Trường Đại học PHENIKAA

Khoa Khoa học và Kỹ thuật Vật liệu

TRIBOLOGY
Dr. Tu Le Manh

Thái Nguyên, 2019.

 Course Description

Code: MAE013

Lecture hours Laboratory Workshop

hours hours
40 5 0
Credits: 03

2 Tribology
Objectives

To give students understandings about

the effects of tribology on efficiency,
reliability and maintenance at frictional
contacts in mechanisms and machines
and know how to apply in engineering
design especially mechanical design,
manufacturing and operating processes.

3 Tribology
 Outcomes

- Develop a basic understanding of tribological

concepts such as surface contacts, friction, wear and
lubrication and tribological experimental equipments.
- Understanding applications of tribological phenomenon in
industrial and manufacturing practice.

4 Tribology
 Course Topics

This course will provide the student the opportunity to

study the following topics: Solid surface and its
characterization; contacts between solid surfaces; Friction;
Wear, Lubrications and lubricants; Surface treatment for
tribology.

5 Tribology
 Grading:

Attendance: 10%
Assignments (HW assignment+ Lab
assignment): 20%
Quiz: 30%
Midterm exams: 20%
Final exam: 30%

Attendance policy:
Any student who misses 20% or more of the course
risks failure in the course

6 Tribology
 Outline
1. Introduction
2. Structure and Properties of Solids
3. Solid Surface Characterization
4. Contact between Solid Surfaces
5. Adhesion
6. Friction
7. Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces
8. Wear

7 Tribology
1. INTRODUCTION
Definition and History of Tribology
Tribology is derived from the Greek word
tribos, meaning rubbing or “the science of
rubbing.”

Its English language equivalent is friction and

wear or lubrication science.

8 Tribology
History

The word tribology was first reported in by Jost

(1966).

“The Jost Report”, provided to the British

Parliament –Ministry for Education and
Science, indicated… “Potential savings of over
£515 million per year ($800 million) for
industry by better application of tribological
principles and practices.”

9 Tribology
However, for a long time ago, …

10 Tribology
11 Tribology
12 Tribology
  Tribology is a science and Technology of interacting
surfaces in relative motion of related subjects and
practices.
 Tribology is the art of applying operational analysis to
problems of great economic significance, namely,
reliability, maintenance and wear of technical equipment
ranging from space aircraft to household appliances.
 Surface interactions in a tribological surface are highly
complex and their understanding knowledge of various
disciplines including physics, chemistry, applied
mathematics, solid mechanics, fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, heat transfer, materials science, rheology,
lubrication, machine design, performance and reliability.

13 Tribology
Industrial Significance of Tribology
Components

Brakes Clutches

Driving wheel Bolts and nuts

14 Tribology
Products

15 Tribology
Manufacturing processes

16 Tribology
Construction and Exploration

17 Tribology
Micro/Nanotribology

18 Tribology
2. Structure and Properties of Solids

Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination

19 Tribology
Crystalline Structures

20 Tribology
21 Tribology
22 Tribology
Disorder in Solid Structures

 Point Defects
 Line Defects (Dislocations)

23 Tribology
Surfaces/Internal Boundaries

24 Tribology
Phase Diagrams

25 Tribology
 Microstructures Orientation map derived from electron
backscatter diffraction measurements
Microstructure of carbon steel

ND TD

RD

RD
26 TD Tribology
Grain size

27 Tribology
Grain size determination using IQ Material software, Interception method.

28 Tribology
29 Tribology
30 Tribology
Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue

31 Tribology
32 Tribology
33 Tribology
Elastic Deformation

34 Tribology
35 Tribology
36 Tribology
Elastic Properties and Anisotropy
of Elastic Behavior
Figure 7-1 Anisotropic materials: (a) rolled
material, (b) wood, (c) glass-fiber cloth in an
epoxy matrix, and (d) a crystal with cubic unit
cell.
 Real materials are never perfectly isotropic. In some
cases (e.g. composite materials) the differences in
properties for different directions are so large that one
can not assume isotropic behavior - Anisotropic.

 There is need to discuss Hooke’s Law for anisotropic

cases in general. This can then be reduced to isotropic
cases - material property (e.g., elastic constant) is the
same in all directions.
 In the general 3-D case, there are six components of
stress and a corresponding six components of strain.
 In highly anisotropic materials, any one component of
stress can cause strain in all six components.
 For the generalized case, Hooke’s law may be expressed
as:
 i  Cij j (7-1)

 i  Sij j (7-2)

where,
C  Stiffness (or Elastic cons tan t )
S  Compliance
 Both Sijkl and Cijkl are fourth-rank tensor quantities.
 Expansion of either Eqs. 7-1 or 7-2 will produce nine
(9) equations, each with nine (9) terms, leading to
81 constants in all.

 It is important to note that both ij and  ij are

symmetric tensors.

 Symmetric tensor Means that the off-diagonal

components are equal. For example, in case of stress:

13   31 , 12   21  23   32
We can therefore write:

 11 12 13   11 12 13 

   
 21  22  23   12  22  23  (7-3)
       
 31 32 33   13 23 33 
Similarly, the strain tensor can be written as:

 11 12 13   11 12 13 

   
  21  22  23    12  22  23 
(7-4)

       
 31 32 33   13 23 33 
 Symmetry effect leads to a significant simplification of
the stress-strain relationship of Eqs. 7-1 and 7-2.

