry may have a greater influence on the fatigue strength in small
test specimens than in large test specimens.·
Usually, fatigue specimens have been tested with inherent discontinuities,

and fatigue strength curves, so derived, make allowance for tolerable
defects. The acceptance criteria for weld discontinuities which will be
proposed in the "Execution of steel structures" standard would guarantee
the fitness for purpose of the fatigue strength design rules ofEurocode 3.
In other words, the quality assurance system which covers the fabrication
process should ensure that the fabricated constructional detail complies
with the relevant quality requirement specified in the standard for the
"Execution of steel structures"'.
When assessing the fatigue strength by the so-called geometric stress

range method, according to Clause 9.53 of Eurocode 3, the geometric
stress concentration as defined by Equatio_n (2.3) must be properly
evaluated. The local geometry of the weld must not be taken into
account in the calculation procedure of the design stress range, since the
local discontinuity effect is already introduced in the derivation of the S-
N curves. However, when determining the design stress, secondary
stresses arising from joint eccentricity or due to joint stiffness, stress
redistribution due to buckling or shear lag, and effects such as prying
action, should be taken into account.
Lecture 12. 8 Page 8 .,,=p

3. DESIGN STRESS SPECTRUM
3. 1 Stress History
A fluctuating stress to which a structural detail is subjected may have a stress

history of constant amplitude or of variable amplitude (Figures 2 and 3).
For cumulative damage analysis, the stress history is split up into individual
cycles and related stress ranges which are summed up to a distribution of stress
ranges. This distribution of stress ranges is called a stress spectrum, see
Lecture 12.2 .
. For a variable amplitude stress history, there is a need to define such a stress
cycle associated with a particular stress range. There are several procedures for
cycle counting methods. Eurocode 3 refers to the "reservoir method" which
gives a sound representation of the stress variation characteristic by allowing a
proper contribution of each stress range to the fatigue damage process. This
stress range counting method is the most commonly accepted. This counting
method is somewhat similar to the well known "rainflow counting method". The
"rainflow" and the "reservoir" counting methods do not lead to exactly the same
result. However, in terms of fatigue damage both counting procedures give very
close results, and for "long" stress histories they give nearly the same result.
3.2 Stress Histogram
The most common way of representing irregular stress histories for fatigue
analysis is to sum up the stress ranges of equal amplitude, and to obtain a
distribution of stress range blocks which is called a stress histogram (or a stress
spectrum) consisting of a number of constant stress range blocks. Each block is
characterized by its number of cycles ni and stress range Aai (Figure 4). The
ordering of the different blocks does not make any difference since the damage
calculation rules specified in Eurocode 3 refers to the linear cumulative damage
rule of Palmgren-Miner. However for convenience the stress histogram is·
commonly presented with stress blocks ranked in decreasing order (Figure 5)
which often can be approximated by a two-parameters Weibull distribution such
as:
= ~ao (1 - log n )t (2.4)

log Do
Lecture 12.8 Page 9

=#,=P
4. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES CLASSIFICATION
CONCEPT
The classified fatigue design curves adopted in Eurocode 3, are the same as
proposed in the "European Convention for Construction Steelwork Fatigue
Recommendations" [2]. The ECCS Fatigue Recommendations were one of the
first attempts to provide uniformity to the determination of the fatigue strength
design curves.
The ECCS Recommendations define a set of equally spaced S-N curves plotted
on a log-log scale. Reference to these curves allows a detail category to· be
classified (representative) of a particular structural detail· which corresponds to
a notch effect or a characteristic geometrical discontinuity). This classification
has been determined by a series of fatigue test results, from which a statistical
and a probabilistic evaluation is performed, see Lecture 12. 7.
Each individual fatigue strength curve is defined in a conventional way (Figure 6) '
by a slope constant of m = 3 (slope= -1/3). The constant amplitude limit is set
at 5 million cycles. The slope constant m = 3 was a best fit for a large number
of different structural details tested in fatigue. The figure of 5 million cycles for
the constant amplitude fatigue limit is a compromise between 2 million cycles for
"good" details and 10 million cycles for details which create a severe notch
effect. For any stress range of constant amplitude below this limit, no fatigue
damage is expected to occur.
When a detail is subjected to variable stress ranges, which is generally the case
in reality, several options may occur:
If no stress range of variable amplitude exceeds the fatigue limit, no

fatigue damage assessment has to be carried out.
If at least one stress range block exceeds this fatigue limit, a damage
calculation has to be performed on the basis of the linear cumulative
damage rule, referred as the Palmgren-Miner's rule.
In this last option, two cases have to be considered for the cumulative damage
calculation when some stress ranges are below the constant amplitude fatigue
limit:
Either the damage calculation is made simply assuming that the S-N
curve of slope constant m = 3 is extended beyond the constant amplitude
fatigue limit.
Or the damage calculation is made assuming that beyond the constant

amplitude fatigue limit, the S-N curve of slope constant m = 3 is
extended by a straight line of slope constant m = 5. The intercept of
this straight line with the vertical line at 10 million cycles provides a cut-
off limit. The reason for using an S-N curve with two slopes to
cumulative damage calculations is that it is an approximate way to take
into account the progressive reduction of the constant amplitude fatigue

·#=P
limit as a result of the damage caused by the stress ranges above that
limit. In this way, eventually all stress ranges in the spectrum become ..,
damaging. Fracture mechanics confirm this decrease of the slope of the
S-N curve in the long fatigue life range.
In both cases, all cycles below cut-off limit can be ignored when evaluating the
fatigue damage. It should be noted that Eurocode 3 leaves the design engineer
free to use either the single-slope S-N curve or the double-slope S-N curve.
Experimental results have indicated that within the range of high numbers of
cycles, a change in the slope of the fatigue strength occur due to a decrease of
the crack growth rate. The introduction of a double-slope concept and a constant
amplitude fatigue limit at 5 million cycles is still a matter of controversy.
Despite a number of criticisms, particularly concerning the increase in complexity
of the analysis, Eurocode 3 has kept the double-slope curve because this rule
may, for some detail categories, improve the accuracy of the fatigue check.
However, this improvement can not expected for all types of structural detail, and
all stress spectra. In some cases, especially for those details with a very severe
notch effect, the double-slope curve may not lead to a conservative result.
Some details, for example, cover-p,ated beams, have shown a constant amplitude
fatigue limit of almost 10 million cycles. To avoid non-conservative conditions,
some details (which generally have severe notch effect) have been classified in
categories slightly lower than their fatigue strength at 2 million cycles would have
required. The concept of the specified ECCS fatigue design curves, which
consists of 14 equally spaced curves, a new·design fatigue strength curve is not
required for each new structural detail.
The "grid system" of S-N curves has been established as follows. The vertical
distance of the ordinate log-scale between each fatigue strength curves has been
obtained by dividing the difference between one order of magnitude into 20 equal
spaces (Figure 7). For example, taki~g two reference values as AC1c = 100 MPa
and A<1c = 1000 MPa at 2 million cycles, the calculation of the spacing is
determined from the following:
The general S-N curve equation may be written as:
log N = log a - 3 log Au (4.1)
so with Aue = 100 MPa (log 2 000 000 = 6,30103)

log a = 6,30103 + 3 log 100 = 12,301 (4.2)
and for Auc = 1000 MPa

log a = 6,30103 + 3 log 1000 = 15,301 (4.3)
The spacing between two contiguous curves represents
A log a = (15,301 - 12,301)/20 = 0, 15 (4.4)
Lecture 12. 8 Page 11

#=P
So starting from the reference values of ~O'c = 100 MPa, with log a = 12,301,
the subsequent values of ~ac may be obtained from Equation (4.1) as given in
Table 2.
Table 2 Characteristic fatigue strength at 2 million cycles
log a ~ac (rounded value)

... ...
12,601 125
12,451 112
12,301 100
12,151 90
12,001 80
... ...
Table 2 shows that the number defining the characteristic fatigue strength at 2
million cycles, used as a detail category identification, is a rounded value.

#=P
5. FATIGUE TEST RESULTS
Generally fatigue strength curves are evaluated from series of fatigue tests
performed on specimens which typically reproduce the detail to be studied. The
fatigue strength curves (S-N curves) can be most accurately determined when a
group of fatigue specimens are tested at different stress range levels. However,
there is no recognized standard method for fatigue testing and design
experiments. As a result, the fatigue test data found in the literature are
somewhat non-homogeneous.
It is clear that, under such circumstances, a review of existing fatigue data and
their statistical evaluation, even when limited to the same detail category, may
lead to large discrepancies in the results. Such differences may be attributed, not
only to the fatigue testing practice in each laboratory, but also to the detailed
fabrication procedure and quality achieved in the preparation of the specimens.
Discontinuities play a major role in fatigue strength, particularly for welded
details and careful consideration must be given to the weld quality which may
considerably affect the variation in fatigue strength.
Fatigue specimens are fabricated with certain inherent discontinuities which are
not fully known or may not be properly evaluated in laboratory ·reports. In such
cases, it is generally rather difficult to appreciate if the fabrication quality of
specimens is representative of current workshop practice. Moreover, when
performing a statistical analysis on fatigue test data from different origins, a
rather large variation of fatigue strength may result. Careful attention must be
paid to the homogeneity of the fatigue r~istance.
These considerations were borne in mind during the preparation of Eurocode 3.

The fatigue test results which were statistically analyzed and then classified
according to the procedure described fulfil certain requirements:
Priority was given to test results from full size specimens compared to
small scale specimens simulating the same structural detail. For a
comparable quality of weldments, smaller welded test specimens exhibit
a higher fatigue strength (and a higher constant slope) than full size test
specimens. This difference in fatigue behaviour is mainly due to ~e fact
that full size specimens lock in more residual welding stresses than small
size specimens do. This difference is residual stress magnitude is the
result of variations in mechanical constraints during welding.
In welded specimens the stress range (Ao) and the number of cycles to
failure (N) were considered as the main parameter controlling the fatigue
strength curve.
A minimum of 12 fatigue test results were required to reach a certain

significance level and to lead statistically to a confident interpretation of
the test results.

=#=P
6.. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE RULE, EQUIVALENT
STRESS RANGE CONCEPT
6.1 Palmgren-Miner Summation

In real life, structural elements are subjected to varying fatigue loads, and not to
constant amplitude fatigue loadings. Eurocode 3 refers.to the Palmgren-Miner
summation to evaluate the cumulative damage (Figure 8). This rule is based on
the assumption that the total damage accumulated by a structural element under
varying stress ranges, is obtained by the linear summation of the damage of each
individual stress range, i.e:
D = (6.1)
where:
ni is the number of cycles of constant amplitude stress ranges Aui

Ni is the total number of cycles to failure under constant amplitude stress
range Aui.
The structural element is designed safely against fatigue if:
D 1 (6.2)
No account of the damage is taken for any varying stress ranges falling below the
cut-off limit. · ·
6.2 Equivalent Stress Range

The concept of equivalent stress range has been· introduced in the ECCS
Recommendations [2] and is also referred to in Eurocode 3. The definition of
the equivalent stress range is conventional. It can be said that the equivalent
stress range concept is simpler than a direct Palmgren-Miner summation when the
S-N curve is of unique slope (-1/m). The expression is, in this case, quite simple
and the recalculation of the damage for each S-N curve is therefore avoided:
(6.3)
with m = 3 or m = 5 as appropriate.
The equivalent stress range Aucqu depends only on the fatigue load spectrum and
the slope constant m. In such a case, knowing Aucqu evaluated according to
Equation (6.3), it is easy to choose directly a detail category which will have an
adequate fatigue resistance.
Lecture 12.8 . Page 14 ·,-,:p

6.3 Equivalent Stress Range for an S-N Curve with a double
Slopes Constant
. When the basic S-N curve is of double slope, the expression of the equivalent
stress range becomes more unwieldy. The practicability of its application is
questionable, except if using the limit state function as defined by the following
equation:
(6.3)
The derivation of .ducqu when the S-N curve has a double slope is given below:
a. Damage calculation for a double slope S-N curve when the stress
range is below and above 4a0
Suppose there are some stress range blocks where the range is below the
value of Aa0 and some above au0 (Figure 9); it is assumed that the
proper partial safety coefficients have introduced in Aai and Aaj.
block i when Aui > Auo

block j when Auj > Aa0
From the definition the damage is given by:
D = (6.5)
taking into account the S-N curve slope for each set of stress range
blocks:
D = (6.6)
Equation (6.6) may be written as:
D = (6.7)
From Figure 9:
=
N0 corresponds to the fatigue limit of the S-N curve at 5 million cycles.
alb = (6.8)

#=P
Hence:
Q
D = (6.9)
where:
Q =
The damage may be calculated using either Equation (6.5) or
Equation (6.9) directly.
b. Calculation of the equivalent stress range Ao-equ for a double slope S-

N curve
In this particular case, a decision must be made as to which slope the

definition of Aaequ refers. The choice of a slope constant of 3 or S
makes absolutely no difference to the final result of the calculation of
Aaequ when the load spectrum straddles both parts of the d(?uble slope S-
N curve. The calculation of the equivalent stress range Aaequ is derived
below from a slope constant of m =
3 of the double slope S-N curve
(noted as Aaequ.3). The same demonstration holds for a slope constant
of m = 5. By definition: .
D = (6.10)
where:
Nequ is the equivalent number of cycles at failure under the equivalent

stress range Aaequ
N is equal to l: ni + l: nj
Evaluating Nequ on the basis of the S-N curve of slope constant m = 3:
D = (6.11)
by equating Equations (6.6) and (6.11), the damage is:
D =
N.
--·-+ L n.
J = E ni + E ~ (6.12)
a 4ai-3 b 4aj-3 a 4aequ
-3
then Equations (6.11) and (6.12) give:

#=P
L °'i Ao: + L nj Ao: (Aa/ll.ar)
2
]
(6.13)
[ E~+En;
therefore:
(6.14)
AuRd. 3 is defined as the fatigue resistance corresponding to Auequ.J on the

S-N curve of constant slope m = 3.
(6.15)
From Equations (6.14) and (6.15):
_QIN
_____ = _Q_
= (6.16)
Ao~ NJN Ao~ N0
This expression is equal to the damage as given by Equation (6.9):
Q
= s 1 (6.17)
Remarks:
1. Both fatigue assessmentformats, the Palmgren-Miner summation, and the

equivalent stress range concept, are rigorously equivalent in terms of
damage.
2. Reference in the above demonstration is made .to AuD and ND

corresponding to the "knee" point of the double slope S-N curve. Since
the S-N curve is written as: ·
N (AaRaf" = a = constant
another reference value may be taken, for example:
Aai ND = Aa/ Ne = constant

ft.ac, being the stress range at Ne = 2 million cycles.
3. Special care must be taken when calculating tt.aequ.J and AaRd. 3: both
expressions must be evaluated with the same slope constant.

4. The values of '1<1equ.3 and '1<1Rd.J are clearly different and may not be
used indiscriminately when plotting fatigue test results on a log '1<1 versus
log N diagram. Generally when fatigue tests have been peiformed under
variable stress range amplitude, the equivalent stress range as given by
Equation (6.3) has been used to plot the experimental results.
'
#
.
=P
7. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECT
Welded joints in structural details contain tensile residual stresses in the vicinity
of the weld bead. Figure 10 shows that their magnitude may be as high as the
yield stress of the weldment metal. Figure 10 also shows high tensile residual
stresses near the edges which were flame-cut.
It is well established that the presence of residual stresses of such magnitude

makes the fatigue strength of a welded joint independent of the applied load ratio,
and dependent only on the applied stress range. The full significance of the
tensile residual stresses due to welding was not appreciated originally, since many
fatigue test results were obtained from welded specimens which were too small
to retain the major part of the welding residual stresses such as would occur in
large structural components.
It is evident that tensile stresses play a significant role in the propagation of a

crack, since they tend to act as a opening mode due to tensile stresses applied at
the crack lips. The crack propagation rate is likely to be reduced, when the
crack grows into a zone of compression residual stress.
It is in recognition of this physical crack propagation behaviour that the R ratio

(R = "min/ama::1J has been considered in Eurocode 3 Chapter 9 for non-welded
or stress relieved details. Figure 11 shows the comparison between fatigue test
results and two "bonus factor" rules which were studied when drafting
Chapter 9. The rule which was finally selected takes into account of the effect
of compressive stress ranges by multiplying the part of the stress range in
compression by a factor of 0,6. The validity of this rule has been compared with
fatigue test results performed on non-load carrying weld cruciform joints for
various R ratios ranging from -3,0 to 0,8. These fatigue tests were carried out
· on small specimens.

·=§,=P
Fatigue behaviour of structural details is governed by many factors which
are by nature random.
The present state of knowledge provides sufficient information for

reasonably comprehensive and safe fatigue design rules. It is recognized
that the extreme life region of the fatigue strength curve is not well
established. The current availability test data in this region are very
sparse.
The quality of fatigue design is closely related to the attention given to

structural details, i.e. not only to the geometrical shape and the
dimensions, but also to the quality of fabrication and the acceptable
defects, etc.
In carrying out the fatigue assessment of structures, the designer must,

first, carry out a proper fatigue load analysis in order to evaluate
correctly the stress resultants acting on details.
•
The designer must then select the proper fatigue strength curve related
to each of these details.
Both the analysis and curve selection require skill in recognition and
interpretation of the main design factors affecting fatigue resistance.
Le.cture 12.8 Page 20

#=P
9. REFERENCES
[ 1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1,
General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1993.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: Recommendations

for the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures. ECCS Publication 43, 1985.
· [3] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in

preparation).

