Biomechanics is concerned with the properties of tissue and its response to mechanical

stresses.

Work-related overexertion MSDs frequently affect the lower back, neck, shoulders, and
upper extremities. They include sprains, strains, tendonitis, bursitis, and carpal tunnel
syndrome. Because these disorders can impair mobility, strength, tactile capabiliies, and
motor control, affected workers may be unable to perform their jobs.

The hazards that produce the injuries can usually be controlled through safety engineering
techniques.
Primary risk factors for overexertion injuries and disorders include the following:
• Forceful exertions
• Awkward postures
• Localized mechanical contact stresses
• Vibration
• Temperature extremes
• Repetitive and Prolonged Activities

1. Forceful exertions
Whole-body exertions, such as strenuous lifting, pushing, and pulling, can cause back pain
and other injuries and disorders. Approaches to help reduce the magnitude of forces
exerted during wholebody exertions:
• Reducing the weight of an object by decreasing the size of a unit load, such as by placing
fewer parts in a tote bin or purchasing smaller bags of powdered or granular materials
• Reducing extended reach postures by removing obstructions that prevent a worker from
getting close to the lifted object
• Using mechanical aids, such as conveyors, hoists, conveyors, and articulating arms, to
assist a worker and/or eliminate the manual exertion

2. Awkward posture

Awkward posture at any joint may cause transient discomfort and fatigue. Prolonged
awkward postures may contribute to disabling injuries and disorders of musculoskeletal
tissue and/or peripheral nerves. Awkward trunk postures increase the risk of back injuries.
Raising the elbow above shoulder height or reaching behind the torso can increase the
likelihood of MSDs in the neck and shoulders. Most awkward postures of the trunk and
shoulder result from excessive reach distances, such as bending into bins to place or
retrieve parts, reaching overhead to high shelves and conveyors, or reaching overhead or in
front of the body to activate machine controls. These postures can be eliminated through
improved workstation layout. Where possible, workstations and equipment should offer
adjustability to accommodate workers of different body sizes.

3. Localized contact stresses

Local mechanical stresses result from concentrated pressure during contact between body
tissues and objects and tools. “Hand hammering” (using the palm as a striking tool) is used
in some manufacturing and maintenance tasks as a method for joining two parts. This
activity can irritate nerves and other parts of the palm. Hand tools with hard, sharp, or
small-diameter handles, such as knives, pliers, and scissors, can irritate nerves and tendons
in the palm and fingers. Seated workstations that produce localized pressure on the
posterior knee and thigh can impair circulation, causing swelling and discomfort in the lower
legs, ankles, and feet. A common cause of this condition is a work seat that is too high,
allowing the lower legs to dangle, producing concentrated compressive forces on tissues
where the thighs contact the front edge of the seatpan.

4. Vibration

Exposure to whole-body vibration that occurs while driving or riding in motor vehicles,
including fork trucks and off-road vehicles, may be a factor that increases the risk of back
pain (seated posture). Because driving tasks are usually performed in a seated posture, most
drivers are exposed to two back pain risk factors.

Localized vibration of the upper extremity (segmental vibration) can occur when using
powered hand tools, such as screwdrivers, nut- runners, grinders, jackhammers, and
chippers. Segmental vibration may contribute to the development of hand-arm vibration
syndromes, such as vibration white finger.

5. Temperature Extremes

In addition to considering the general thermal characteristics (air temperature, air

movement, and relative humidity) of the workplace, one should consider temperature
extremes that affect the hands.

Example :
1. Handling extremely hot or cold parts may require the use of special gloves that
increase the force requirements of the job.
2. In jobs that involve the use of pneumatic tools, air from high-pressure lines and tool
exhaust ports may be directed onto the hands, causing local chilling and reducing
manual dexterity and tactile sensitivity. This exposure can be controlled by elimi-
nating leaks and directing exhaust air away from the hands.

6. Repetitive and Prolonged Activities

Ergonomic risk factors are often related to specific work tasks :

1. Jobs that involve high repetition and/or duration,
 such as driving 5,000 screws a day on an assembly line or continuously performing
data entry in an office
2. Typically involve higher exposures than non-repetitive jobs
 such as inspection work in a factory or a supervisory position in an office.

Repetitiveness is not a risk factor limited to upper-extremity problems.

For example, frequent lifting and repetitive and/or prolonged use of awkward trunk
postures increase the risk of back pain.
1. Repetitiveness can often be measured or estimated using industrial engineering records
and other work standards.
Example :
a. For a supermarket checker, repetitiveness is a function of the number of items
scanned over the course of a work shift.
b. On an assembly line, repetitiveness is a function of the line speed or the time
allowed to complete one unit of work.
c. For a clerk in a bank or insurance office, repetitiveness can be a function of the
number of forms processed a day.

2. Repetitiveness can also be measured using an observational technique, where the

rapidity and intensity of hand motions are com- pared against benchmarks or a scale with
verbal anchors. A verbal anchor is a word or phrase that describes the speed or urgency of
the hand motions required to perform a job.

An Ordinal Scale with Verbal Anchors

This scale has been incorporated into an ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists) threshold limit value (TLV) for evaluating worker exposure to
repetitive hand activities

3.Additional techniques for assessing repetition, combined with other risk factors for distal
upper-extremity MSDs include the Strain Index and the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment
(RULA).

Strain Index Scoring Sheet

RULA

Two approaches to resolving problems of rep- etition and prolonged exertions are job
enrichment and job rotation.
 The premise behind these approaches is to increase the overall variety of activities
performed by a worker to reduce the repetitiveness of any specific stressful activity.

Job enrichment and job rotation will not be feasible in workplaces where there are no “low-
repetition” jobs to combine with the “high-repetition” jobs, situations with a good mix of
low- and high-repetition jobs, there may be other factors, such as increased learning time
and seniority restrictions, that present significant barriers.
 it may be necessary to establish a participative ergonomics program and to educate
management and workers before attempting these interventions.