The Nuclear Model of the Atom:

Subatomic Particles: After the discovery of atoms, atoms were considered to be the
smallest particles possible. At the end of the 19th century, it was discovered that atoms
contained negatively charged particles which were called electrons. The mass of an
electron was found to be 1/1837 the mass of a hydrogen atom.
Positively charged particles, called protons, were discovered soon after that.
Protons have masses 1836 times heavier than electrons. The charge of a proton is equal
and opposite to that of an electron.
Particles were later discovered that had no charge but had a mass similar to that
of a proton. These were called neutrons.
particle relative charge precise mass / kg approximate relative mass
proton +1 1.672 62 × 10 -27 1
neutron 0 1.674 93 × 10 -27 1
electron -1 9.109 39 × 10 -31 1 / 1837

The idea of sub-atomic particles introduces a major challenge to Dalton’s theory.

Scientists have chosen to add to the theories of matter to accommodate this more complex
understanding instead of entirely replacing the old theories that are still useful in many
respects. Subatomic particles and the nuclear model constitute a paradigm shift in how
people thought about matter.

The Nuclear Atom: There were several theories regarding how electrons fit into the
atom (e.g. the plum pudding model) most of which were incorrect. Experimental
evidence eventually led to the theory that most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in
a very small, dense, positively charged centre now called the nucleus. It is now known
that protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom. Protons and neutrons
are collectively known as nucleons. Most of the remainder of the atom is empty space
throughout which the electrons are located. Since protons and neutrons are much heavier
than electrons, almost all of the atom’s mass is located within a tiny fraction of the
atom’s volume. In fact, atomic radii range from about 0.03 nm to 0.3 nm while nuclear
radii range from 1.2 × 10-6 nm to 7.5 × 10-6 nm. This means that the nucleus occupies
less than one trillionth of the volume of the atom.

electron (-1)

theoretical edge of the atom

neutron (0 charge), in the nucleus

proton (+1), in the nucleus

10-1 nm
10-6 nm

empty space
Isotopes:

Atomic number (Z) is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic numbers are the integers that appear on the periodic table for each element; all
atoms of a particular element contain the same number of protons. The atomic number is
actually what defines an atom as a particular element. Neutral atoms have the same
number of electrons as protons, and neutral atoms of the same element have the same
numbers of protons and electrons as each other.

e.g. carbon has 6 protons and 6 electrons

lead has 82 protons and 82 electrons

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons
and therefore have different masses. Note that protons and neutrons both have relative
masses of about 1, and electrons have negligible relative mass when rounding to the
nearest unit.

e.g. carbon (C) with 6 neutrons would have a relative mass of 12 (6p + 6n)
carbon (C) with 7 neutrons would have a relative mass of 13 (6p + 7n)

Isotopic Symbols: Isotopes are described using symbols as shown below:

A
Z
X

where: A= mass number

= total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= relative isotopic mass rounded to the nearest integer
Z = atomic number
= number of protons in the nucleus
X= elemental symbol

Note that it is not really necessary to include Z since it is implied by X. As a result

isotopic symbols are often written as AX. Also note that the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of a particular isotope equals A - Z.

40
e.g. compare 19 K to AZ X

# of protons = Z = 19
# of neutrons = A - Z = 40 - 19 = 21
# of electrons = # of protons = Z = 19
Comparison of the Properties of Isotopes of an Element:
The chemical properties of “an atom” depend on the number of protons and
electrons that it has; therefore, all atoms of the same element with the same charge have
the same chemical properties. For example, 12C and 14C both react with oxygen to form
CO2, and the resulting versions of carbon dioxide are chemically indistinguishable.
The physical properties of “an atom” depend on the number of protons and
electrons that is has as well as its mass; therefore, atoms of the same element will have
similar physical properties. There will be slight differences because of the different
masses of the different isotopes. For example, water made from 1H boils at 100.0°C
while water made from 2H, “heavy water,” boils at 101.4°C.
Nuclear properties include the likelihood of a nucleus to undergo nuclear decay
(i.e. undergo a nuclear reaction, be radioactive, emit radiation, etc.). Such properties
depend entirely upon the composition of the nucleus (i.e. the numbers of protons and
neutrons); therefore, isotopes of the same element may have drastically different nuclear
properties. For example, 12C has a very stable nucleus and 14C is radioactive.

Radioisotopes: A radioisotope is a radioactive isotope. For example, 14C is radioactive.