#=P
LECTURE 12.8
FIGURES
Figure 1: Pages 6 & 7

Figure 2: Page 9
Figure 3: Page 9
Figure 4: Page 9
Figure 5: Page 9
Figure 6: Page 10
Figure 7: Page 11
Figure 8: Page 14
Figure 9: Page 15
Figure 10: Page 19
Figure 11: Page 19 '
Lecture 12. 8 Page 22 #,:p

~M
N
i N
_L ~-~ Ikt 0 N,net

~
_L L
aN 0 N,net
[ f
aM
f
~ i
Figure 1 Nominal stress and geometric stress concentration #=P

Lecture 12.8
Applied
stress a
- -IApplled stress range Ao

Mean stress I CJ min 1 .., 1 ,.,.. 1 .., "
Time
i.c: =>i Stress cycle
Figure 2 Constant amplitude stress history

#=P
Lecture 12.8
..
Applied
stress a
---□Equivalent constant
V\ t \ t I f" \ I I I amplitude
stress range Ila
--- -
Time
Stress cycle
· Figure 3 Variable amplitude stress -history

.J
~=p
Lecture 12.8
Stress
range ·11a
Aok
td LJ
Number of
cycles (n)
I< " I " I " I
1
►<
2
►<
3
►
Figure 4 Stress histogram or stress range distribution

, . ,=p
,'
-
Lecture 12.8
...
a. CX)
N
~i ..J
C:
~~ 0)
0
E
...
:::,
'-
0
(1)
a.
u,
I
I u,
u,
I
I
I
I
...
(1)
'-
en
I
I C:
ll)
I
I
- 0) ...
(1)
I
.
,..
-
0 :::,
O>
I
I
I
·-
LL
~ .
I
I
I
,{
I
.....
~
I , '
t,
<2 <!
Ib bfb
<2 <!
log Ao
Fatigue strength curve
4oc - - - - - - - ~
Ao Constant_ amplitude fatigue limit __ _
0
AaL Cut-off limit
2.10 8 5J0 8 10 8 log N

Ne No Nt
Figure 6 Normalized S-N curve
A:p
'B'-'
Lecture 12.8
....
log Ila
log N • log a - 3 log Ila
t\G 0 = 1000 MPa
equal spaces
4CJ 0 = 100 MPa
6
Ne= 2.10 log N
Figure 7 Spacing of fatigue strength curves

.,..,
~'=P
Lecture 12.8
s
S2
S3
S1 S-N Curve
::~
S1
n1
I I 03
Stress spectrum
N2 N3 N 1.
N
Figure 8 Schematic representation of the cumulative damage summation
,., .
=P
Lecture 12.8
'
a.. (0
C\I
(1)
~i _,
...::,>
(.)
z I
(/)
z
Q (1)
0 Q.
0
en
Q)
..0.
,
,, ,
:::,
0
,
,
"C
,, , co
'+-
0
0
Cr, C.,... C
z It) 0
.....
co
0
as
..,
() .,...
C:
z N (1)
fl)
...0.
Cl)
...
Cl)
(.)
..,
as
E
a,
.c
()
en
0 C
t) t) t)
0)
<I <I <I
Q
0
< >
...
(1)
::,
t)-
<I
+ t)-
<I --LL
C)
t,,.a
P= t,,.ared
R 4
P= - 3+3
-3 -2 -1 0 1
Legend : Automatic shielded arc welding (for all welds)
o - I St f
6 St 47
0 · St 70 ; TIG dressed
._ L--~-~ ---- 1--. □ St 70 ; stiffener not continuous
•• St
St
47
70
;
;
stiffener not continuous
stiffener not continuous ; TIG dressed
Figure 11
* St 47 ; TIG dressed
Comparison of "bonus factor" formula with experimental

#=P
Lecture 12.8
fatigue test results
Page 14 clean draft
prEN 1993-1-9 : 20xx 06 August 200 l
Table 8.1: Non-welded details

Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
categorv
NOTE The fatigue strength cwve associated with category 160 Rolled and extruded products: Details I} to 3}:
w
is the highest. No detail can reach a better fatigue strength at any
1) Plates and flats; Sharp edges, surface and rolling
160
num~=--:: . ~ 2) Rolled sections;
3) Seamless hollow sections,
either rectangular or circular.
flaws to be improved by grinding
until removed and smooth
transition achieved.
<D---..__;> ®--._.b. ®
Sheared or gas cut plates· 4) All visible signs of edge
discontinuities to be removed.
4) Machine gas cut material with The cut areas are to be machined
140
subsequent dressing. or ground and all burrs to be
removed.
5) Material with machine gas cut Any machinery scratches for
edges having shallow and example from grinding
1-----l.--------------------------1 regular drag lines or manual gas operations, can only be parallel to
cut material, subsequently the stresses.
dressed to remove all edge Details 4} and 5}·
discontinuities. -Re-entrant corners to be
Machine gas cut with cut quality improved by grinding (slope~
125
according to EN xxx.-yyy *). 1:4) or evaluated using the
( appropriate stress concentration
·,.
factors.
-No reoair bv weld refill.
For detail 1- 5 made of weathering steel use the next lower category. *) EN x:xx-yyy is the EN-version ofENV 1090-12 ..3.2.1.
6) Double covered symmetrical 6) f:..cr to be For bolted
joint with preloaded high calculated on connections
strength bolts. the gross (Details 6} to
112 cross-section. 11 )} in general:
6) Double covered symmetrical 6) ... gross
joint with preloaded injection cross-section. End distance:
1------+---------------------+...::b..::.ol:.::ts:.:...---------+-------1 e1 ~ 1,5 d
7) Double covered joint with 7) •.. net cross-
fitted bolts. section. Edge distance:
7) Double covered joint with 7) ..• net cross- e2 ~ 1,5 d
non preloaded iniection bolts. section.
8) One sided connection with 8) ... gross Spacing:
preloaded high stren!!th bolts. cross-section.
µ.:.:.:.::.=~=:..:.::~.:;;;;;.~.;.;;.;_-~~;...:.;;..:..::.~-4
P1 ~ 2,5 d
8) One sided connection with 8) ... gross
90 preloaded injection bolts. cross-section. Spacing:
P2~2,5 d
9) Structural element with holes 9) ... net cross-

subject to bending and axial section.
forces
10) One sided connection with 10) ... net

fitted bolts. cross-section.
80 10) One sided connection with 10) ... net
non-preloaded injection bolts. cross-section.
11) One sided or double covered 11) ... net

symmetrical connection with cross-section.
non-preloaded bolts in normal
50
clearance holes.
No load reversals.
12) Bolts and rods with rolled or 12) t::.cr to be calculated using the
cut threads in tension. tensile stress area of the bolt
f t
size effect For large diameters (anchor Bending and tension resulting
for bolts) the size effect has to be from prying effects and bending
50 0>30mm: taken into account with ks. stresses from other sources must
@ be taken into account.
ks=(J0/0 )O;J,5 For preloaded bolts, the reduction
of the stress range may be taken
into account.
~~!
Bolts in single or double shear 13)
Thread not in the shear plane -1::.t calculated on the shank area
100 of the bolt
@ . _. 13) Fitted bolts or normal bolts -Only shear type fitted bolts are
m=S ~ without load reversal (bolts of covered by this detail category.
I . grade 5.6. 8.8 or 10.9)
I
clean draft Page 15
06 August 2001 prEN 1993-1-9: 20xx
Table 8.2: Welded built-up sections

Detail
category Constructional detail Description Requirements
Continuous longitudinal welds: Details 1) and 2):
~ ~
1) Automatic butt welds carried No stop/start position is pennitted
out from both sides. except when the repair is
125
perfonned by a specialist and
2) Automatic fillet welds. Cover inspection is carried out to verify
plate ends to be checked using the proper execution of the repair.
detail 5) or 6) in Table 8.5.
~
3) Automatic fillet or butt weld
~
carried out from both sides but
containing stop/start positions.
112 ® 4) Automatic butt welds made

from one side only, with a
4) When this detail contains
stop/start positions category 100
continuous backing bar, but to be used.
without stop/start positions.
© ~
~ ~
5) ~.ia..-iual fillet or butt \veld.
6) A very good fit betv,'een L'1e
flange and web plates is essential.
6) Manual or automatic butt The web edge to be prepared such
100
welds carried out from one side that the root face is adequate for
only, particularly for box girders the achievement of regular root
® oenetration without break-out.
7) Repaired automatic or manual 7) Improvement by grinding
~
fillet or butt welds. perfonned by specialist to remove
all visible signs and adequate
100
verification can restore the
original category.
8) Intennittent longitudinal fillet 8) llcr based on nonnal stress in
~
welds. flange.
80
® g/h:52,5
9) Longitudinal butt weld, fillet 9) llcr based on nonnal stress in
~
weld or intermittent weld with flange.
cope holes, cope holes not .
71 higher than 60 mm.
10) Longitudinal butt weld, both
~
125 sides ground flush parallel to
load direction, 100% NOT
10) No grinding and no
112
start/stop
90 I 0) with start/stoo oositions
11) Automatic longitudinal seam 11) Free from defects outside the
weld without stop/start positions tolerances of category y of EN
140
in hollow sections XXX *).
~
Wall thickness t < 12,5 mm.
~ 11) Automatic longitudinal seam 11) Wall thickness t > 12,5 mm.
125 @ weld without stop/start positions
90 --------l>
*) Category y of EN xxx is category C ofENV 1090.
in hollow sections
11) with stop/start positions
Page 16 clean draft
prEN 1993-1-9: 20xx 06 August 200 I
Table 8.3: Transverse butt welds

Detail
category
S· ,4t slope 1/4

Without backing bar
1) Transverse splices in plates

Details 1) to 3)·
-All welds ground flush to plate
surface parallel to direction of
size effect
~ ~it and flats. the arrow.
G)
~--
for 2) Flange and web splices in -Weld run-on and run-off pieces
112 t>25mm: plate girders before assembly. to be used and subsequently
~
3) Transverse splices in plates or removed, plate edges to be
~-
ks=(25/t)0.2 flats tapered in width or in ground flush in direction of
thickness, with a slope S 1:4. stress.
-Welded from both sides checked
bvNDT.
4) Transverse splices in plates or Details 4) and 5):
flats. -The height of the weld convexity
slope 1/4 5) Transverse splices in plates or to be not greater than 10% of the
flats tapered in width or in weld width, with smooth
~=tt
~--
size effect thickness with a slope :S 1:4. transition to the plate surface.
for O.lb LI~• Translation of welds to be -Welds made in flat position.
90 t>25mm:
0
If ,, 141 machined notch free. -Weld run-on and run-off pieces
to be used and subsequently
~
ks=(25it) .2 removed, piate edges to be
~ ® --
ground flush in direction of
stress.
byNDT.
size effect 0.2b# 4

I I t
6) Transverse splices in welded -Weld not ground flush
plate girders without cope hole. -Weld run-on and run-off pieces
~
for Ii 7) Transverse splices in plates, to be used and subsequently
80 t>25mm: flats, rolled sections or plate removed, plate edges to be
~
girders. ground flush in direction of
ks=(25/t)0.2 stress.
-Welded from both sides.
8) Full cross-section butt welds -Weld run-on and run-off pieces
~
of rolled sections without cope to be used and subsequently
hole. removed, plate edges to be
63 ground flush in direction of
stress.
byNDT.
36
size effect
for
~-r 9) Butt welds made from one
side only.
9) Butt welds made from one
side only when full penetration
9) Without backing strip.
~
71 t>25mm: checked by appropriate NDT.
ks=(25/t)0.2
With backing strip; Detail~ 10) and 11):
--tt
10) Transverse splice.
71
size effect
for
t>25mm:
~CT1Lm 11) Transverse butt weld
tapered in width or thickness
with a slope S 1:4.
Also valid for curved plates.
Fillet welds attaching the backing
strip to terminate~ 10 mm from
the edges of the stressed plate.
ks=(25/t)0 .2
~- ~
@
50
size effect
for
t>25mm:
ks=(25/t)°-2 ~-- @
slope 1/2
~- 12) Transverse butt weld on a
permanent backing strip tapered
in width or thickness with a
slope S 1:4.
Also valid for curved plates.
13) Transverse butt weld,
12) Where backing strip fillet
welds end < 10 mm from the
plate edge, or if a good fit cannot
be guaranteed.
13) To be generalised for
71
size effect
for
t>25mm:
t2! f----1~+ =1t1 different thicknesses without
transition, centres aligned.
eccentricity with
k = (1 +
I
6e - -
5
t]• - - -
ti t~S +tf ti
)(25r
F--·- -----(!--t---------1--.
~
ks=(25/t)°'2 +-
t,~t.,
See 14) Transverse butt weld at Details 14) and 1~)
detail 1
~-t· crossing flanges.
Table 8.5
See
detail4
Table 8.4
+- @
~
~ @)
15) With transition radius
according to Table 8.4, detail 4
The fatigue strength in the
perpendicular direction has to be
checked with Table 8.4, detail 4.
clean draft Page 17
06 August 200 I prEN 1993-1-9 :_20xx
Table 8.4: Weld attachments and stiffeners

Detail
category
80 L:S50mm Longitudinal attachments: The thickness of the attachment
§; ~
must be less than its height If not
1) The detail category varies see Table 8.5 details 5 or 6.
~~--
71 50<L:S80mm
according to the length of the
63 80<L:Sl00mm attachment L.
56 I>l00mm
I>l0Omm ~ 2) Longitudinal attachments to
~
plate or tube.
71
a<45° (2)~
L 3) Longitudinal fillet welded Detail 3) and 4):
~ ~
gusset with radius transition to
80 r>l50mm plate or tube; end of fillet weld Smooth transition radius r
® ~
reinforced
reinforced (full penetration). formed by initially machining or
gas cutting the gusset plate before
..!.. ;::.!. 4) Gusset plate, welded to the welding. then grinding
w 3 edge of a plate or beam flange. subsequently the weld area
~
90
or parallel to the direction oftlie
~
r>150mm arrow so that the transverse weld
,·
toe is fully removed.
1 r 1
71 -::;-~-
~
6 w 3
r 1
50 -<-
w 6
_)-- ~) as welded no radius transition
~
40
Transverse attachments: Details 6) and 7):
6) Welded to plate. Ends of welds to be carefully

~
~
ground to remove any undercut
80 t:S50mm
~
7) Vertical stiffeners welded to a that may be present.
beam or plate girder.
7) ~cr to be calculated using
8) Diaphragm of box girders principal stresses if the stiffener
i_
welded to the flange or the web. terminates in the web.
~
Not possible for hollow sections.
The values are also valid for ring

71 50<t:SS0mm stiffeners.
~
9) The effect of welded shear
connectors on base material.
80
®
Page 18 clean draft
prEN 1993-1-9 : 20:xx 06 August 2001
Table 8.5: Welded joints

Detail
category
80 t<50 allt Cruciform and Tee joints· 1) Inspected and found free from
l+i+
71 50<t<80 all t discontinuities and misalignments
63 80<t<l00 all t 1) Toe failure in full penetration outside the tolerances of EN
56 100<($120 all t 1 butt welds and all partial 25817, quality C.
56 f,>120 t$20 penetration joints.
50
120<t$200 t>20 CD - 2) For computing l!.cr, use
f>200 20<t90 modified nominal stress.
45
200<(900
f>300
t>30
30<t<50 ~[9_ 3) In partial penetration joints two
40 t>300
g_:lepmcl t>50
2) Toe failure from edge of
fatigue assessments are required.
Firstly, root crackings evaluated
As
detail 1
in
Table 8.5
(2)
i+ ~
attached plate, with stress peaks to stresses defined in section 5,
at weld ends due to flexibility of using category 36* for crw and
panels.
3) Root failure in partial

category 80 for Tw. Secondly, toe
cracking is evaluated by
determining l!.cr in the load-
carrying plates.
Details n to 3):
~ 0 ilc=::1
penetration Tee-butt joints or
fillet welded joint and effective The misalignment of the load-
~
36*
full penetration in Tee-butt joint carrying plates should not exceed
15 % of the thickness of the
intermediate plate.
As
detail 1
in .
:1(~j' > 10 mm stressed area Qverlam~ed welded joints:
~ p l a t e 4) Fillet weld~d lap joint.
4) l!.cr in the main plate to be
calculated on the basis of area
sho\\n in the sketch.
Table 8.5 ~•-l~t © slope 1/2 --- 5) l!.cr to be calculated in the
Overlapped: overlapping plates.
Details 4) and 5)·
~
5) Fillet welded lap joint.
~
-Weld terminations more than 10
45* mm from plate edge.
® -Shear cracking in the weld
should be checked using detail
8).
6) If the cover plate is wider than
~~
tc<t ~
Cover ~lates in beams and ~•at~
girders· the flange, a frontal weld is
56* t$20 - 6) End zones of single or
needed. lbis weld should be
carefully ground to remove
50 20<!90 t$20 multiple welded cover plates, undercut
~
with or without frontal weld. The minimum length of the cover
45 30<tS50 20<1$30 plate is 300 mm. For shorter
40 t>50 30<t$50 attachments see detail 1).
36 - t>50 ®
reinforced front weld 7) Cover plates in beams and 7) Front weld ground flush. In
plate girders. addition, if tc>20mm, front of
~
1/4
56 E =s .;i, .=+ 1~ ,
1 plate at the end ground with a
slope <1:4.
(j) ~
8) Continuous fillet welds 8) l!.t to be calculated from the
transmitting a shear flow, such weld throat area.
~ ~
>lOmm as web to flange welds in plate
80 girders. 9) l!.t to be calculated from the
m=S weld throat area considering the
9) Fillet welded lap joint. total length of the weld. Weld
terminations more than 10 mm
from the plate edge.
see EN Welds in shear- 10) At to be calculated on the
1994-2
(95
m=8) ~
--dJ.. 10) For composite application nominal cross section of the stud.
71
C
f
+ ~
@itt 11) Tube socket joint with 80%
full penetration butt welds.
12) Tube socket joint with fillet

11) Weld toe ground. l!.t
computed in tube.
welds.
40 -, .... ___.. ...
= @~
clean draft Page 19
06 August 200 I prEN 1993-1-9 : 20xx
Table 8.6: Hollow sections (t S 12,5 mm)

Detail
category
El]- 1) Tube-plate joint, tubes flatted,

butt weld (X-groove)
1) /lcr computed in tube.
Only valid for tube diameter less
than200mm.
71
~-
~ ~----lP·"• I
CD
2) Tube-plate joint, tube slitted 2) /lcr computed in tube.
71 cx:545° and welded to plate. Holes at Shear cracking in the weld should
~~---~ I end of slit be verified using Table 8.5, detail
8).
63 a>45° ®
Transverse t!utt welds: Details 3) and 4):
71
® ) 11 I r--r----1 0
------- -------
3) Butt-welded end-to-end
connections between circular
structural hollow sections.
4) Butt-welded end-to-end
-Weld convexity~ 10% of weld
width, with smooth transitions.
-Welded in flat position,
inspected and found free from
defects outside the tolerances of
connections between rectangular category y of EN xxx *).
56 @ ) fs I r-=:--t-------1
------- ------- D structural hollow sections.
Welded attachments:
-Classify 2 detail categories
higher if t > 8 mm.
5)
-Non load-carrying welds.
tr ~ □
5) Circular or rectangular - Width parallel to stress direction
71
I jj..,o.lmm ® mm
structural hollow section, fillet-
welded to another section. ,
t~lOOmm.
-Other cases see Table 8.4..
9F1 3C 0
Welded splices: Details 6) and 7):
6) Circular structural hollow -Load-carrying welds.