A radioisotope has an unstable nucleus which results in its nucleus breaking down to
form a different, but more stable, nucleus. This constitutes a nuclear reaction, not a
chemical reaction. The nuclear breakdown is accompanied by the emission of radiation.
This radiation carries with it large amounts of energy and can be of different forms: fast
moving alpha or beta particles, and/or gamma-rays which are themselves a form of
energy. Radioisotopes emit varying energies at varying rates depending on the isotopes
involved. The exposure of living tissues to radiation can have negative effects
(e.g. burns, cancer, and cataracts). Genetic damage to reproductive cells can cause
mutations and birth deformities.
The Uses of Radioisotopes: Radioisotopes have many uses in the modern world.
(a) Carbon-14, 14C, is used for radiocarbon dating. All living things incorporate
radioactive 14C into their bodies during their lives. Analysis of archeological specimens
for the remaining 14C allows for the age of the specimens to be determined.
(b) Medical tracers, or radioactive tracers, are radioisotopes that are incorporated
into biologically significant substances which are then put into the human body through
injection or ingestion. The tracer then moves through various body systems. Certain
tissues or organs have affinity for certain substances which can be the ones tagged with
the tracer. Imaging of the body or specific systems or organs is then possible by
detecting the radiation using machines. These diagnostic methods allow the detection of
such problems as thyroid cancer (131I), stress fractures (99Tc), and damage to heart
muscle resulting from heart attacks (201Th).
(c) Radiotherapy is the use of radiation to treat diseases such as cancer. Such
treatments may involve radioactive sources that are either outside or inside of the body.
Radiotherapy works by destroying the cancer cells in the treated area. A drawback is
that normal cells are also sometimes damaged by the radiotherapy. Radiotherapy
treatment has the potential to cure some cancers, to reduce the chances of a cancer
recurring, and to reduce some cancer symptoms. Examples of radioisotopes used in
radiotherpy include 60Co and 131I.
Ions: Atoms and molecules are by definition neutral and thus have equal numbers of
electrons and protons. Ions have charges. Charge is indicated in symbols with a number
followed by a sign in the upper right part of the symbol. e.g. Fe3+
[Note that +3 is not the proper designation for a charge … it should be 3+.]

Ions are charged particles. They are essentially “atoms” or “molecules” that have net
positive or negative charges. Ions are always formed through the loss or gain of
electrons, never through the loss or gain of protons.

Monatomic ions are single atom ions. e.g. Na1+, Ca2+, F1-, O2-

Polyatomic ions (a.k.a. molecular ions) consist of a group of covalently bonded

atoms with a net charge. e.g. NH41+, NO31-, PO43-

Anions are negatively charged ions. A negative charge indicates that electrons have
been gained, and there are consequently more electrons than protons.
e.g. F1-, O2-, NO31-, PO43-

Cations are positively charged ions. A positive charge indicates that electrons have
been lost, and there are consequently fewer electrons than protons.
e.g. Na1+, Ca2+, Fe3+, NH41+

Symbols are written encompassing both isotopes and ions:

𝑨 𝒒
𝒁𝑿 where q = the charge of the ion

!" !!
e.g. !"𝑁𝑖

# of protons = Z = 28
# of neutrons = A - Z = 62 - 28 = 34
# of electrons = # of protons - 2 = 28 - 2 = 26 note a 2+ charge indicates the loss of 2 e−
note that +28-26 = 2+ = q

!" !!
e.g. !"𝑆𝑒

# of protons = Z = 34
# of neutrons = A - Z = 74 - 34 = 40
# of electrons = # of protons + 2 = 34 + 2 = 36 note a 2- charge indicates the gain of 2 e−
note that +34-36 = 2- = q
 Nuclear Model Review Questions:
Select the one correct response in each question.

#1. Which one type of subatomic particle is not in the nucleus?

A. nucleon
B. electron
C. proton
D. neutron

#2. The dense central part of the atom is called the ...
A. neutron
B. nucleon
C. electron
D. nucleus

#3. Most of the volume of an atom consists of ...

A. empty space
B. nucleus
C. electrons
D. protons

#4. A typical atomic radius is ______________ times larger than a typical nuclear
radius.
A. 10-1
B. one trillion
C. one thousand
D. 100 000

#5. The number of which type of subatomic particle within an atom determines the
identity of the element?
A. nucleon
B. electron
C. proton
D. neutron

#6. Which one statement about isotopes of the same element is incorrect?
A. They contain same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
B. They have same atomic number and but different mass number.
C. They contain same number of protons but different number of electrons.
D. They are atoms of the same element with different masses.

#7. Which one example below is polyatomic anion?

A. H3O1+
B. NO31-
C. Ca2+
D. O2-