50 ------- sections, butt-welded end-to-end -Welds inspected and found free
with an _intermediate plate. from defects outside the
® tolerances of quality level y of
ENxxx **).
7) Rectangular structural hollow
9F1 3C □
sections, butt welded end-to-end -Classify 1 detail category higher
with an intermediate plate. ift>8mm.
45 -
0
.. 8) Circular structural hollow Details 8) and 9):
ciP 3C 0
sections, fillet-welded end-to-
end with an intermediate plate. -Load-carrying welds.
40 - -Wall thickness t ~ 8 mm.
®
9) Rectangular structural hollow
ciP 3C □
sections, fillet-welded end-to-
end with an intermediate plate.
36 -
®
*) Quality level yin EN xxx 1s quality level C ofENV 1090.
**) Quality level yin EN xxx is quality level 3 ofENV 1090-5.
Page 20 clean draft
prEN 1993-1-9 : 20xx 06 August 2001
Table 8.7: Lattice girder joints

Detail
Constructional detail Requirements
catego
Gap joints: Detail 1): Kand N joints, circular structural hollow sections: Details 1) and 2):
90 ~ - Separate assessments needed
m=5
(?, for the chords and the braces.
- For intermediate values of the
ratio tJtt interpolate linearly
between detail categories.
45
f----@-~-----I
- - ---- -- - --
G)
- Fillet welds permitted for
braces with wall thickness t :S
8mm.
.!2.=10
t. , - t:S 12,5 mm
m=5 I
35° :S0:S 50°
- bo/to:S25
l------1----~-------------------------------1 - do/to:S25
Gap joints: Detail 2): Kand N joints, rectangular structural hollow sections: - 0,4 :S b/bo :S 1,0
- 0,25 :S d/do S 1,0
71 - boS200mm
- doS300mm
m=5 - - 0,5ho :S t\/p :S 0,25ho
- - 0,5do :S ei/p :S 0,25do
- eo1p S 0,02bo or :S 0,02do
36
·-·-·B----~----1
r------ -- ·----
----------- ---------
0 [eo1p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
Detail 2):
m=5 0,5(bo - bi) :S g :S 1,l(bo - bi)
and g~2to
Overlap joints: Detail 3): Kjoints, circular or rectangular structural hollow sections: Details 3) and 4):
- 30 % S overlap S 100 %
71 - overlap= (q/p) x 100 %
- Separate assessments needed
m=5 for the chords and the braces.
- For intermediate values of the
ratio tJtt interpolate linearly
between detail categories.
- Fillet welds permitted for
d Bb braces with wall thickness t :S
.----~-- ---ii
--·-·- . -· --·-·-· to D ]ho - t8mm.
S 12,5 mm·
56
m=5
It
. _:_ ________________ :.___ -
-
35° s 0 :s 50°
boltoS25
1 - do/toS25
E~~~!QdEJ
1------1----~----------------------------1-
@ : ~~f,,~~ii~o
boS200mm
- doS300mm
- - 0,5ho :S t\/p :S 0,25ho
- - 0,5do :S t\/p :S 0,25do
71 - eo1p S 0,02bo or :S 0,02do
m=5 [eo,1p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
50
t---------~------1
-------- -· ----·-·
-------------- ------ ~ BJ.
m=5
t - - §------1
·------- -·
--------------
·-·-·-·
--- -
©
clean draft Page 21
06 August 2001 prEN 1993-1-9 : 20:xx
Table 8.8: Orthotropic decks - closed stringers

Detail
cate o
1) Continuous longitudinal rib, 1) Assessment based on the
~~
80 tSI2mm with additional cutout in cross bending stress range !::.cr in the
girder. rib.
71 t>l2mm
Ci)
2) Continuous longitudinal rib, 2) Assessment based on the
L:CJ ~
80 t:sl2mm no additional cutout in cross bending stress range !::.cr in the
girder. rib.
t
71 t>l2mm
(v
C:J cp
3) Separate longitudinal ribs 3) Assessment based on the
each side of the cross girder. *) bending stress range !::.cr in the
ribs.
36
G)
4) Joint in rib, full penetration 4) Assessment based on the
1. butt weld with steel backing bending stress range !::.cr in the
plate.*) rib.
71
see detail 5) Full penetration butt weld in 5) Assessment based on the

112 1), 2, 3) of rib, welded from both sides, bending stress range !::.cr in the rib.
Table 8.3 without backing plate. *)
see detail ©
90 1), 2, 3) of
Table 8.3
see detail
80 1), 2, 3) of
Table 8.3
6) Connection of continuous 6) Assessment based on
longitudinal rib to cross girder. combining the shear stress range
!::.t and bending stress range !::.cr in
the web, as an equivalent stress
range:
Acre4 = ✓Acr 2 +!::.'t 2
36
,s
Weld connecting deck plate to 7)

trapezoidal or V-section rib -a?:l,25t
-100% inspection to confirm
7) Partial penetration weld weld penetration and throat
thickness
71 -Ww calculated on the basis oft
\,-l,t
8) Fillet weld or partial 8) Ww calculated on the basis of a
M, penetration welds out of the
range of detail 7)
50
l,..l.t
*) Not for railway bridges.
Page 22 clean draft
prEN 1993-1-9 : 20xx 06 August 2001
Table 8.9: Orthotropic decks - open stringers

Detail
category
I
,,.,,, ,,,,.,.,
I 1) Connection of continuous 1) Assessment based on the
.,,,,,,,,,,," V '"""'"' I longitudinal rib to cross girder. bending stress range /1cr in the
80 t$12mm
I I rib.
I I G)
I, Acr
I
I
71 t>l2mm
I - _ ---t I
s I s 2) Connection of continuous 2) Assessment based on

longitudinal rib to cross girder. combining the shear stress range
I I
II /1t and bending stress range /1cr
I
I
I
16't I 16" I
Mi 5
Acr=--
in the web of the cross girder, as
60 I an equivalent stress range:
IL___CD.___J! - rdD60 I wm.s

Acrcq =!(Acr+··/Acr 2 +4At 2 )
IL ___
\..: ._ __ ...JI At= AVS 2
:s :s Aw,nct,s
56
Check also stress range between
ribs as defined in EN 1993-2.
Table 8.1 O: Top flange to web junction of runway beams

Detail
category Constructional detail Description Requirements
1) Rolled I- or H-sections 1) Vertical compressive stress
!
160
<D u ½
2) Full penetration tee-butt weld
range 11crvert. in web due to wheel
loads
2) Vertical compressive stress

range 11crvert. in web due to wheel
71
® T 3) Partial penetration tee-butt

loads
3) Stress range f:.crvert. in weld

! welds, or effective full
penetration tee-butt weld
throat due to vertical compression
LI
36* from wheel loads
conforming with x.x.x of Part
1.8 (6.6.3(1) ofENV 1993-1-1)
·®
4) Fillet welds
! 4) Stress range 11crvert. in weld
36*
® T ½
5) T-section flange with full
penetration tee-butt weld
from wheel loads
5) Vertical compressive stress

range 11crw:rt. in web due to wheel
71
®T ! 6) T-section flange with partial

penetration tee-butt weld, or
loads
6) Stress range 11crvai.. in weld
®T
effective full penetration tee-butt from wheel loads
36* weld conforming with x.x.x of
Part 1.8 (6.6.3(1) ofENV 1993-
1-1)
7) T-section flange with fillet 7) Stress range 11crven. in weld
½ welds throat due to vertical compression
36*
~T from wheel loads

4
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Worked examples
Cat 36
Cat 36
Fillet welded lap. joint Partial penetration butt

(Cruciform)
Cat 45 cat50
tand t c$. 20mm
Edge attachment Cover plate· end
Cat 80 or Cat 71
Crack in plate
Cat 71
Short attachments Transverse butt

away from edge weld on ·backing bar
Figure Ba Some common detail types and

their fatigue categories

:. RMOEIING VAN GELASTE VERBINDINGEN
i ·~
Vermoeiing is een verschijnsel dat kan optreden wanneer een· constructie tijdens
de levensduur wisselend wordt belast en er door varierende trekspanningen
scheuren in bet materiaal ontstaan (afb. 7.1). Door bet aanhouden van de span-
ningswisselingen groeien deze scheuren steeds sneller. Elke belastingcyclus
scheurt het materiaal verder in. Uiteindelijk is de scheur zo groot. dat de reste-
rende materiaaldoorsnede niet sterk genoeg is om zelfs de statisch optredende
belasting te dragen, waardoor de constructie bezwijkt. De belasting waarbij ver-
moeiing optreedt, kan aanzienlijk
7.1.Neergestort ballastblok van lager zijn dan de statische bezwijkbe-
basculcbrug ten gevolge van
vermoeiingsbreuk in hoofdligger, lasting. Varierende belastingen ont-
11 Parkhavcnbrug Rotterdam (1960) staan bijvoorbeeld bij het belasten en
ontlasten door verkeer, bij tempera-
tuurwisselingen en bij trillingen of
dynamische windeffecten (afb. 7.2).
Afbeelding 7.3 toont twee verschil-
lende assen die door vermoeiing zijn
bezweken. Ook is schematisch het
breukvlak getekend. In het breul'Vlak
zijn twee verschillende reliefs te on-
7.2. Proefopstelling van een rolorblad

van een windlurbinemast (a). Ter plaatse
van de verbinding in het rotorblad
worden de vermoeiingsverschijnselen
gemeten (b).
7.3a. Voorbeeld van een vermoeiingsbreuk

met doarnaast de schematisering van he!
breukvlok.
277
7.3b. Voorbeeld van een
vermoeiingsbreuk met doornoast
de schemolisering van het
breukvlok.
derscheiden: het vermoeiingsbreukvlak en het restbreukvlak. Het vermoeiings-

breukvlak breidt zich uit tijdens de belastingwisselingen en leidt uiteindelijk tot
een vrij glad oppervlak met opeenvolgende ringen. Het restbreukvlak is een
geweldbreuk door de overbelasting van de resterende doorsnede.
Niet alleen staal en andere metalen, maar ook beton en hout, zijn gevoelig voor
vermoeiing. In levend materiaal zullen de ontstane scheuren gedurende rustpe-
rioden weer herstellen. In dood materiaal is dit niet het geval.
Zowel in gelaste als in geboute verbindingen kan vermoeiing optreden. Op ver-

moeiing belaste geboute verbindingen worden echter nauwelijks toegepast. Als
een geboute verbinding toch op vermoeiing wordt belast, worden de vermoei-
ingsproblemen die hierbij optreden, vermeden door de verbinding voor te span-
nen (altijd trek in de bout houden) zodat de plaats van het contactvlak in de lijn
van de uitwendige kracht ligt of de
kracht door wrijving wordt opgeno- .
men (afschuiving). Als om bepaalde
omstandigheden de boutverbinding
niet kan worden voorgespannen, is
het van belang de afstand waarover
de kracht zich verplaatst zo kort
mogelijk te houden. De Jigging van
bet contactdrukvlak bepaalt de af-
stand waarover de kracht zich ver-
plaatst (afb. 7.4). Voor de systema-
tiek voor de berekening van geboute
en geklonken constructies wordt ver-
tFs;d H
._-t~d- H-_-t~.
. · buisprofiel
H
wezen naar de publikatie 'Vermoei-
ing van bouten en van geboute ver- .. ..... , .. _:· -- .. '.
__ .
" ~ . ~ ~. . . :- . :
.. . .
bindingen'. . .
Dit hoofdstuk behandelt verder de - --i~:;d -. -· - ♦~:d - ---i~:d.- .

vermoeiing van gelaste verbindingen.
Aan de orde komen de belangrijkste gunstig minder gunstig ongunstig
invloedsfactoren en de vermoeiings-
berekening van lassen volgens de 7.4. Resuhalen voor proefstukken met een verschillende ligging van de contoctdrukvlak.
278.
NEN 2063. Het hoofdstuk wordt afgesloten met een rekenvoorbeeld van een
basculebrug, waarvan de lasverbindingen dynamisch worden belast en op ver-
moeiing worden getoetst
•
7.1. lnvloedsfactoren
Variabele belastingen en daannee wisselende spanningen, zijn in een construe-

tie vaak niet te vermijden evenals vennoeiingsscheuren. De constructie moet
dan wel een zeker gegarandeerde levensduur bezitten voordat de constructie op
vennoeiing bezwijkt. Er zijn verschillende factoren die invloed hebben op het
vermoeiingsproces en daarmee op de Ievensduur van de constructie. Deze
invloeden zullen dit proces initieren danwel versnellen.
□ Spa.1zningsconcentratie. In de praktijk zal vennoeiing zich vooral ter plaatse
van spanningsconcentraties ontwikkelen. Deze concentraties worden veroor-
zaal.'1 door:
de detaillering zoals afrondingsstralen en gaten (afb. 7.5 en afb. 7.6);
(microscopi~91) kleine onvolkomenheden op het oppervlak zoals krassen,
kerven, afwerking van plaatranden, walshuid, slagletters en materiaalfouten;
discontinui1eiten in !assen en de soort las (helling, vonn).
7.5. Delo~ met een hoge sponningsconcentrolie. De scheu- 7.6. Dela~ met een loge spanningsconcentratie, t.p.v. de
ren zijn gereporeerd en het detoil is inmiddels vers1erkt. overgang van het dek near de hoofdligger in de boven-
. flens von het draaipunt, &osmusbrug Rotterdam.
□ Spanningsinten•al. Dit is de grootte van het absolute verschil tussen de optre-

dende maximale en minimale spanning, ongeacht of het trek- of drukspannin-
gen zijn. Het spanningsinterval bepaalt de mate waarin de scheur groeit.
Beneden een bepaald spanningsniveau i~ geen scheurgroei rneer aantoonbaar.
Met een lager spanningsniveau neemt de levensduur dus toe.
□ Spanningswisselingen. Naarmate het aantal wisselingen tijdens de levensduur
toeneemt, stijgt ook de kans op vermoeiingsschade tijdens de levensduur.
□ Staalsoort. Voor constructies zonder spanningsconcentraties is de vermoei-
ingssterkte evenredig met de treksterh.1:e van het materi~. Maar al bij zeer ge-
ringe spanningsconcentraties, speelt de treksterkte niuwelijks een rol en is de
sterkte van S355 gelijk aan die van S235, vooral bij een groot aantal wisselingen
279
(afb. 7.12). Daarom speelt de staalsoort bij vennoeiing nauwelijks een rol. Uit-
sluitend moderne staalsoorten, zoals thennomechanisch gewalst staal, zijn min-
der kerfgevoelig dan oudere staalsoorten (bijvoorbeeld staalsoorten die zijn
geproduceerd volgens bet Thomas procede) en dus minder gevoelig voor ver-
moeiing. ,
□ Milieu.Op plaatseb waar vennoeiingsscheuren optreden, bevordert corrossie
de snelheid van de scbeurgroei. Corrosie k.an ecbter ook vermoeiing veroorza-
ken, omdat de oppervlak.1:egesteldheid verslechtert, waardoor er spanningscon-
centraties ontstaan die_ nadelig zijn voor scheurinitiatie.
Vermoeiing wordt in een weinig corrosieve omgeving beschouwd als gewone
vennoeiing en onder sterk corrosieve omstandigheden als corrosievennoeiing
(bijvoorbeeld in zeewater). Corrosievermoeiing is geen optelsom van corrosie en
vermoeiing. Het is een. interactief verschijnsel. Bij een goed geconserveerde en
goed onderhouden constructie hoeft de corrosievermoeiing geen probleem te zijn.
De vermoeiingssterkte is te verbeteren door de inwendige spanningstoestand of

de optredende spanningsconcentraties in de kerven van de las te veranderen.
INWENDIGE SPANNINGSTOESTAND
Trekspanningen in de las verlagen de vermoeiingssterk.1:e. Door deze inwendige
trekspanningen in de las te vennijden of te reduceren, neemt de vermoeiings-
sterk.1:e toe. Dat kan op twee manieren gebeuren.
□ De las spanningsann gloeien, waardoor de trekspanningen in de las afnemen.
In welke mate dat gebeurt en onder welke omstandigheden hiermee mag worden
gerekend, is nog onvoldoende bekend. Daarom zijn in NEN 2063 geen gegevens
opgenomen om de vennoeiingsterk.1:e door nabewerken van de las te verhogen.
□ Een dnikvoorspanning in het staal brengen. Hiervoor zijn de methoden 'pee-
ning' en 'spot heating' beschikbaar. 'Peening' kan op verschillende manieren
plaatsvinden. Het oppervlak van bet staal wordt hierbij plastisch vervormd door
met hoge snelheid schroot tegen het staal te blazen of door met naalden of stom-
pe pennen pneumatisch op het staal te hameren~De plastiscbe vervorrning ver-
oorzaakt een drul--voorspanning in bet oppervlak van het staal. Deze methode
geeft bij proeven met constante spanningsintervallen een belangrijke verbetering
te zien. Vooral de scheurinitiatie wordt sterk geremd. Hieruit blijkt dat goed ont-
.roesten door stralen niet alleen gunstig werkt voor het co~osieproces, .maar ook
voor de vermoeiingssterkte.
Bij 'spot heating' wordt bet materiaal in de buurt van de las verhit, waardoor het
materiaal krimpt en in de las een drukvoorspanning ontstaat..
Door eenmalige overbelasting bij het begin van de levensduur van een construe-
tie wordt ook een drukspanning ge'introduceerd.
SPANN I NGSCONCE NTRA Tl E

Spanningsconcentraties k."1.mnen worden verlaagd door de kerf minder scherp te
maken. Dit kan op verschillende manieren.
□ Slijpen van de lasteen of de lasmps wegslijpen. Deze bewerking geeft een aan-
zienlijke verbetering van de kerf. Dit uit zich ook in de atlas van NEN 2063.
280
Uit het vergelijk van de lasdetails 101 en 102 (atb. 7.11) blijk.-t dat het spanningsin-
terval ~crk met bijna 50% wordt verhoogd door het vlakslijpen van de stompe las.
□ 'TIG- en plasma dressing'. Dit zijn twee manieren om een smeltbad tussen
de wolfraamelektrode en werkstuk te maken. Dit gebeurt zonder toevoegmateri-
aal. Door dit dmsmelten wordt de lasteen meer afgerond en worden lasonvolko-
menheden door smelten verwijderd.
Door de verschillende lasdetails in de atlas te vergelijken, blijkt direct wat tech-

nisch gezien de beste oplossingen zijn. De technisch beste oplossing blijkt in de
praktijk bij het streven naar een lange levensduur ook de meest economische .
.Laspoortjes moeten zoveel mogelijk worden vermeden. Het poortje vormt een
obstakel bij zowel het stralen als het schilderen. In het laspoortje zal de construe-
tie gevoeliger worden voor corrosie en juist daar treedt spanningsconcentratie op.
7.2. Ontwerpregels
Er bestaan twee ontwerpprincipes voor de constructeur om met vermoeiing om

te gaan. Het eerste, het 'safe load' principe, gaat er vanuit <lat er in de gebruiks-
duur geen enkele scheur mag optreden. Dat betekent dat de toe te laten spannin-
gen zo laag gekozen moeten worden, dat de kans op het ontstaan van een scheur
voldoende klein is. De vele onzekere invloedsfactoren bij vermoeiing veroorza-
ken echter een grote spreiding in de vermoeiingssterk1en (en dus de levensduur)
van een constructie. Er moet worden gerekend met een verhoogde levensduur
om de kans op een scheur zeer klein te houden. Voor hoofddraagconstructies
wordt indien mogelijk het 'safe load' principe toegepast, waarbij veelal wordt
uitgegaan van een levensduur van ongeveer 100 jaar.
Het tw~~de, het 'fail safe' principe gaat uit van de kans <lat e_en ontstane scheur
tijdig wordt ontdekt en dat de scheur niet te snel gloeit, zodat er voldoende tijd
is om de scheur te repareren. Dit betekent dat de tijd tussen het ontstaan van de
scheur en het moment waarop de scheur kritiek wordt voldoende groot moet
zijn. Bovendien moet het aantal regelmatige inspecties (nodig voor deze metho-
de !) in die periode zodanig groot zijn, dat de kans vrijwel nihil is dat de scheur
over het hoofd wordt gezien. Secundaire constructies worden volgens dit princi-
pe ontworpen, waarbij een gemid1elde levensduur van. ongeveer 50 jaar wordt
aangehouden. ·
De vermoeiingsbelasting is een veranderlijke belasting die niet als een quasi-

statische belasting kan worden beschouwd. Voor de v~rmoeiingsbelasting zijn
uitsluitend de wisselende spanningen van belang. De rekenwaarde van de varia-
bele belasting bij een statische berekening is gelijk aan: de representatieve belas-
tingxstootcoefficient Sxbelastingcoefficient Bxbelastingfactor y. De rekenwaar-
de van de variabele belasting bij een vermoeiingsberekening is dan gelijk aan het
werkelijk optredende spanningsintervalxvermoeiingscoefficient y (y = 1,2).
Voor het beoordelen van bestaande constructies wordt naar de werkelijke span-
ningswisselingen gekeken en gerekend met een belastingfactor y = 1,0.
281
Bij staal zijn twee soorten vermoeiing van belang, namelijk 'low cycle fatigue'
en 'high cycle fatigue'. Er is sprake van 'low cycle fatigue' als het aantal span-
ningswisselingen (c.q. rekwisselingen) dat tot breuk leidt kleiner is dan Ia4. In
het staal treden dan plastische rekken op. Bij 'high cycle fatigue' vindt de ver-
moeiingsbreuk pas ~~ 1a4 spanningswisselingen op en zijn de rekken elastisch.
Het is van essentieel belang zodanig te construeren dat alle onderdelen, maar
vooral de onderdelen die voor de stabiliteit noodzakelijk zijn, op adequate wijze
kunnen worden ge'inspecteerd. Soms kornt de constructeur voor een dilemma te
staan. Hij rnoet dan kiezen tussen een goed inspecteerbare, rnaar qua vermoeiing
minder goed detail of een slecht (of niet) inspecteerbaar, rnaar uit oogpunt van
vennoeiing goed detail. Een altematief is een detaillering waarbij het desbe-
treffende onderdeel op eenvoudige wijze tijdens de levensduur is te vervangen of
te repareren.
Vermoeiing is niet uitsluitend een onderwerp, waaraan alleen tijdens het eerste
ontwerp aandacht rnoet worden besteed. Het is van essentieel belang dat aan
alles wordt gedacht. Dat zowel een taak van de ontwerper als van de· opdracht-
gever. De eerste moet zich realiseren dat zijn taak verder gaat dan de opleve-
ring; de tweede moet beseffen dat alle waar zijn prijs heeft. Maar van essentieel
belang is de mentaliteit om keuzen te doen voor de lange termijn.
Constructeurswerk is niet alleen het uitvoeren van een sterkte-, stijfheids- en
stabiliteitsberekening. De constructie moet ook gefabriceerd k."l.mnen worden,
toegankelijk zijn voor inspectie en inspecteerbaar, vervangbaar, repareerbaar en
aanpasbaar zijn.
Voor het berekenen van de vermoeiing van een gelaste verbinding spelen drie
begrippen een belangrijke rol: d~ Wohlerlijri, bet spanningsspectrum en de be-
schadigingsregel van Palmgren-Miner.
WOHLERL/JN
De eerste systematische vermoeiingsproeven
zijn in de 19e eeuw uitgevoerd door de Duitser
August Wohler. Hij zocht naar het spannings-
500
niveau waarbij een oneindig aantal spannings-
wisselingen kon optreden en zette in een gra-
400
fiek bet aantal wisselingen uit dat tot breuk
leidde tegen het spanningsniveau (afh 7.7). Op 300
E
grond van deze en andere proeven is jarenlang .§
~
aangehouden dat de levensduur onbeperk."1: was t> 200
als bet staal meer clan 2-10 6 constante span-=

100
ningswisselingen kon ondergaan.
Voor de bruikbaarheid van de Wohlergrafiek
0 200 400, 600 800 1000
werden in de loop van de tijd zowel bet span-
aantal spanningswisselingen N [xt06J
ningsniveau als het aantal wisselingen logarit-
misch uitgezet. Op grond van deze weergave
7.7. Het aantal spanningswisselingen lineair uitgezet tegen het
en overwegingen uit de breukmechanica bleek spanningsniveau volgens Wohler.
282
<lat niet het spanningsniveau maar bet verschil tussen de maximum- en de mini-
mumspanning in een spanningswisseling bepalend is. Dit verschil, het spannings-
interval .1cr, bepaalt de levensduur (afb. 7.8).
SPANNINGSSPECTRUM
Om de levensduur van een op vermoeiing belast
400 constructiedetail te k.'lmnen_ berekenen, is een zo-
geheten spanningshistorie nodig. Hierin staan de
'E spanningen die bet staal in bet verleden beeft
.€
~ 100 ---------"c-t---+---+----1 ondergaan en de spanningen die het staal nog
I::)
<]
zal ondergaan.
Deze spanningen zijn nooit exact bekend, waar-
door in de praktijk wordt volstaan met gegevens
10 .__ _.__ _..,___ __._ __.__ _.,___ __. die gedurende een beperkte periode zijn verza-
103 104 10S 106 109
meld.
aanlal spanningswisselingen N
Deze gegevens worden geextrapoleerd voor de
7.8. Het aantal spanningswisselingen logaritmisch uitgezet tegen
gewenste levensduur. In veel gevallen zal de
het spanningsinterval. spanningshistorie een grillig verloop hebben,
waardoor het prak.'tiscb onuitvoerbaar is aan de
hand biervan een vermoeiingsberekening te ma-
ken. Het is dan ook noodzakelijk de spannings-
(a) spanningsspectrum historie te vertalen in een aantal blokken met
400
een constant spanningsinterval, bet zogebeten
'E 300 \ spanningsspectrum.
i
~ 200
\~ Het spanningsspectrum is een grafische voor-
stelling van bet aantal keren dat een bepaald
100
~ spanningsinterval gedurende de gebruiksduur
wordt overschreden (afb. 7.9).
~
~ Het vertalen van een spanningshistorie naar een
0
101 103 104 . 10S 106 107 spanningsipectrum kan gebeuren met de 'regen- ·
aanlal spanningswisselingen N
stroom'-telmethode (zie NEN 2063, bijlage C).
Uit bet spanningsspectrum volgt bet ontwerp-
(b) ontwerpspeclrum spectrum dat als basis dient voor de vermoei-
400
ingsberekening. In het ontwerpspectrum worden
'E 300 boge. spanningintervallen die minder dan I 0 2
i
I::)
<]
200
maal voorkomen verwaaloosd evenals vaak op-
tredende spanningsintervallen ~ie lager zijn dan
0,55~crk. Het spanningsinterval ~crv wordt tij-
· 100
dens de gebruiksduur I 0 2 maal overschreden en·
0556crk
0
het spanningsinterval .1crk wordt 107 maal over-
101 1()2 103 104 105 106 107 schreden. Het spanningsspectrum bevat een
aantal spanningswisselingen N
grote hoeveelheid gegevens.
Door het omzetten van het spanningsspectrum
7.9. Spanningsspectrum (a) en het daarvan afgeleide ontwerp-
spectrum (b) voor een willekeurige constructie (cumulatieve ver- in een simpeler histogram wordt de berekening
deling). vereenvoudigd.
283
BESCHADIGINGSREGEL VAN PALMGREN-M/NER
In de praktijk komen constante span- (a) constant spanningsinterval
60
ningsintervallen zelden voor en treedt
meestal een gyvari~erd spanningsbeeld
op (afb. 7.10).
50
nn A ~ n n I n ~ n
40
Om de vermoeiing te toetsen, is bet 'E
E
mogelijk een bovengrensbenaderi~g te ~ 30
t,
maken, \Vaarbij het maximale span- <l 20
ningsinterval en bet totaal aantal span-
10
ningswisselingen als constante worden
beschouwd. Dit leidt tot een onderschat- 0
\J \J \) \) \J \J t \J
10 20 30 40 50 60
ting van de levensduur. tijd [s]
Een meer verfijnde procedure is de line-

aire beschadigingsregel van Palmgren- (b) wisselend spanningsinterval
35
Miner. Lineair wil zeggen dat de ver- ~
moeiingsschade per spanningswisseling 30 "
I
bij een bepaalde spanningsinterval con- 25
stant is verondersteld. De beschadigings-
E 20
n A
regel van Palmgren-Miner gaat er vanuit -€
~ {\ -
dat elke spanningswisseling het materi- t, 15
I,
aal beschadigt en dat, afhankelijk van de
<l
10
A I\
hoogte van het spanningsinterval per
5
\ I I\ I\
wisseling, de scheur zal groeien. Door
een groot aantal spanningswisselingen
zal de scheur doorgroeien tot de resteren-
0
\J
10
\J u
20 l/ 30
'I/\ -- A ~ .40 50 60
tijd[s]
de doorsnede van de constructie onvol-
doende sterk is om de statische belasting 7.10. Constant (a) en wisselend (b} spanningsinterval.
·op te nemen.
De scheurgroei kan ook op theoretische
wijze worden bepaald met de breukme-
chanica (zie NEN 2063, bijlage G).
De hoogte van de spanningsintervallen hangt af van de belasting, maar ook van

grootte en vorm van de scheur. Naarmate de scheur groeit, zal deze steeds snel-
ler gaan groeien. In NEN 2063 uit zich dit in de factor <p.
De scheurgroei wordt gerelateerd aan het Wohlerdiagram. Bij elk optredend
spanningsinterval 6cri die de constructie ondergaat, volgt uit het spanningsspec-
trum het aant~ spanningswisselingen ni. In het Wohlerdiagram wordt bij dit
spanningsinterval het aantal ·spanningswisselingen Ni gezocht (volgt uit NEN
2063, figuur 30), dat leidt tot een kritische grootte van de scheur. De relatieve
scheurgroei bedraagt n/Ni. Voor het spanningsspectrum van een constructiede-
tail is de totale beschadiging (damage):
ni
D,o,=I: N-
1
284
lndien geldt D101 $ I, dan is de scheur kleiner dan zijn kritische grootte. Er is
experimenteel vastgesteld dat voorspellingen op grond van deze regel aan de
conserYatieve kant zijn. Indien geldt D101 > 1, dan is de levensduur onvoldoende
en moet de constmctie aangepast worden. ·
De moeilijkheid bij deze berekeningswijze in de praktijk is de schatting van de .
spanningsintervallen en de spanningswisselingen die worden gebruikt en met
name hoe spanningsconcentratie·s moeten worden verdisconteerd.
7.3. Atlas
NEN 2063 is van _toepassing op !assen, die zijn vervaardigd volgens een boog-
lasproces in ongelegeerd of zwak gelegeerd staal met een gespecificeerde vloei-
grens tot en met 355 N/mm2• ·
De constructie dient goed te zijn beschermd tegen corrosie, mag zich niet in
zeewater of andere agressieve media bevinden en mag niet langdurig aan lage
temperaturen worden blootgesteld. Er mag geen antler scheurfenomeen (zoals
brosse breuk) optreden gelijktijdig me~ vermoeiing.
In de norm zijn uitgebreide kwaliteitseisen opgesteld waaraan de las moet vol-
doen. Bij vermoeiing zijn onregelmatigheden in de geometrie (zoals lasonvol-
komenheden) doorgaans maatgevend voor de levensduur. De ~cr/N lijnen in de
norm zijn mede gebaseerd op vermoeiingsexperimenten aan lasverbindingen
waarin zich onvolkomenheden bevinden. De betrouwbaarheid van de .1cr/N lij-
nen bedraagt 95%.
Tot slot mag bij gebruik van NEN 2063 geen sprake zijn van 'low cycle fati-
gue'. Hieraan wordt voldaan als: ~O'v $ l,5fy;d en ~crv $ 10 ~crbij 104 •
In NEN 2063 is een aantal lasdetails ver-

type omschrijving f.<Sy
zameld in een _zogeheten atlas (art. 10.2).
De lasdetails zijn in drie categorieen te
·<><
101 lassen zonder spleet,
tweezijdig gelast, vlak
geslepen. 100% ndo, verdelen: !assen zonder spleet, lassen met
zonder oppervlaktefouten spleet en hoeklassen. Bij gelaste verbin-
K70 K70
. dingen zijn er factoren die niet v_an tevo-
102 !assen zonder spleet, ren vastliggen, zoals de lashelling en de
tweezijdig gelast
(V- of X-las) ~· · . ~
vorm van de lasteen, maar die wel een
/ .. grote invloed op de vermoeiingssterkte
K55 KSO
hebben. Gelaste verbindingen worden
103 !assen zonder spleet. dan ook doorgaans in klassen ingedeeld
eenzijdig gelast (V-las)
<X K70 K70
op grond van een groot aantal proeven,
die wereldwijd zijn ui_tgevoerd. De klasse
wordt weergegeven door de letter K,
gevolgd door een getal dat de waarde van
7.11. Clossificatie van enkele details in NEN 2063. .1crk aangeeft (~. 7.11).
285
De bij die klasse behorende ~o/N lijn is min of meer de ondergrens van al deze
proefresultaten (afb. 7.12).
500
400
300
200 0
'E ~
<1
~ V
~ >
b b
<1 <1
Q)
::,
100 ,Ql
80 J§
Q)
0
>,
60 0
3:
50 .Q
0
40 0
>
C>
C
30 N
C
Q)
0)
Q)
20 .c
15
.10
104 1()5 106 107 108 2-108 109
7.12. ~o/N lijnen voor de verschillende klassen. lndien in een onlwerpspedrum alle spanningsintervallen even grool zijn, of
wanneer alle spanningsinlervallen kleiner zijn dan ~crk gelden de lijnen fol N= 101 wisselingen en vervolgens de horizontale
onderbroken lijnen. .
De vermelde karak.1:eristieke waarden van ~c,k gelden voor een plaatdikte t ~ 30

mm. Is de plaatdikte groter dan 30 mm maar kleiner dan 50 mm, dan wordt de
waarde ~O'k met een reductiefactor vermenigvuldigd:
Spanningsverhogende invloeden die inherent zijn aan het type lasdetail, hoeven
niet in rekening te worden gebracht, omdat deze invloeden zijn verdisconteerd in
de waarden van de karah.1:eristieke spanningsintervallen in de atlas. De spanning-
verhogende invloeden die niet direct tot de lasverbinding behoien, bijvoorbeeld
afrondingsstralen en gaten in het moedermateriaal, moeten wel in rekening wor-
den gebracht met spanningsconcentratiefactoren (zie NEN 2063, bijlage B).
MOEDERMATERIAAL
Spanningsconcentraties in het moedermateriaal worden berekend aan de hand
van spanningsconcentratie- of ~-factoren. Enkele van deze factoren zijn experi-
menteel bepaald en in tabellen weergegeven (tabel 7.13). De ~-factoren kunnen
ook worden berekend met de eindige-elementenmethode.
286
De gemiddelde spanning wordt vermenig-
vuldigd met de ~-factor om de te toetsen
piekspanning crP te verkrijgen. Er wordt
niet met spanningsintervallen gewerkt,
maar met spanningsniveaus. De gemid-
delde spanning moet kleiner zijn dan de
vloeigrens: crgem~ = crP::; fy;d·
~ .......... _
1,21--,1--,t-t-t--t-"'"l---d::r-:--t,---
~r---r--- - - --
-1---1-r=_=t-;:=_-+-t--_+-+---~+-
=1~
1,0~~--~~~--~~~~~-~
I • 7.13. Experim~nfeel bepaalde spanningsconcenfratiefoctoren kr
0 0,06 0,12 0,18 0,24 0,30
7.4 Toetsing volgens NEN 2063
Op vermoeiing belaste constructies worden onderscheiden naar de wijze van

belasten, namelijk door constante of door variabele spanningsintervallen.
CONSTANTE SPANNINGS/NTERVALLEN
.,!;'
Indien in een ontwerpspectrum alle spanningsintervallen even groot zijn, wordt

de vermoeiingsbeschadiging berekend volgens NEN 2063, art. 8.1. Het lasdetail
bepaalt de klasse en de bijbehorende waarde van dcrk de ligging van de t'.\cr/N
lijn. Deze lijn bepaalt de relatie tussen het spanningsinterval dcri en de levens-
duur Ni (afb. 7.13). De Wohlerlijn heeft een knikpunt bij 1-107 wisselingen.
Daarbij hoort het spanningsinterval Licrk. Voor N < 1-107 is de helling 1:3 en
. voor N > l · l 0 7 loopt de lijn horizontaal. Deze horizontale lijn vormt de grens
waaronder geen beschadiging meer optreedt.
Voor dcri < dcrk geldt Ni= 00 • Indien dcri ~ dcrk dan is:
t'.\crk
looN.
0
= 7 + 3log -
• dcr.I
Constante spanningsintervallen met een waarde 1$leiner of gelijk aan ~ak zijn
niet beschadigend. De totale vermoeiingsschade wordt gelijk gesteld aan:
287
VAR/ABELE SPANNINGSINTERVALLEN
Om voldoende nauwkeurig te zijn, moet het ontwerpspectrum minimaal acht
blokken bev~tte1;1. In verband met de hoogte van de voorkomende spanningsin-
tervallen worden twee gevallen onderscheiden:
□ Aile spanningsintervallen dcri in het ontwerpspectrum zijn kleiner dan dcrk.
Aangeno~en mag worden dat er geen sprake is van vermoeiingsschade. .
□ Niet alle spanningsintervallen ~cri: in bet ontwerpspectrum zijn kleiner dan
dcrk. De levensduur wordt bepaald met de beschadigingsregel van Palm-
gren-Miner, waarbij tussen het spanningsinterval dO'i en de levensduur Ni moet
worden uitgegaan van een ~cr/N lijn (atb. 7.13). Twee knikpunten en de helling
van de lijn karakteriseren de Wohlerlijn. Het eerste knikpunt is vastgelegd door·
1-107 wisselingen en bet bijbehorende spanningsinterval dcrk. Voor N < 1· l 07 is
de helling 1:3 en voor N > 1-107 is de helling 1:5. Bij 0,55dcrk loopt de lijn hori-
zontaal. Deze horizontale lijn vormt de· grens waaronder geen beschadiging
meer optreedt.
V oor dcri < 0,55dcrk is de grenswaarde van het aantal optredende wisselingen
Ni = 00 en t:i-eedt er geen beschadiging op. Als dcri ~ ~crk, dan volgt de beschadi-
ging D 3 (helling 1:3) uit de grenswaarde van het aantal wisselingen:
~O'k
logN. = 7 + 31og - ⇒
I ~Q'j
Voor 0,55dcrk::; ~cri < ~(jk geldt voor de .beschadiging D5 (helling 1:5):
dO'k
lo 00 N.I = 7 + Slog-
~Q'.
⇒
I
cp is een reduc~iefactor afhankelijk van de grootte. van D 3• In het gebied waar de

· helling 1:3 is, treden de grootste beschadigingeii' op. W anneer er relatief weinig
spanningsintervalle·n in <lat gebied voorkomen, en er dus relatief kleine bescha-
digingen door de grootste spanningsintervallen zijn veroorzaakt, mag de
beschadiging D 5 worden gereduceerd. Voor D 3 ~ 0,2 geldt q> = 1,0 en voor D 3 <
0,2 geldt: . .
25D 3(1-D 3)
q>=-----
15D3 + 1
De totale vermoeiingsbeschadiging volgt uit de sommatie van de beschadiging

die per blok wordt veroorzaakt. Voor de toetsing van de vermoeiingsschade
. moet gelden:
288
7.5. Rekenvoorbeeld basculebrug
Een ve1111oeiingsberekening wordt gei1lustreerd aan de hand van een basculebrug

(afb. 7.14). Getoetst wordt het detail ter plaatse van de overgang van het dek naar
de jhoofdligger, in de bovenflens van bet draaipunt (afb. 7.15). Bij een bascule-
brug varieren de belastingen zowel door bet regelmatig openen, sluiten en opzet-
ten als door het passerende verkeer.
------,
dekplaat
r= 325
" --------------------r hoeklas .
-I
I
1:---
1 ================= i=== -------,
--------➔
I I
I
I ove,gangsplaat ____________________ , ______ _
helling 1:10
I
------ ------- -------1
bovenflens stompe las
. X .,fo II 11)111 . .!.

T
1
f2iI
, helling 1 :10
'-----------------------------•-- I
7.14. Basculebrug, Erasmusbrug le Rotterdam. . 7.15. Detail van hel draaipunl fer plaatse van de overgang van het dek naar de hoofdligger.
o (N/mm2]
SJ' A NN I N GS HIS TO RI E
De spanningscyclus die de bovenflens
118 van het draaipunt doorloopt tussen
twee open Standen van de brug is
weergegeven in afbeelding 7.16. In
82 gesloten stand treedt de maxirnale
73
spanning op en in open stand de mini-
male spanni~g. Tijdens het sluiten
11
brug
wordt de brug opgezet, waardoor de
brug
..._________________
open _ _ tijd
open
bovenflens in geringe mate wordt ont-
last. De spanningen die de voertuigen
veroorzaken, worden gesuperponeerd
7.16. Sponningsverloop in de bovenflens ler plaalse van he! draaipunl bij het op de spanningen bij de de gesloten
sluiten, openen en opzetten van de brug inclusief de verkeer5invloeden.
opgezette stand van de brug.Voor de
eenvoud worden in dit geval de traag-
heidseffecten en de windinvloeden
tijdens het openen en sluiten van de
basculebrug verwaarloosd.
289
De effecten die spanningen veroorzaken in de bovenflens zijn in tabel 7 .17
weergegeven.
oorzaak n per cyclus cr [N/mm2]
open stand 11
gesloten stand 82
opzetten 73
passerende vdertuigen 3 45
12 35
20 25
40 10
7.17. Effecten die spanningswisselingen veroorzoken in de bovenflens.
HISTOGRAM
De volgorde waarin de verschillende voertuigen in de tijd de basculebrug passe-
ren, is.willekeurig. Als per cyclus dezelfde voertuigpopulatie passeert, onafhan-
kelijk van de volgorde, is volgens de 'rain~ow-methode' volgens NEN 2063,
bijlage C, het zwaarste voertuig maatgevend in combinatie met de gesloten ·
stand. Het grootste spanningsinterval dat optreedt bedraagt: .1cr = 73 + 45 - 11
= 107 N/mm2•
Er wordt aangenomen <lat per jaar 3300 cycli voorkomen. Voor de basculebrug
wordt uitgegaan van een levensduur van ~00 jaar. Tijdens de levensduur zal de
brug de cyclus in totaal 330.000 maal doorlopen. Het aantal spanningswisselin-
gen n staat in tabel 7.18.
oorzaak .6.cr n per n per 100

[N/mm 2] cyclus jaar [x106J
gesloten stand + zwaarste voertuig 107 0,33

voertuig 4 53-1=2 0,66
voertuig 35 ., 12 3,96
...t·
voertuig 25 20 · 6,60
voertuig 10 4P 13,20
opzetten van de brug 9 ~-·2 0,66
7.18. Sponningsinfervollen met bijbehorend aantal sponningswisselingen voor de bovenflens von he! droaipunl in de brug.
In dit voorbeeld komen slechts enkele span- <D

0
~ 15
ningsintervallen voor, zodat direct een histo- z
gram wordt afgeleid. De gegevens in tabel
7 .16 worden vertaald naar een histogram
(afb. 7.19).
W anneer echter de spanningsinte~allen tal-
rijk zijn, worden de gegevens eerst in een
spanningsspectrum weergegeven voordat de
afleiding naar het histogram kan worden ge-
maakt. In NEN 2063, bijlage E, wordt ver- spanningsinterval [N/mm2]
meld uit hoeveel blokken het histogram dan
moet bestaan. 7.19. Histogram.
290
KEUZE WOHLERLIJN
De lasaansluitingen tussen de bovenflens en de dekplaat en die tussen de boven-
flens en het lil van de overgangsplaat zijn weergegeven in afbeelding 7.15. Op
grond van de lasdetaillering en de spanningsrichting vindt de classificatie met
de atlas plaats (NEN 2063, art. 10.2.2).
□ Hoek/as tussen bovenflens en lijf. De hoeklas (flanklas) die de verbinding
vormt tussen de lijfplaat en de dekplaat is volgens de atlas verbinding van bet
type 204. De spanningsintervallen treden op in bet verlengde van de las, zodat
.1cry = .1crk = 50 N/mm2• De plaatdikte ter plaatse van
de hoeklas is 40 mm. Dat
is meer dan 30 mm en minder dan 50 mm, zodat de waarde .1crk = 50 N/mm2
moet worden vermenigvuldigd met een reductiefactor (NEN 2063, art.10.2.2):
30 · .,
= -
40
= 0,931 ⇒ .1crk =0,931-50
·
=46,5 N/mrn-
~
□ Stompe las tuss~l} bovenflens en dekplaat. De ov~rgangsplaat is uit een stuk

gesneden en via een stompe las aan de dekplaat verbonden. De las is tweezijdig
uitgevoerd en volledig doorgelast. Deze verbinding behoort tot las type 102. De
spanningsintervallen treden loodrecht op de las op, zodat: ~crz = .1crk = 50 N/mm2 •
BE PALING LEVENSDUUR
Uh het maatgevende spanningsinterval .1crk = 46,5 N/mm2 voor de Iassen en de
optredende variabele spanningsintervallen in tabel 7 .16 blijkt dat niet alle span-
ningsintervallen .1cri kleiner zijn dan .1crk, zodat er sprake is van vermoeiing.
De spanningsintervallen worden eerst vermenigvuldigd met de belastingfactor 'Y
= 1,2 om de rekenwaarde te krijgen. De beschadiging moet per tak in de .1cr/N
lijn worden bepaald. lndien ~cri ~ ~crk behoort bet spanningsinterval tot de tak
1:3 en wordt de te verwachten levensduur met de, bijbehorende beschadiging
per spanningsinterval bepaald ✓•.
2
Voor .1cri = 128,4 N/mm .geldt:
~k %5 . 6
logN. = 7 + 3log - = 7 + 3Iog - ' - ⇒ Ni= 0,475-10
I '-' ,1(jj 128,4
6
ni3 0,33-10
0,6948
Ni3 -: 0,475-10 6
2
Voor .1cri = 54 N/mm geldt :
. 46,5 6
logN.I = 7 + 3loe --
.., 54
⇒ Ni = 6,385-10
. 6
ni3 0,66-10 =
0 1034
Ni3 - 6,385-10 6 ,
291
De totale beschadiging in de tak I :3 wordt als volgt gevonden:
ni3
D 3 =L ~ =0,6948 + 0,1034= 0,7982
!'li3
. De beschadiging'in de tak I :3 is groter dan 0,2, zodat er geen reductie mag Wor-
den toegepast: <p3 = I .
Wanneer geldt 0,55~crk = 0,55-46,5 = 25,6 N/mm2 S ~ai S ~ak = 46,5 N/mm2
behoort hetspanningsinterval tot de tak met de helling 1:5.
Voor ~<Ji= 42 N/rmn2 geldt:
~ak 46,5 6
logN.=7+5log-=7+5log-- => Ni=l6,6-IO
I ~(jj 42-
. <p nis = l 3,96-106 = 0 2386

N 6 ,
i5 16,6·10
2
Voor ~<Ji = 30 N/mm geldt :
46 5 6
logN. = 7 +Slog
I .
•
30
=> N 1. = 89,5-10
nil = I 6,60-106 = 0 0738

<p N 6 ,
i3 89,5-10
De rest van de spanningsintervallen is kleiner dan 0,55~ak =0,55-46,5 =25,6 ·

N/mm2, zodat die geen beschadiging veromzaken. In tabel 7.20 staan de resul-
taten van de drie takken weergegeven.
Mi [N/mm2] . y~cri [N/mm2J n [x106 J Wohlertak N [x106] n/N

,..
107 128,4 0,33 1:3 0,475 0,6948
45 54 0,66 1:3 6,39 0,1034
35 42 3,96 1:5 16,6 0,2386
25 30 6,60 1:5 89,5 0,0738
10 12 13,20 1:oo 0,0000
9 10,8 0,66 . 1:oo 0,0000
1,1106
7.20. Optredende sponningsintervoHen in de bovenflens met de levensduur per sponningsinlervol en de bijbehorende

. · beschodiging.
Op grond van deze analyse blijkt dat de levensduur onvoldoende is voor de vol-
ledige periode van 100 jaar, omdat I n/N > 1. Er zijn nu verschillende opties
beschikbaar om de levensduur te verhogen.
□ Verlagen van de veiligheidsfactor. Dit betekent een acceptatie van een ver-
hoogde kans op vermoeiingsscheuren, waardoor formeel de constructie gezien
niet veilig genoeg meer is. Het resultaat van een verlaging is een langere )evens-
292
duur. De acceptatie van de verlaagde veiligheid hangt af van een aantal factoren:
het belang van het desbetreffende onderdeel. Als bezwijken van dat onder-
deel leidt tot instorten van de constructie moet de veiligheid ook navenant
hoog zijn;
de functie van ;het onderdeel. Als ontoelaatbare beperkingen van de functie
optreden, is een hoge betrouwbaarheid van doorslaggevend belang.
In tabel 7 .21 is de· totale beschadiging berekend wanneer de belastingfactor

wordt verlaagd tot y= 1,15. De beschadiging in de tak 1:3 bedraagt D3 = 0,6122
+ 0,0912 = 0,7034. Er is geen reductie mogelijk in de tak met de helling 1:5,
zodat q,3 = I. Deze berekening voldoet wel aan de levensduur, want I n/N =
0,9581 ~ 1.
~cr [N/mm 2] y~cr [N/mm2J n [x10 6] Wohlertak N [x106 ] n/N
107 123,1 0,33 1:3 0,539 0,6122

45 51,8 0,66 1:3 7,23 0,0912
35 40,3 3,96 1:5 20,4 0,1941
25 · ?,8,8 6,60 1:5 109 0,0606
10 ·:11,s 13,20 1:oo 0,0000
9 10,4 0,66 1;oo 0,0000
0,9581
7.21. Optredende sponningsintervollen in de bovenflens met de levensduur per sponningsintervol en de bijbehorende

beschodiging alsy= 1,15.
□ Lasdetail minder vernweiingsgevoelig maken. Door de hoeklassen te vervan-

gen door K-lassen zonder spleet wordt het spanningsinteral dcrk verhoogd van
50 naar 55 N/mm 2• ·De stompe las worden uitgevoe!d zoals in klasse IOI
omschreven (vlak geslepen, 100% niet destructief-onderzoek, vrij van opper-
vlak."tefouten), zodat geldt dcrk = 70 N/mm2• Maatgevend is dan het detail met
dcrk = 55 N/mm2• Na een correctie voor de plaatdikte ~ordt dcrk = 51,2 N/mm2•
De resultaten van.'deze berekening zijn weergegeven in tabel 7.22. De beschadi-
ging in de tak I :3 wordt D 3 = 0,5205 + 0,704 = 0,5909 > 0,2_, zodat <p3 = 1.
De levensduur van 100 jaar wordt gehaald. Duidelijk blijkt dat een geringe ver-
betering van de detaillering kan leiden tot een aanzienlijke vergroting van de
levensduur.
~cr [N/mm2] y~cr [N/mm 2J n [x106 ] Wohlertak N [x10 6] n/N
107. 128,4 .0,33 1:3 0,634 0,5205

45 54 0,66 1:3 8,52 0,0704
35 42 3,96 1:5 26,9 0,1472
25 30 6,60 1:5 145 0,0456
10 12 13,20 1:oo 0,0000
9 10,8 0,66 1:oo 0,0000
0,7837
7.22. Optredende sponningsintervollen in de bovenflens met de levensduur per sponningsintervol en de bijbehorende

beschodiging bij een verhogin9 van ~cr1 fol 51,2 N/mm1•
293
□ Optredende spanningsniveau verlagen. Door de profielen te verzwaren (bet-
zij door een vergroting van de plaatdikten, hetzij door een hoger profiel te kie-
zen) zal het optredende spanningsniveau verlagen. Bij deze ingrepen moet niet
. i
uit bet oog worden verloren dat daardoor soms het eigen gewicbt toeneemt. Dat
resulteert bij beweegbare bruggen vaak
in een toename van de spanningswisse-
lingen. Een oplossing is dan bijvoorbeeld het reduceren van bet eigen gewicbt
door onder meer een andere slijtiaag te ~ezen. Bij bestaande bruggen is soms
een gewichtsreductie mogelijk door te kiezen voor lichtere (aluminimum) dek-
constructies.
Literatuur
- LP.Bouwman, Vermoeiing van bouten en van geboute verbindingen, uitgave Staalbouwkundig Genootc;chap
en Sraalcentrum Nederland, Rotterdam 1989.
- J. de Back, 'Wat is vermoeiing en wat weten we ervan?',Bouwen met Staal 31 (1975), p. 23-26.
- L.P. Bouwman, 'Onderzoek boutverbindingen ·, Bouwen met Staal 46 ( 1978), p. 21-25.
- A. Kuperus, 'lntroductie basis-voorschrift berekening gelaste constructies op vermoeiing', Bouwen mer Sraal
56 (1981), p. 17-21.
- H.M.C.M. van Maarschalkerwaart, 'Nadere uitwerking van de grondbeginselen van NEN 2063 bij het op ver-
moeiing berekenen van spoorwegbruggen', Bouwen met Sraal 71 (1985), p. 18-24.
J. de Back, 'Geboute verbindingen: mogelijkheden en economic', Bouwen met Staal 84 (1988), p. 9-13.
- J. de Back, 'Vermoeiingsberekening van verbindingen',Bouwen met S1aa/ 85 (1988), p. 61-65.
- H.M.C.M. van Maarschalkerwaart, 'Aanvullende gegevens betreffende het op vermoeiing berekenen van
spoorwegbruggen volgens NEN 2063', Bouwen met Staal 89 (1989), p. 43-45.
- M.H. Kolstein en A. Bruis, •Bepaling van een verkeersbelastingmodel voor de berekening ..,-an verkeersbrug-
gen', Bouwen met Sraal93 (1990), p. 13-23.
NEN 2063, Booglassen. Op vermoeiing belaste constructies. Het berekenen van gelaste verbindingen in onge-
legeerd en zwakgelegeerd staal tot en met Fe 510 (Fe 52).
- Ontwerp NEN 6788, TGB 1990- Her onrwerpen l•an szalen bruggen. Basiseisen en eenvoudige rekenregels.
VOSB 1990.
- ECCS, European Recommendations/or bolted connections in structural steelwork, Publication No 38,
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Bruxelles 1985.
BS 5400, Steel. conc~ete and composize bridges - Pan I 0. Code of practice for fatigue, British Standards
Institution, London 1980.
- lntroductie Voorschriften Ontwerpen Stalen Bruggen /990, syllabus, uitgave Stichting Kennisoverdracht SG,
Rotterdam 1993.
- Onrwerp en berekening van op vermoeiing belaste staalconstructies, di~t Gl9, uitgave Technische
Universiteit Delft, Faculteit der Civiele Techniek, Sectie Staalconstructies, Delft 1987.
- Breukmechanica, vermoeiing en (brosse) breuk, syllabus, uitgave""Stichting Postakademiale Opleiding
Lastechniek, Delft
- Verbindingen in S1aalconstruc1ies, syllabus, uitgave Staalbouwkundig Genootschap en Stichting Centrum
Bouwen in Staal, Rotterdam 1979.
- M.H. Kolstein, Presentariewijze l·oor het op l·ermoeiing berekenen van sralen verkeersbruggen - Resultaren
van een berekeningsmethodiek., uitgave Stevinrapport 6-85-17, 1985. '
- M.H. Kolstein en J. de Back, Traffic loads on steel highway bridges, uitgave Pr9Ceedings ECCS/BCSA
International Symposium on Steel Bridges, 3/1-27, 19S8.
- M.H. Kolstein, Berekening op vemweiing van stalen verkeersbruggen i·olgens NEN 2063 -
Achtergrondinformatie ten behoei-·e van Onrwerp NEN 6788, \'oorschriften voor her onni,·erpen van .rtalen
bruggen, uitgave Stevinrapport 6.90.3, 1990.
- M.H. Kolstein, H.M.C.M. van Maarschalkerwaart en J. Wardenier,A simplification ofrhefazigue calculation
ofsteel bridges using standard design curves, uitgave Proceedings Welded Sructures '90, 1990.
- T.R. Gurney, Fatigue of welded srrucrures, Camb!"idge at the University Press, 1968.
- R.E. Peterson, Stress concentration design factors. Charts and relations useful in making strengrh calculations
for machine parts and structural elements, London 1953.
294
5 .
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Improvement Techniques in Welded Joints

Stress
range
b.. S (MPa)
400
350
As welded
Figure 11 Comparison of results obtained by some

improvement methods, qata from refs 31..:32

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. IMPROVEMENT METHODS - OPERATING PRINCIPLES
3. SOME IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND THEIR EFFECT ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
4.APPLYING IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO REAL STRUCTURES
5. IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND DESIGN RULES
7. REFERENCES
\
\
\·
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the more commonly used weld improvement techniques and their effects on
the fatigue performance of ~elded joints. ·
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces improvement techniques primarily as remedial measures for

welded structures. Initial analyses of the reasons for the poor fatigue performance of
welded joints leads to a classification system for improvement methods. The various
methods used in practice are then described and evaluated. The methods described are:
The AWS improved profile

The use of special electrodes
Grinding
Weld toe remelting
TIG dressing
Plasma dressing
Hammer peening
Shot peening
Guidance on current design rules is summarised; the need for improvement to design
standards and guidance is highlighted.
Lecture 12.5 Page 2

#=P
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Any weld in a structure usually represents a weakness both with regard to brittle
fracture and fatigue strength. The low fatigue strength of welded joints is a
limiting factor for the design of more efficient structures, in.particular since the
fatigue strength normally does not increase with static strength. Upgrading the
fatigue performance of a welded structure can be achieved in several ways such
as:
Good detail design, e.g. by substituting a lower class joint with one
having a higher fatigue strength.
Improving the fatigue strength of the joint using an improvement method.
Improvement methods are usually employed as remedial measures to extend the

fatigue life of welds that have failed prematurely and have been repaired. They
are also used to extend the life of welds which, through service load monitoring,
have been shown to be more severely loaded than assumed during the design
phase.
The incentive for applying improvement methods is to make an improved welded

joint behave like a mildly notched component, as shown in Figure 1.
The use of higher allowable stresses for welded joints in higher strength steels
entails other benefits as well: the thickness effect in fatigue is reduced, bringing
about a further reduction in weight as compared with a lower strength steel joint
with the same load bearing resistance. A reduced size of section in general also
improves the brittle fracture properties of the joint. The lower welding, handling
and erection costs may partially offset the higher fabrication expenses incurred
by the improvement methods.
In this lecture the emphasis is on the degree of improvement in fatigue strength

which it is possible. to obtain using the various improvement techniques.
However, from a practical point of view, other considerations such as cost and
reliability of the treatment (quality assurance) may be important. Various aspects
of quality control and cost are discussed briefly at the end of the lecture.
1 .2 The Potential for Improving Fatigue Strength

To understand the full potential of improvement methods for fatigue life, it is
useful to look at the reasons for the poor fatigue performance of welded joints.
The low fatigue strength of welded joints as compared with other notched
components is illustrated in Figure 2. Welded joints differ from other notched
components in several ways even if the elastic stress concentration factors Ki are
Lecture 12.5 Page 3 ·=§1,:p

similar. It is important to identify the main factors that tend to reduce fatigue life
in order to choose efficacious methods for improving the fatigue performance.
The main differences between welded and unwelded, notched components are:
(a) Notch shape and defects:· The geometrical notch of the weld toe region,
which normally is the most fatigue critical area, is generally less uniform
than notches in a machined component, see Figure 3. Moreover, welded
joints contain an assortment of defects, most of which are so sharp that
they start growing as fatigue cracks when the structure is subjected to
dynamic loads, thus reducing or eliminating the crack initiation stage of
the fatigue life.
(b) Metallurgical changes in the base material: The material in the heat
affected zone (HAZ), in which the fatigue crack is likely to initiate and
propagate, undergoes metallurgical changes that may affect the local
fatigue properties. Thus the softened material in the HAZ of a higher
grade steel, whose high strength has been obtained by thermo-mechanical ,,.
treatment, may limit the fatigue strength that is possible to obtain by
improvement techniques.
(c) Residual stresses are set up in and near the weld due to the contraction
of the weld metal as it cools to ambient temperature. Thes_e local
residual stresses due to welding, which may reach the yield stress in
magnitude, affect the fatigue properties in a similar manner to externally
imposed mean loads, i.e. a tensile residual stress reduces fatigue life
.while a compressive stress increases· life. The distribution of transverse
residual stresses in a welded plate of simple shape is shown in
Figure 3(b).
Residual stresses do not arise only from the thermal strains associated
with the welding process and subsequent cooling. Global or long range
residual stresses are introduced in a structure· whenever members are
forced together, due to misfit; uneven thermal expansion or when
restraint is being used. Long range stresses act over large areas and are
therefore not relaxed by peak loads at stress· concentration or by local
treatment. They are generally of smaller magnitude than welding
stresses.
(d) Environmental effects: A corrosive environment may have a strong

adverse effect on fatigue life. The fatigue lives of common welded joints
are typically reduced by a factor of two or four under free corrosion in
seawater. However, the prevention of corrosion by either cathodic
protection or protective coatings, which may restore the air fatigue
properties of a welded joint, are not regarded as improvement methods
per se because corrosion protection is part of normal practice for the
construction and operation of offshore structures.
Lecture 12.5 Page 4

2. IMPROVEMENT METHODS OPERATING.
PRINCIPLES
The low fatigue strength of welded connections is generally attributed to the very
short crack initiation period which is generally found to be in the range of about
10 to 30% of the total life, depending on the method of observation and
definition of the initial crack. Comparing this with a crack initiation period of
more than 90% typically observed for smooth specimens tested at low stresses,
there is obviously scope for a substantial life increase by delaying crack initiation.
The principal ways of achieving this increase are by:
(a) Reducing the stress concentration factor of the weld.
(b) Removing the crack-like defects at the weld toe~
(c) Removing the harmful tensile welding residual stresses or introducing

compressive stresses.
Since both (a) and (b) both involve altering the local geometry, weld
improvement methods can be placed in two broad categories:
(1) Weld geometry modification methods

(2) Residual stress methods.
Various methods which have been investigated [1,2] are listed in Figure 4. Table
1 presents an evaluation of the improvement methods that are currently used in
practise, together with some information on relative costs where available. In
addition, two other methods have been tried in the last few years; water gouging ·
and laser remelting. However, the two methods are still very much experimental
in nature and have, as far as is known, not been employed in industry. .The
following methods have reached a more mature stage in the sense that they are
used in industrial applications:
(1) Weld toe grinding, using either a disk grinder or a rotary burr to~I.
(2) Tungsten inert gas (11G) remelting of the weld toe region.
(3) Weld profile control, i.e. performing the welding such that the overall
weld shape gives a low stress concentration and the weld metal blends
smoothly with the plate.
(4) Special electrodes with good wetting characteristics to give a favourable

weld toe geometry.
(5) Hammer peening of the weld toe region.
(6) Shot peening.
Lecture 12.5 Page 5. .=§,:p

Grinding and TIG remelting methods may be classed as weld toe geometry
modification methods, whereas hammer preening and shot preening are residual
stress techniques.
Particularly large improvements may be obtained when techniques from the two
groups are combined.
'
Lecture 12.S Page 6

#=P
3. SOME IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND THEIR
EFFECT ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
3.1 Improved Welding Techniques

Weld profiling and the use of special electrodes are methods that are integral
parts of the welding process itself. These methods · are attractive from a
production point of view since there is no need to come back with a different
type of equipment for a final treatment of the weld, which would increase costs
and make quality control more difficult.
3. 1. 1 The AWS improved profile
In the Structural Welding Code (3] of the American Welding Society (AWS), a
low stress concentration factor is sought by controlling the overall shape of the
weld to obtain a concave profile and requiring a gradual transition at the weld
toe. The "disc test" or "dime test" shown in Figure 5, as specified by AWS, is
used to ensure an acceptable weld. If the weld does not pass the disc test,
· remedial grinding at the weld toe or at the interbead notches has to be carried
out. If profile control is carried out the designer can use the X curve in
Figure 6, if not the lower x' curve must be used.
3.1.2 Special electrodes
Specially developed electrodes with coatings that have good wetting and flow
characteristics have been used in Japanese test programs aimed at improving the
fatigue performance of high strength steels of 500 to 800 MPa yield strength [4].
These electrodes are understood to have been widely used in the construction of
high strength steel bridges. The electrodes give a smooth transition at the weld
toe and a reduction of the calculated stress concentration factors, typically from
around 3 to 1,2-1,5 for fillet welds. The improvements reported in the Japanese
tests were from 50 to 85 %, the largest increases in fatigue life being reported for
the highest strength steels. However, other tests on T-joints made recently in
Norway gave improvements of approximately 25%. The main doubts about
special electrodes concern their use in positional welding where the easy flow of
the filler material may be a disadvantage.
3.2 Grinding
Grinding (Figure 7) can be carried out with a rotary burr grinder or disc grinder,
the former requiring much more time and therefore incurring higher costs. To
ensure the removal of slag intrusions, grinding has to be extended to a minimum
depth of 0,5mm below the bottom of any visible undercut [5]. The lower stress
concentration factor and the removal of crack-like defects at the weld toe
generally give large increases in fatigue life, typically from 25 to 100% at long
lives (N > 1 million cycles), see Figure 8 [6]. However, the scatter is large,
particularly for disc grinding which may be difficult to perform in confined areas;
also an inexperienced operator may inadvertently remove too much material.
Lecture 12.5 Page 7_

~:p
Grinding is currently the only improvement method allowed in European codes
for offshore structures [5,7). However, the higher fatigue strength is not
intended for use in initial design, instead grinding may be used as a remedial
measure if the design life is shown to be inadequate at a late stage during design
or construction.
3.3 Weld Toe Remelting
Remelting of the weld toe using either TIG or plasma welding equipment
generally results in large gairis in fatigue strength, for several reasons. Firstly,
the smoother weld toe transition reduces the stress concentration factor; secondly,
slag inclusions and undercuts are removed; and thirdly, according to some
Japanese publications, the higher hardness in the heat affected zone is claimed to
contribute to the higher fatigue strength.
Plasma dressing generally tends to give better results than TIG dressing. This
with plasma dressing. '
3.3.1 TIG dressing
Standard TIG dressing equipment is used, usually without any filler material.
For the older type C-Mn steels (e.g. St 52) with a relatively high carbon content,
a second TIG round was necessary to temper the first run at the toe [8], see
Figure 9. The second run also contributes to a better weld toe geometry. The
hardness problem associated with TIG dressing of C-Mn steel is eliminated with
the use of modem low carbon steels. TIG dressing is somewhat sensitive to
operator skill, the weld and plate must be clean to avoid pores.
The magnitude of the improvement depends as for most improvement techniques,

primarily on the joint severity and base material strength. Improvements ·ranging
from about 10% for butt welds in mild steel plates to about 100% for fillet
welded high strength steels have been reported. Figure 10 shows typical results
in the latter case [8].
3.3.2 Plasma dressing
Plasma dressing is similar to TIG dressing, the main difference being the higher
heat input (about twice that used in TIG dressing), and a wider weld pool. The
latter tends to make plasma dressing less sensitive to electrode position relative
to the weld toe, and the resulting improvements in fatigue strength are generally
larger than for TIG dressing.
3.4 Residual Stress Methods

Some improvement in fatigue behaviour is obtained by removing residual welding
stresses by postweld heat treatment, especially if the applied load cycle is wholly
or partly in compression. However, the largest benefits are obtained if .
Lecture 12.5 Page 8

-=#=P
compressive residual stresses are introduced. The more commonly used residual
stress methods are hammer peening and shot peening.
3.4. 1 Hammer peening
Hammer peening is carried out with a solid tool with a rounded tip of 6-14mm
radius. A similar technique consists of using a wire bundle instead of a solid
tool. Both types of tool are normally pneumatically operated. The solid tool
gives a far more severe deformation and gives better improvements than either
- wire bundle or shot peening [6].
Optimum results for hammer peening are obtained after four passes, giving a
severely deformed weld toe, with an indentation depth of about 0,6 mm,
providing a simple inspection criterion [6].
Like burr toe grinding, hammer peening is a noisy and tedious operation and has
perhaps, for this reason, not attained widespread use. The improvements are
among the highest reported, see Figure 11. Most test results show larger
improvements for higher strength steels [6].
3.4.2 Shot peening
In the shot peening process the surface is blasted with small steel or cast iron
shots in a high velocity air stream, producing compressive residual surface
stresses of about 70 to 80% of the yield stress. Assessing the quality of the
treatment entails time consuming residual stress measurements. In practice, the
intensity or the degree of surface plastic deformation is determined by Almen
strips, which are small steel strips attached to the surface of the component. The
curvature developed in the strip is a measure of the peening intensity. A second
parameter is area coverage. 100% coverage is obtained when visual examination
at lOX magnification of the surface shows that all dimples just overlap. The time
required to obtain 100% is doubled to obtain 200% as normally specified. A
major advantage of shot peening is that it covers large areas at low cost.
Results from fatigue tests on shot peened welded joints show substantial
improvements for all types of joints, the magnitude of the improvements varying
with type of joint and static strength of the steel. Typical results are 30 to 100%
increase in fatigue in fatigue lives in the long life region; however, at shorter ·
lives (N < 10S cycles) the improvements tend to disappear. Tests in sea water
show that the improvements are retained even under freely corroding conditions
[9).
High peak loads in variable amplitude loads sequences may be assumed to relax
the residual stresses and reduce the efficacy of such methods, but German results
have shown no such adverse effects [9].
Lecture 12.5 Page 9

#=P
3.5 Compounding
The combination of twq improvement methods, particularly a weld geometry
method and a residual stress inethod, are likely to give large improvements. One
example is full profile grinding and hammer peening which resulted in the fatigue
strength of fillet welds in mild steel being-restored to that of the base material
[ 1O]. More common combinations are grinding and shot peening and AWS weld
profile control and shot peening [ 11]. In such cases the resulting improvement
may be double that of a single method.
'
Lecture 12.S. . Page 10 ,,:p

4. APPL YING IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO REAL
STRUCTURES
Most current knowledge on improvement methods has been gained from tests on
small scale planar specimens. When considering the application of weld
improvement methods to actual structures, the differ~nces in fatigue behaviour
has to be evaluated. One important factor is size. In a large structure long range
residual stresses due to forcing the members together are present and influence
fatigue life. Another consideration is the existence of alternative failure sites.
Obviously no improvement can be expected for a joint with load-carrying fillet
welds whose toe regions are ground or TIG dressed if the untreated joint is as
likely to fail from the root as from the toe; the failure would only be shifted to
the root.
In contrast to small joints where the peak stress is limited to the weld toe, the
peak stress region in a large multi-pass joint may include several weld beads.
Cracks may initiate anywhere in this highly stressed area.
In some welds, e.g. in tubular joints with low beta ratios, there is a very steep
stress gradient at the weld toe which is caused partly by the global geometry. If
the weld leg length is reduced, e.g. by grinding as indicated in Figure 12, the
resulting peak stress may well be higher and the resulting improvement could be
marginal or non-existent.

#-p
5. IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND DESIGN RULES
5. 1 Current design rules incorporating improvement

techniques
As noted in Section 3.1 the weld profile improvement method is included in the
AWS/API design rules in terms of the X curve that may be used generally if
profile control is carried out, otherwise the lower X must be used. The two
curves intersect at a life that is somewhat less than 104 cycles, i.e. the
improvement is lost at this life. ·
In the UK Department of Energy rules, S-N the curves for all types of joints can
be moved by a factor of 1,3 on strength (2,2 on life) if grinding is carried out
[5]. Thus the two curves are parallel, and the improvement applies also in the
low life/high stress region, contradicting most test data which tend to show very
small or no improvements at all in this region, i.e. giving intersecting as-welded
and improved S-N curves, as exemplified by Figure 11. '
The Swedish design code (12] for welded structures consists of 10 S-N curves,
each of which is identified by its Kx factor, see Figure 13. The code also
includes a weld quality system containing four basic classes plus an additional
class designated U for improved fatigue strength. Use of the improved class
requires that:
undercuts, weld reinforcements, penetration beads, un-filled grooves and

root concavities must blend smoothly with the base material.
incomplete root penetration is not permitted.
arc strikes must be avoided or removed.
The use of improvement techniques such as grinding, TIG dress.ing and hammer
peening is permitted to obtain the highest quality dass. The combination of weld
geometry, probability of survival level, and weld quality thus determines the S-N
curve to_ be used. The Swedish system of S-N curves is similar to the British
rules insofar that employing an improvement method leads to a parallel shift of
the S-N curve.
5.2 Improved Welds and Size Effects

Size effects in notched components are generally attributed to three origins (13],
i.e. a technological size effect, a statistical size effect or a geometrical or stress
gradient size effect.
Technological size effects result from differences in production parameters,

generally leading to lower mechanical strength for the thicker parts. Also
residual stresses and surface quality may vary with thickness.

=#=P
Statistical size effects arise from the higher probability of encountering a large
defect in a large volume of material compared with a smaller volume.
Geometric size effects arise from the stress gradient at the notch root. Even if
geometric scaling is maintained the stress gradient is steeper for the thicker part
and a crack will grow in a higher stress field. If geometric scaling is not
maintained which is usually the case for welded joints,the stress magnification
factor increases with thickness, see Figure 14.
Fracture mechanics calculations [14] have shown that the influence of thickness
increases with the SCF of the joint. A statistical analysis of published data on
size effects in welded joints gave a size exponent of n = 0,33 for as-welded
joints and n = 0,20 for improved joints, where n is the size exponent in the
thickness correction equation ·
(1)
This tendency to get a smaller influence of size for unnotched or mildly notched
parts has been shown to exist for mechanical components and the following
relation between n and the SCF has been proposed (13]
~n = 0,1 + 0,14logKi (2)
5 .3 Future Modification to Design Rules

The current status of improvement methods is not satisfactory as several methods
with proven ability to improve the fatigue strength of a large variety of small
scale specimens as well as large structural components are not included in design
rules. Moreover, the European rules (5, 7, 13] which give the same
. improvement at all lives, are not consistent with test data which indicate that the
largest improvements are obtained in the high-cycle region, and very small or no
improvements occur in the low-cycle region (N < 104 cycles).
Secondly, both theoretical and experimental results indicate that size effects are
less severe for mildly notched parts than for the more severe joints with very
short crack initiation lives. Thus a size exponent of 0,2 would probably be
adequate for low SCF joints like simple butt welds or T-joints with small
attachment thicknesses. For the higher SCF joints, e.g. Class F and lower, a size
exponent of n = 0,33 would be more suitable [13]. For improved welds an
exponent n = 0,2 for all weld classes would probably be adequate.
Life predictions that include a crack initiation stage using local stress strain
concepts plus fracture mechanics methods for the crack growth stage have given
reasonably accurate life estimates for improved welds (6), and support the
experimental observation that the fatigue lives of improved welds generally
increase with base material strength. Thus a third, and perhaps more
controversial modification to the design rules, would be to allow higher fatigue
strength for higher strength steels. However more data has to be collected before
specific recommendations regarding the degree of "improvement can be made.

#=P
An effort is now being made within the International Institute of Welding's
Commission: Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Components and Structure, to collect
data on improvement methods with the aim of developing recommended shop
practices and design guidance for improvement methods.
'

#1,=P
The low fatigue life of welded connections is generally attributed to the
very short crack initiation period.
Weld improvement methods are primarily aimed at extending the

resistance to crack initiation.
Substantial increases in fatigue strength can be obtained consistently when

improvement methods are used. ·
However, the full potential of weld improvement method can only be

obtained if premature failures from other locations, e.g. the weld root,
can be avoided.
The degree of improvement is generally large for higher strength steels

than for mild steels.
Size effects are lower for low severity joints, implying that size effects
.are mitigated by weld improvement methods which reduce the local stress
concentration.
The problems of quality control are similar to those involved in the

welding process itself.
The question of employing an improvement method is related to cost and

the benefit allowed in design rules.
Further work is needed to improve the quality of design codes and design
guidance.

#=P
7. REFERENCES
[1] Haaagensen, P.J.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Welded Joints",
Fatigue Handbook. Offshore Steel Structures. Ed. A. Almar Naess,
Tapir 1985.
[2] Bignonnet, A.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Welded Steel

Structures", PS4, Steel in Marine Structures, Int. Conf. Delft, Elsevier,
June 1987.
[3] Structural Welding Code - Steel, ANSI/AWS 01.1-86, American

Welding Society, Feb. 1986.
[4] Kobyashi, K. et al.: "Improvements in the Fatigue Strength of Fillet

Welded Joint by Use of the New Welding Electrode", IIW doc.
XIII-828-77.
I
[5] .Department of Energy, "Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and
Const~ction". HMSO, London 1984.
[6] Knight, J.W.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joints
by Grinding and Peening", Welded Res. Int. Vol. 8(6), 1978.
[7] "Fatigue Strength Analysis for Mobile Offshore Units", Det norske
Veritas Classification Note 30.2, Aug. 1984.
[8] Haagensen, P.J .: "Effect of TIG Dressing on Fatigue Performance and

Hardness of Steel Weldments", ASTM STP 648, 1978.
[9]. Grimme D. et al.: "Untersuchungen zur Betriebsfestigkeit von

geschweissten Offshore-Konstruktionen in Seewasser", ECSC Agreement
7210 KG/101 Final Report 1984.
· [10] Gurney, T.R.: "Effect of Grinding and Peening on the Fatigue Strength
of Fillet Welded Joints", British Welding Journal, December 1968.
[11] Haagensen et al.: "Prediction of the Improvement in Fatigue Life of

Welded Joints due to Grinding, TIG Dressing, Weld Shape Control and
Shot Peening", TS35, Steel in Marine Structures, Int Conf. Delft,
Elsevier, June 1987.
(12] Swedish Regulations for Welded Steel Structures 74 StBk-N2, National

Swedish Committee on Regulations for Steel Structures, 1974.
[13] Haagensen, P.J. et al.: "Size Effects in Machine Components and

Welded Joints", Paper 1017, Houston, Texas, 1988.
[14] Maddox, S.J. "The Effect of Plate Thickness on the Fatigue Strength of
Fillet Welded Joints", The Welding Institute, 1987.
Lecture 12.S Page 16

#=P
LECTURE 12.5
FIGURES
Figure 1: Page 3
Figure 2: Page 3
Figure 3: Page 4
Figure 4: Page 5
Figure 5: Page 7
Figure 6: Page 7
Figure 7: Page 7
Figure 8: Page 7
Figure 9: Page 9
Figure 10: Page 8
Figure 12: Page 11
Figure 13: Page 12
Figure 14: Page 13
Lecture 12.5 Page. 17

Table 1 Evaluation of Improvement Methods
GROUP METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE COST

COMPAR
ATOR
GRINDING Relatively simple and Applicably mainly to planar joints
METHODS easy to perform. that can be expected to fail from the
General Give large improvement toe. All grinding techniques give a
poor working environment regarding
Cl] noise and dust. Access to weld may
C be a limiting factor.
0
:: Relatively simple to Marginal increase can be expected
E-
tlJ
:::E perform, inexpensive. for large size welds tubular joints
E- Simple in section due to stress concentration effect of
zUJ criterion (depth min. groove.
:::E 0,5 mm below plate
UJ
> surface or undercut).
0
~ Full profile Very slow. Expensive Large improvements to be expected 20
Q.,
~ burr grinding due to high labour costs for all types of welds.
>- and high tool wear rate.
~
E- Disc grinding Very fast compared Score marks give lower 2
tlJ
:::E with burr grinding. improvements than burr grinding.
0
UJ Can cover large areas.
0
Improper use may introduce serious
defects.
REMELTING Large improvements Operator needs special training
METHODS are possible. Suitable
General for mechanisation.
TIG Small physical effort Careful cleaning of weld and plate 1
dressing required. Inexpensive necessary.
High hardness may result in C-Mn .
steels due to low heat input.
Plasma Easy to perform due to Lower hardness than TIG dressing NIA
dressing large weld pool
Somewhat large Heavy, cumbersome equipment.
improvement than TIG Accessibility may limit use
dressing
WELD The improvement is Defects at weld toe not removed.
PROFILING introduced in the
METHODS welding process itself.
General
AWS Well defined inspection Very large scatter in test results due NIA
improved criterion (the .. dime to variation in microgeometry at
profile test") weld toe. Consistent improvements
only possible if method is combined
Suitable for large welds with others, e.g. toe grinding,
and tubular joints hammer peening or shot peening.
Special Easy to perform. Improvement smaller than, e.g. NIA
electrodes Suitable for small grinding or TIG dressing.
joints. Inexpensive.
Table 1 (Continued)

#,P
GROUP METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE COST
COMPARATOR
General Large improvements Not suitable for low cycle
possible. fatigue applications.
Beneficial effects may

disappear under variable
amplitude loading involving
peak compressive loads.
Cl)
Hammer Very large Limited to toe treatment 2
Q peening improvements possible only.
0
:t: for poor quality welds.
E-
Ul
::s Simple inspection Excessive peening may
Cl) criterion (depth of cause cracking.
Cl)
UJ groove > 0,6mm).
~
E-
Cl) Shot peening Well developed Practicable application to NIA
..J procedures for small large scale structures not
<
:::>
Q
parts. Covers large demonstrated.
c;; areas.
UJ
~ Simple methods for Best suited for mild notches.
quality control.
Improves resistance to Very thin surface layer

stress corrosion deformed; corrosion may
cracking. quickly remove beneficial
effects.
Le.cture 12.S Page 19

#=P
· Stress
range,
MPa
400
300 +-~.___ ___,}--+
200
100
50 R=O !
Steel to BS 4360 . 0 1
Grade 508
10-+--------------------~
Cycles
Figure 1 Relationship between endurance limit and

ultimate tensile strength for some
components
#=P
Lecture 12.5 ·
Stress range
for life of 10 6
cycles, MPa
+-~ }-+
500
+-~ () }-+
400
300
200
100 +-~ :::::::::::::::::: ~ ~
400 600 800

Ultimate tensile strength
of steel MPa
Figure 2 Typical fatigue strengths at R=-1 of

unnotched, mildly notched and welded
components, dependent on the strengt.hs ·
of the steels
#=P
Lecture 12~s
Stress Crack-like crack
concentration defect
Compression Ten~on
II('. I
Gmax
Lack of f us Ion
~
l_.
Lack of penetration
(a) 1 -Crackllke defect, 2 -undercut, 3 - hydrogen crack (b) Residual tranverse stress
4 -lack of fusion, 5 -lack of penetration field across the weld
Figure 3 Factors affecting fatigue life of welded joints A:p

-rt!J
Lecture 12.5
~
Burr
- grinding
Machining
- methods
Oise
- grinding
Weld geometry - Tig

dressing
improvement
methods
-- Remelting.
methods
Plasma
---- dressing
Weld profile
- control
(AWS)
--- Special welding
techniques
Special
- electrods
Shot
- peening
- overloading
method - Hammer or
- wire bundle
.--
Mechanical
methods - peening
Initial
- overloading
- overloading
method - Local
----
Residual stress
methods - compression
- Thermal
stress relief
Mechanical Spot
- methods Heating
Gunnerts
- method
Figure 4 Classification of some weld

improvement methods .
-
--p
Lecture .12.5
Dime test to be applied to weld
toes (A) and weld face irregularities
(lnterpass notches)
Weld toe
a·ngle 135 °min Coin or disc
R-t/2 except with radius A
Not special that 8<r<25 mm
finishing A 135°mln 1 mm wire shall
not pass
Butter pass
(to be made
prior to_ cap passes)
Figure 5 The· A WS/ API design curves with test data

.,,_,<'/:p
:_.·
i:)
Lecture 12.5
.
Total strain
range
welds
French
Dutch test
o Butt welds and/or controlled profile

• Filled weld and/or uncontrolled profile
1010
Cycles-to-failure
Figure 6 The A WS/ API design curves with test data
. -
# --p .
Lecture ·12.5
Disc grinder
Rotary burr
grinder
Fullprofile
grinding Toe grinding
·-f
0,5-1,0 mm
(a) 1 -Rotary burr grinding, 2 -Disc grinding (b)' 3 -Full profile grinder, 4 -Toe grinding
Figure 7 Two grinding methods
, ,=p
'
'
Lecture 12.5
..
Stress range,
MPa
500
',, ,, ,, X
' ',
Heavy disc ground
400 ,, ' '

''
, ,, ~- ,, I
',',
'' ' '

' ,,
'
Toe burr ground
300 '' ' ' ' ' '

''' ' ' ' ' ' ............
240
' ', ~
'
------ --- --
200 BS 4360 gr 43A ' , , / Hea~-;lac ground
180 - (245 MPa yeleld ', '
strength) ,,
160
Superelso 70 ',
140 (685 MPa yield strength) ',
120 '''
100 I ii ii 1> ii •
4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10
Endurance, cycles
Figure 8 Fatigue strength improvements due to burr toe grinding

and disc grinding data from ref. /6/
=#-
--p
.
..
Lecture 12.5
(a) Single run
1 -tungsten electrode, 2 - nozzel, 3 -shielding, 4 -HAZ
5 -remelted metal
(b) Double run

6 -remelted metal from second TIG run, 7 -HAZ from run ref (8)
# -
-..
· -p
Figure 9 TIG Dressing Lecture 12.5
...
Material: FG 47 CT
Stress Loading: const. amplitude
· Environment: lab. air
range, Frequency: 5 Hz
MPa Load ra tlo: R-o, 1
400 / TIG dressed
300 0
200
100
a=b=27 mm
10 4 2 4 6 810 5 2 4 6 810 6 2 4 6 810 7
Number of cycles
Figure 10 Effect of TIG dressing on the fatigue

strength of a medium strength steel
ref. /17 /
,, ..
.
Lecture 12.5
=P
Stress
range
AS {MPa)
400
350
300
Hammer peened
200 Short peened

Fully burr ground
Plasma dressed
150
Toe disc ground
100 {ID-
As welded
104 5 105 2 3 4 5 108 2 3 4 5
Figure 11 Comparison of results obtained by some

improvem~nt methods, data from refs 31-32
.
#.
=p
- .
Lecture 12.5
prior to grinding
after to grinding
Distance from original

weld toe
· Material removed by grinding
Figure 12 Stress distributions in tubular j~int in a

tubular joint before and after grinding,
schematic
#-
.
.
.
=p
Lecture 12.5
O'r
N/mm 2
1000 Assumed S-N CURVES

(failure curves)
500
300
200
100
50
20
10 3
Figure 13 S-N curves in the swedish design code [37]
# .
.
--p
Lecture 12.5
3,0
2,5
/ p = canst.
2,0
1,5--'------------------,,--~
5 100 150
t(mm)
Figure 14 Increase in calculated stress concentration

factor with plate thickness due to lack of
scaling of the weld toe geometry
,,- .
=p
Lecture 12.5
6
CT5126 Fatigue
Lecture: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
Figure 3 Axially loaded bolt with possible fatigue crack locations

OBJECTIVE
Introduction to the design of bolted connections under fatigue loading.
SUMMARY
The basic principles of fatigue resistance of bolts and bolted connections are established.
The load transmission is described in shear and tension connections. In each case, the
bolts can be non-preloaded or preloaded. The positive effect of the preload of the bolts
on the fatigue behaviour in both shear and tension is discussed. Some economical
solutions are proposed.
NOTATION
A Nominal area of a bolt [mm2]

Aa Stress area of a bolt [mm2]
db Nominal diameter of a bolt [mm]
da Diameter of the stress area [mm]
dr Shank diameter [mm]
de · Core diameter [mm]
m Slope of a strength fatigue curve [-]
N Number of stress cycles [-]
0a Normal stress range [MPa]
AT Shear stress range [MPa]
Fb Normal force in a bolt [N]
FP Preload in a bolt [N]
Lecture 12.6 Page2

1. INTRODUCTION
All the concepts given in Lectures 12.1 and 12.2 relating to the design of
structures against fatigue loading and fatigue assessment procedures are applicable
to bolted connections. However, the presence of geometrical discontinuities
(holes, changes of section) causes stress concentrations which increase the
stresses locally and influence resistance to fatigue. Stress concentrations occur
in bolts at the thread roots, thread run-out and at the radius under the head.
Fatigue failures in bolts in fluctuating tension commonly occur at this last
location or in the first thread under the nut.
The design of the joint is very important; the fatigue strength finally depends on
the real path of the loads through the connection, and the fluctuation in stresses
of the fatigue sensitive regions.
Two types of load cases on a bolted connection can be discriminated. One where
the load is in the axial direction of the bolts and the other where the load transfer
is perpendicular to the bolt axis. In this Lecture these two types are referred to
as:
I Bolted connections loaded in tension

II Bolted connections loaded in shear.
An example of the first type is a bolted flange connection as shown in Figure 1.

An example of the second type is a bolted coverplate connection in a flange of
a beam section or a simple strip, see Figure 2. In the latter case the load is
transferred by shear either in the bolts (for non preloaded bolts) or at the plate
surfaces (for preloaded bolts).
In addition to these two load situations, combinations are possible.
Lecture 12.6 Page 3

#=P.
2. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTS LOADED IN
TENSION
Before discussing bolted connections loaded in tension and their specific

requirements to prevent fatigue failure, the fatigue behaviour of the bolt (or
thread) is discussed.
2.1 · Location of Failure
The thread in a bolt acts as a notch and therefore a high stress concentration is
caused at the root of the thread. At two locations of the thread the stress
concentration can be even higher, i.e. at the runout of the thread and where the
thread of the nut first engages the thread of the bolt.
In addition, the head-shank transition is also a stress concentration.
There are, therefore, basically three locations in a bolt with nut axially loaded,
where a fatigue crack can initiate in a bolt with nut axially loaded. These
locations are:
a. head-shank transition
b. runout of thread
c. thread at nut.
In standard bolts the radius at the bolt-head shank transition is large enough to
prevent fatigue cracks at this point.
Normally, if fatigue cracks occur, they will be located at the first engagement of
the threads of the bolt and nut (c in Figure 3). This is due to the load transfer
from nut to bolt.
The load transfer at the contacting thread faces of the bolt and nut give rise to
extra bending stresses in the threads, as shown in Figure 4.
Moreover the load is not equally distributed between the contacting faces of the
thread of the bolt and the nut. In most situations the load transfer is concentrated
at the first engagement of the thread faces and can be 2 to 4 times the mean value
[1]. However this depends on the thread form, pitch difference, difference in
Young's modulus where different materials are used etc. The load transfer
distribution can become more uniform, by plastic deformation of the nut.
2.2 Influence of Mean Stress and Material
The fatigue behaviour of the thread of a bolt is more or less comparable to the
fatigue behaviour of a weld. In both cases there is a notch where a fatigue crack
initiates. For the weld it is the weld toe and for the bolt it is the thread root.
Lecture 12.6 Page 4

=;/6=P
Due to the presence of the notch and the resulting high stress concentration
factor, the fatigue behaviour is in most cases hardly affected by:
The mean stress level

The material quality.
The negligible influence of the mean stress level is caused by the high stress
concentration. At the first occurrence of the maximum load level of a cycle,
yielding at the notch occurs. The following cycles then cause a stress variation
at the notch which has a maximum equal to the yield strength independent of the
mean stress level of the load itself. An exception to this is the situation where
the bolt thread is made by rolling after the heat treatment of the bolts which
results in residual compressive stresses at the thread roots. In that case the
fatigue performance is better at low mean load level.
The phenomenon that the material has a negligible effect is explained by the fact
that as material strength improves the sensitivity to notches increases. This effect
is illustrated in Figure 5 [5] where the influence of the ultimate tensile strength
on the fatigue strength for different notch cases is given [5].
2.3 The Fatigue Design Curve for Bolts in Tension
Although the notch at a weld (with its undercuts and slag inclusions) is possibly
more severe than the machined or rolled notch at the thread root, the concentrated
load transfer between bolt thread and nut on top of the inherent stress
concentration can cause a relatively poor fatigue performance.
Therefore, in the Eurocode 3 classification [4], axially loaded threads and bolts
fall in the category equal to the lowest category for weld details, being class 36.
The relevant design line for this category is given in Figure 6. The stress range
given on the vertical axis should be based on tensile stress area of the bolt.
It is only mentioned here that according to Clause 9. 7. 3 of Eurocode 3 a modified

design curve may be used for threads and bolts.
As can be seen from the design curve in Figure 6, the constant amplitude fatigue
limit for the bolts is 26 MPa. This means that, for a constant amplitude loading,
there is no fatigue damage where the stress range is less than 26 MJ:1a. For a
variable amplitude the fatigue limit is 15 MPa.
2.4 Comparison Between Ultimate and Fatigue Load

Resistance of a Bolt
The following example illustrates that the fatigue load bearing resistance is very
low compared to the static strength of a bolt. For a bolt under static loading the
tension resistance Ft.Rd according to Clause 6.5.5 of Eurocode 3 is given by:
Lecture 12.6 Page S

#=P
Substituting the appropriate values for a bolt M24 grade 10.9 gives the following
result:
0,9x l0x 100x353 = 254 kN

1,25
For a constant amplitude fatigue loading at zero mean level containing more than
107 cycles, the allowable maximum force on the bolt will be:
1M 1 = =
Fmax = 2
=
2
~(JD A, 0,5 x 26 x 353 4,6 kN
In other words, a bolt designed to transfer .a tension force of 254 kN may not be
fatigue loaded with a maximum force higher than 4,6 kN (under the circumstance
of zero mean level and more than 107 cycles). This example illustrates the
relatively weak fatigue performance of an axially loaded bolt.
Lecture 12.6 Page 6

#=P
3. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTED
CONNECTIONS LOADED IN TENSION
Although the fatigue performance of the axially loaded bolt itself is poor, that is
not necessarily the case for axially loaded connections. For these connections,
the fatigue performance depends on the structural detailing and the applied
preload in the bolt.
3 .1 The Principle of the Effect of Preloading
The effect of preloading, where there is a tensile loading on a bolted connection

is illustrated for a flange connection, in Figures 7 and 8. For example, the
connection can be a flange connection in a tubular section (chimney or tower).
The distribution of the forces is compared for the situation with and without
preloading of the bolts. The thickness of the flange is assumed to be large
enough to neglect bending flexibility and possible prying forces.
Without Pre!oad
Where there is no preload (Figure 7) and thus no contact force Fc on the facing
surfaces of the flanges, the external tensile force Ft applied on the connection will
be transferred by the force in the bolts Fb. Therefore the variation of the tensile
force Ft will result in a variation of the force in the bolts and at the same time
a displacement of the flanges. The connection can be considered as a two spring
system as indicated.
With Preload .
In case of preload with a force Fv, this force will initially be in equilibrium with
a contact force Fc on the contact area of the flanges, Figure 8. The two flanges
now act as one piece as long as the external load Ft is less than the preload Fv.
As a result, when the external load is applied the forces in the bolts will change
little. Only the elastic deformation (mainly change in thickness) of the two
flanges will cause a change in bolt load. The flanges however are relatively stiff
due to their much larger area compared with the bolt area.
However, the load in the bolts willincrease _rapidly as soon as the contact
surfaces separate due to the external force surpassing the preload force F v· At
that moment the situation is equivalent to the non preload case.
As long as the external load Ft is below the preload force Fv the situation can be
considered as a three spring system. Two small springs being the bolts and one
stiff spring being the two flanges, Figure 8.
The diagram at the right-hand side of Figure 8 gives the relation between the
different forces. At no external load (Ft = 0) the elongation due to the preload
of the bolts is at point A in this diagram. When an external load Ft is applied,
Lecture 12.6 Page 7

the connection will stretch, resulting in an elongation of the bolts and flange
thickness thus resulting in an increased Fb and at the same time a reduction of the
. compressive force F c in the flanges as indicated. At each stage the following
relation yields: ·
It follows from the diagram that the increase in the external force is compensated
for the larger part by a decrease of the contact force Fc and a small increase in
the forces in the bolts Fb.
The amount of variation of forces in the bolts due to the variation in the external
forces is dependent on the stiffness ratio of the flanges and the bolts. Therefore,
the more flexible the bolts the less force variation they will undergo. Increasing
the length of the bolts by inserting washers or using spring washers will be
beneficial because it means that the two springs in the diagram (being the bolts
and possible washer etc.) are more flexible. Inserting gaskets between the
flanges will make the flange assembly more flexible and would have a detrimental
effect. The flanges must be thick to reduce the bending flexibility, otherwise the
location of the contact area becomes critical.
3.2 The Effect of the Location of the Contact Area
In the previous section it was shown that preloading the bolts in a tensile loaded
connection reduces the force variation in the bolts and therefore can avoid fatigue
failure of the bolts. The preload in the bolts must be greater than the external
load.
However, preload alone is not always a guarantee for a reduced force variation
in the bolts. The contact force of the connection, which is developed by
tightening of the bolts to its preload, must also be located in a favourable position
as well.
This is illustrated in Figure 9 by a flange connection, where the thickness of the

flange is much smaller than in the previous example and is therefore flexible in
bending. In the flange connection of two T-sections the location of the contact
forces has been established by introducing loose shims· in two different ways.
The location of the shims defines the location of the contact forces. In both cases
the bolts are tightened to the same preload.
The schematic models of the relevant spring system are also shown in Figure 9.
Contact Area at the Centre
Where the shims and thus the contact force are in the centre, Figure 9a, there is
effectively a very stiff spring in the middle compared to the two flexible springs
representing the flexibility of the bolt and the bending flexibility of the flanges
(the latter in this case being the most important part of the total flexibility). This
case is similar to the situation in the previous section with a much larger
Lecture 12.6 Page 8

#=r
difference in the stiffness between the contact area and bolts + flanges due to the
· bending of the flanges.
Contact Area at the End or Flanges

Where the contact area is at the end of the flanges, _Figure 9b, the springs
representing the contact area and the bending flexibility of the total flanges, are
very flexible.· Therefore the springs, representing the bolts plus a part of the
flanges, have a relatively much higher stiffness. As a result the variation of the
external force F1 will result in a variation in the bolt forces of nearly equal
magnitude.
Results or Measurements
For the examples above actual measurements of the bolt forces have been carried
out [2]. The measured bolt forces in these two situations are given in Figure 10.
In each case the bolts were tightened to a preload Fv of 100 kN each. In Figure
10 the force in the bolt Fb is plotted by the thick line as a function of the external
· toad F1• At an F1 of zero, Fb starts at the preload of 100 kN. The external force
F1 is also given by the dashed line under an angle of 45°. From the equilibrium
of the forces it follows that the vertical distance between this line and the thick
line of the measured bolt force is equal to the contact force F c·
In the situation with the contact in the centre, Figure 1Oa, the forces in the bolts
are almost constant until the external force surpasses the preload F v· This means
that the part of the connection including the contact area (the middle spring in the
spring model) is extremely stiff compared to the flexibility of the bolts plus
bending of the flanges (side springs in the spring model). As a result the
variation in the forces in the bolt is negligible as long as the preload is greater
than the external load. Fatigue failure in this case is not to be expected.
This is in contrast to the situation with the contact forces at the end of the
flanges, Figure 10b. In this situation the stiffness of the flanges is negligible
compared to the stiffness of the bolts. All external load is now transferred by the
bolts. Where the external load is a cyclic loading the load variation must be very
small, otherwise fatigue failure of the bolts occurs very soon.
In general the most favourable situation with respect to fatigue resistance is

obtained when the contact area is as close as possible to the components in which
the tensile force is acting.
In Figure 11 some examples of favourable and less favourable situations are

given. More examples are given in [2] and [3].
Lecture 12.6 Page 9

.#,=P
4. FATIGUE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN
SHEAR
A simplified example of a bolted ·connection loaded in shear is shown in

Figure 2. The load is transferred from one strip to the other by the coverplates.
The connection can be assembled by bolts which are not preloaded and by bolts
which are preloaded. Both situations have their own way of load transfer and
failure mechanism.
4. 1 The Principle of Load Transfer
Non Preloaded Bolts
In case of non preloaded bolts the forces are transferred by bearing of the plates
against the shank of the bolt and consequently shear in the bolt shank as indicated
in Figure 2a. This type of joint can not be used where the variable load changes
sign since the clearance between the holes and shank allows large displacements
to occur repeatedly.
The load transfer in this type of joint is very concentrated at the location where
the shank bears against the holes as indicated in Figures 2a and 12a.
Preloaded Bolts
Where the bolts are preloaded, the forces are transferred by friction of the plate
surfaces. The bolts which transfer the load by friction are known as High
Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG), Figure 12b. High strength bolts and
controlled tightening are necessary to obtain sufficient compressive stresses to
enable the load to be transferred by friction.
The load transfer by friction takes place over the whole area where compressive
stresses are present due to the bolt preloading as indicated in Figures 2b and 12b.
Therefore, the load transfer is not as concentrated as with non preloaded bolts.
Connections with HSFG bolts can also be used where the variable load changes
sign.
4.2 Stress Concentration Around the _Holes
Non Preloaded Bolts
For non preloaded bolts there will be a· stress concentration at the holes as
indicated in Figure 12a.
The stress concentration results from the fact that there is a hole in a stressed
plate. Moreover the load is introduced by the bolt shank in a very concentrated
way.

#=P
Preloaded Bolts
In case of preloaded bolts there is no stress concentration at the holes. The

stresses may even be lower than the nominal stress as indicated in Figure 12b.
This is due to the fact that at the hole a part of the load has already been
transferred. Moreover the bolt head and nut will reduce the deformation of the
hole.
4.3 Location of Failure
Non Preloaded Bolts
Due to the stress concentration at the hole a fatigue crack can occur there (see
Figure 12a). Another possibility is the failure of the bolt as a result of the
variable shear load in the shank at the shear plane. The threaded part of the bolt
should not be in the shear plane because the notch effect of the thread would
reduce the fatigue resistance drastically.
Preloaded Bolts
For preloaded bolts the stresses at the holes are low. Fatigue cracks do not,
therefore, occur at the holes. The fatigue crack normally occurs in the gross
section of the plates, see Figure 12b.
The contact pressure applied by the preload of the bolt gradually decreases
around the hole. The crack initiates where the contact pressure is not high
enough to prevent slip between the plate, resulting in crack initiation by fretting.

#=p
5.. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES FOR CONNECTIONS
LOADED IN SHEAR
5.1 Non Preloaded Bolts
In this case there are two possible failures - the shank of the bolts and the plates.
Both should be verified against the relevant design curves.
For the bolt shank loaded in shear, the design strength according to Eurocode 3
[4] is given in Figure 13. No thread is allowed in the shear plane.
For the plates, the stresses should be calculated for the net section and the detail
category 112, according to the Eurocode 3 classification, should be used [4].
5.2 Preloaded Bolts
In the case of preloaded bolts, the bolts themselves will not fail provided that the
preload in the bolts prevents total slip.
The plates fall into the same category as in the non preloaded case. However,
since failure does not occur in the net section, the gross section of the plate can
be used for calculating the fatigue stresses.

#=P
6. REMARKS CONCERNING THE MAGNITUDE OF
THE PRELOAD
The magnitude of the total preload must be large enough to prevent slip (shear
connection) or disappearance of the contact forces (connection loaded in tension)
at the maximum possible load on the connection.
Where the connection is loaded in shear, any slip of the connection due to an
extreme load can reduce the friction coefficient by an unknown factor. Thus the
preload has to be designed on the basis of the maximum extreme load case. The
calculation procedure to prevent this is given in ESDEP Lecture 11.3 .2. Another
way of preventing the slip due to accidental extreme load cases is to use injection
bolts [6].
Where the connection is loaded in tension, an "overload" cancelling the contact

forces will result in a force variation in the bolt. This in itself will not cause
fatigue failure since the number of cycles is limited. However, after this loading,
the preload in the bolt can be reduced due to local yielding and resulting plastic
deformation of the bolt or contact areas between bolts and flanges.

#=P
7. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ANCHOR BOLTS
The dimensioning of holding down bolts under static loading and their anchorage .
into the foundation are described in Lecture 11.3 .2.
Concerning fatigue strength, anchor bolts do not behave in the same way as
normal bolts; some parameters are different: the thread size, the diameter and the
method of forming the thread.
Test results have shown [7] that the bolt diameter and the thread size do not
influence fatigue behaviour; the fatigue lives were almost identical for tested
specimens as for normal bolts.
On the other hand, the method of forming the thread influences the fatigue
strength. Tests were carried out on anchor bolts with rolled threads or with cut
threads. The specimens with rolled threads provided the longer fatigue life. This
better performance may be due to the compressive residual stresses at the thread
root generated by the thread-rolling operation.
When the threads are cut automatically, this operation leaves a transition at their
termination. It is a sharp notch adjacent to a region of smooth bar. It has been
shown that there is an important stress concentration at the notch which induces
fatigue cracks.
Consequently rolled threads appear to improve the fatigue performance of the

bolt and are recommended for use when available. Note that the fatigue life of
a bolt is a function not only of the bolt thread, but also of the nut.
As already mentioned for common bolts, the use of a double nut increases fatigue
resistance and its influence seems to be larger for anchor bolts.
All considerations described in Section 5 concerning the influence of the prying

effect are applicable for connections made with holding down bolts. For
instance, tests on site have shown that the designs in Figures 14b and d give
better fatigue behaviour than the solutions in Figures 14a and c.

#=P
A bolt loaded in tension has a low fatigue performance.
In a bolted connection loaded in tension, fatigue of the bolts can be

prevented by preloadiog the bolts and taking care that the contact area is
favourably located.
In general a favourable position of the contact area with respect to the

fatigue of the bolts is obtained when it is located as close as possible to
the components in which the tensile force is acting.
For a bolted connection fatigue loaded in shear, preloading the bolts

leads to the following advantages over the non preloaded case:
The variable load may change sign.
The thread of the bolt is allowed in the shear plane.
The fatigue strength of the connection is enhanced, since the

stresses are based on the gross section instead of the net section.

#=P
9. REfERENCES
[1] Frost, N.E., March, K.J., Pook, L.P., Metal fatigue, Oxford
University Press 1974, ISBN 0198561148
[2] Bouwman, L.P., Bolted connections dynamically loaded in tension,

ASCE, J. of the Structural Division, Vol. 108, No. ST, September 1982.
[3] European recommendations for bolted connections in structural

steelwork, No. 38, March 1985.
[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1,

General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[5] Gurney, T.R., Fatigue of welded structures, Cambridge 1968.
[6] Bouwman, L.P., Gresnigt, A.M., Dubois, G.A., European

Recommendations for Bolted Connections with Injection Bolts, ECCS-
TC 10 draft.
[7] Frank, K.H., Fatigue Strength of Anchor Bolts, ASCE, Journal of the
Structural Division, vol. 106, ST 6, June 1980.

#=P
LECTURE 12.6
FIGURES
Figure 1: Page 3
Figure 3: Page4
Figure 4: Page4
Figure 5: PageS
Figure 6: Page 5
Figure 7: Page 7
Figure 8: Page 7
Figure 9: Page 8
Figure 10: Page9
Figure 11: Page 9
Figure 13: Page 12
Figure 14: Page 14

#=P
tF
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 1 Example of bolted connection loaded in

tension
Lecture 12.6
l
11
11
~
----
----@--i-i-@----
11
11
.
---- ,,,.....
11
(a) No preload
(b) With preload
Figure 2 Examples of bolted connections loaded in ·

shear
#=P
Lecture 12.6
Figure 3 Axially loaded bolt with possible fatigue crack locations
# - .
.
=P
Lecture 12.6
Gap
·Figure 4 Bearing contact between threads in

bolt and nut
# .
--p
Lecture 12.6
Stress range
at 10 8 cycles
(N/mm 2 )
Plain machined
500
specimen
400
.. .. / -+ 0
300
/
....,,.
r~
..
/
~
200
A D.
A A
~ 6_6i-
~
A
100 v- -~
+-{ ·: f__.
200 400 600 800 1000
Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm 2 )
Figure 5 Effect of material strength on fatigue strength [5] # -

-p
.
Lecture 12.6
Aab
(N/mm 2 )
~?i£\cz--=1Aab
1000
500 I Log NR'" - 31og Aab + 10,97 (5,10 4 < NR < 5.10 6 ) 1 ·
Log NR• - Slog Aab + 13,82 (5,10 8 ~ NR ee: 5.10 8 )

r:--~
L1_?L3J rg7-77
~-L...J
100
50
Constant amplitude
....._...._......,
fatigue llmlt .
------ I
------- I rg-8.-,
10 --, ~L~
I
I •••• I I I I
s.10 4
10 5 ·5 10 6 2 5 10 7 5 10 8
Cycles NR
Figure 6 Fatigue design curve for threads under axial loading [3]
,,-.
=p
Lecture 12.6
2Ft
Fb
I
[Fb ~ I
I ~ Fb
l
II
LWJ
tF, + 2Ft
At
Figure 7 Flange connection with non-preloaded bolts
,,-.
Lecture 12.6
=P
1i12Ft
l 2Ft Fb,Fc
Fb+H~ 2Fc :-1+-J--Fb

[Fb ~ ~2F~ Fb
J tmJ
At
.i 2Ft
1
12F1
.=P
.
Figure 8 Flange connection with preloaded bolts
#
. .
Lecture 12.6
i 2F1 t 2F1
I I
'♦I' 2F 1
t 2F1 i 2F1
Fb Fb
_ 2F1 2Ft
(a) (b)
Figure 9 Flange connections with dlf ferent locations of contact force #=P
Lecture 12.6
Fb (kN)
200 j2Ft
Fb (kN) f 2Ft
~
150
+
100 - + - - - . . . . - - - - 7 ' u 3
150
,
/
AFb
,/
/
100 130 0 50. 100 Ft (kN)

F1 (kN)
(a) Contact force In centre (b) Contact forces located at flange edges.
.=P_
Figure 10 Measured bolt fore es with respect to external load
# .
Lecture 12.6
r r
t
,'.\
t
"'='
t
"'='
+ Tubular section + Tubular section +

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 11 . . •,. .···h.r

Different locations of contact area: Going from (a) to (c) the#
bolts will experience m_ore load variation with the same -/,:~'.< =P
variation of the external forces A\;:>
Lecture 12.6
I I
I I I I
I I I
I
I ~ I
I
~I
'-+
I
I
I
I
I
.I
Area of load transfer
I
I
I
I
~
I
~I
I
I
I
I
Stress distribution at hole
I
I
I
I
~
I
~I
I I
I
Possible crack location
(a) Non preloaded (b) Preloaded

bolts bolts
Figure 12 Stress situation and possible

crack location
#=P
Lecture 12.6
A't
(N/mm 2 )
1000
-I-\ A~-\= 3
500 I Log NR- - 5Iog 4-c + 16,3 (5,10
4
:s NR :s 10 8 ) I
r2061
l!--~
I
100 I Constant amplitude
fa tlgue llmit
50
10
I I I I I I I I I
5.10 4
10 5 5 10 8 2 5 10 7 5 10 8
Cycles NR
._
Figure 13 Fatigu$ . design curve of_ bolts under shear load
(no thread in. the shear plane) ,, . =P
Lecture 12.6
(a) (b)
• • ' • 4 • •
. .
.... .
• • i • •
. ' '
(c) {d)
Figure 14 Holding down bolts
=#=P
Lecture 12.6

CT5126 Fatigue

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CT5126 Fatigue

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CT5126 Fatigue

Lectures Steel Structures Part 1.

September 2007 Dr. M.H. Kolstein

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

Steel- and Timber Structures

Lecture 2 Good Design Practice for Fatigue Design

Lecture 3 Basic Fatigue design Concepts in Eurocode 3

Lecture 4 Worked examples

Lecture 5 Improvement Techniques in Welded Joints

Lecture 6 Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections

September 2007 Dr. M. H. Kolstein

Butt weld (Full penetration)

.Figure 1 Local stress concentrations at welds

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

Section Steel- and Timber Structures

4. STRESS PARAMETERS FOR FATIGUE

5. LOADINGS FOR FATIGUE

Lecture 12.1 Page 1 .#,:p

design weld strength parameter

Lecture 12.1 Page 2

1.1 Nature of Fatigue

1.2 How Welds Fatigue

• Most welding processes leave minute metallurgical discontinuities from

Most structural welds have a rough profile. Sharp changes of direction

1.3 Crack Growth History

Lecture 12.1 Page 3

2.1 Definition of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life

2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life

The fatigue strength of the detail. This strength is primarily a function

log N = log d. - m log AaR

2.3 S-N Curve

Lecture 12.1 Page 4

is used to define these lines.

2.4 Effect of Mean Stress

2.5 Effect of Mechanical Strength

Lecture 12.1 Page 5

As shown in Figure 7, these classes· can be plotted as a family of S-N curves.

3.2 Detail Types

Form of the member:

Lecture 12.1 Page 6

Location of anticipated crack initiation:

The location must be defined with respect to the direction of stress

e.g. weld shape, size of component, proximity of edges, abruptnc..:-:5 of

Special inspection procedures may be required on higher class details to

3.3 Commonly Used Detail Types

Most short attachments in the stress direction are category 80 or 71 as

Lecture 12.1 Page 7

Long continuous welds on site welded structures are found to be category

Lecture 12.1 Page 8

4.1 · Stress Area

4.2 Calculation of Stress Range fl u

4.3 Effects of Geometrical Stress Concentrations and Other, .

4.4 Secondary Effects

Lecture 12.1 Page 9

5.1 Types of Loading

Bridges: Commercial vehicles, goods trains

The designer's objective is to anticipate the sequence of service loading

A useful source of information on fatigue loading is Eurocode 1 [2].

5.2 Cycle Cou·nting

Lecture 12.1 "', Page 10

Lecture 12.1 Page 11

Fatigue depends on the whole service loading sequence (not one

Fatigue of welds is not improved by better mechanical

Fatigue is very sensitive to. the geometry of details.