We can write:
 ij  Sijkl kl or  ij  Sijlk lk
and since
Sijkl kl  Sijlk lk ;  kl   lk ; and Sijkl  Sijlk

We can also write:

 ij  Sijkl kl   ji  S jikl kl
Sijkl  S jikl
 The direct consequence of the symmetry in the stress and
strain tensors is that only 36 components of the
compliance tensor are independent and distinct
terms.

 Similarly, only 36 components of the stiffness tensor are

independent and distinct terms.
Additional simplification of the stress-strain relationship
can be realized through simplifying the matrix notation
for stresses and strains.
We can replace the indices as follows:
11  1 23  4
22  2 13  5
33  3 12  6

 11 12 13 1 6 5
 
 
 22 23 = 2 4
 
 33 3 Notation II
Notation I
• The foregoing transformation is easy to remember: In
other to obtain notation II, one must proceed first
1  2( 3
along the diagonal 5
) and then4back ( 6
).

• Notation II method makes life very easy when

correlating the stresses and strains for general case, in
which the elastic properties of a material are
dependent on its orientations.
We now have the stress and strain, in general form, as

 6 5 
 1 
 1 6 5   2 2
   4 
 6 2  4  and  6 2
   2 2
 5 4 3   5 4 
 3 
 2 2 
It should be noted that22   2  ,11  1 ,
and  3   33 , but

 4  2 23   23
 5  213   13 (7-5)

 6  212   12
 In matrix format, the stress-strain relation showing the
36 (6 x 6) independent components of stiffness can be
represented as:
  1   C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16  1 
    
  2   C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26   2 
   C C32 C33 C34 C35 C36   3 
 3    31  
  4   C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46   4 
   C C52 C53 C54 C55 C56   5 
 5   51  
  6   C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66   6 
Or in short notation, we can write:
 i  Cij j and  i  Sij j (7-6)
 Further reductions in the number of independent
constants are possible by employing other symmetry
considerations to Eq. 7-6.
 Symmetry in Stiffness and Compliance matrices
requires that:
Cij  C ji and Sij  S ji
Of the 36 constants, there are six constants where i =
j, leaving 30 constants where i  j.
But only one-half of these are independent constants
since Cij = Cji
Therefore, for the general anisotropic linear elastic
solid there are:
independent elastic
constant. 30
 6  21
2
 The 21 independent elastic constants can be reduced still
further by considering the symmetry conditions found
in different crystal structures.
 In Isotropic case, the elastic constants are reduced
from 21 to 2.
 Different crystal systems can be characterized exclusively
by their symmetries. Table 7-1 presents the different
symmetry operations defining the seven crystal systems.
 The seven crystalline systems can be perfectly described
by their axes of rotation. For example, a threefold
rotation is a rotation of 120o (3 x 120o = 360o); after
120o the crystal system comes to a position identical to
the initial one.
Table 7.1 Minimum Number of Symmetry Operations in
Various Systems
______________________________________________
System Rotation
______________________________________________
Triclinic None (or center of symmetry)
Monoclinic 1 twofold rotation
Orthorhombic 2 perpendicular twofold rotation
Tetragonal 1 fourfold rotation around [001]
Rhombohedral 1 threefold rotation around [111]
Hexagonal 1sixfold rotation around [0001]
Cubic 4 threefold rotations around <111>
abc
      90 o
abc
      90 o
abc
      90 o
The hexagonal system exhibits a sixfold rotation around the
[0001] - c axis; after 60 degrees, the structure superimposes
upon itself.
In terms of a matrix, we have the following:

Orthorhombic Tetragonal

11 12 13 0 0 0  11 12 13 0 0 16 
 . 22 23 0 0 0   . 11 13 0 0  16
  
. . 33 0 0 0   . . 33 0 0 0 
. . . 44 0 0  ,
. . . 44 0 0 
  
. . . . 55 0   . . . . 44 0 
  
. . . . . 66  . . . . . 66 
(7.7a)
 Hexagonal

11 12 13 0 0 0
 . 11 13 0 0 0
  (7.7b)
. . 33 0 0 0
. . . 44 0 0 
  where
. . . . 44 x x  2( s11  s12 ),
  or 1
  x  (C11  C12 )
2
 Laminated composites made by the consolidation of
prepregged sheets, with individual piles having different
fiber orientations, have orthotropic symmetry with
nine independent elastic constant.
 This is analogous to orthorhombic symmetry, and
possess symmetry about three orthogonal (oriented
90o to each other) planes. The elastic constants along
the axes of these three planes are different.
 Cubic
11 12 12 0 0 0 
 . 11 12 0 0 0 
 
 . 11 0 0 0 
(7.7c)
 . . 44 0 0 
 
 . . . 44 0 
 
 . . . . 44
The number of independent elastic constants in a cubic system
is three (3).
For isotropic materials ( most polycrystalline aggregates can
be treated as such) there are two (2) independent constants, b/c :
C11  C12
C44  (7.8)
2
 The stiffness matrix of an isotropic system is:

C11 C12 C12 0 0 0 

 . C C12 0 0 0 
 11

 . . C11 0 0 0 
 C11  C12  (7.9)
 . . . 0 0 
 2 
C11  C12
 . . . . 0 
 2 
 . C11  C12 
. . . .
 2 
For cubic systems, Equation (7-8) does not apply, and we
define an anisotropy ratio (also called the Zener anisotropy
ratio, in honor of the scientist who introduced it):

2C44
A (7.10)
C11  C12

• Several metals have high “A” anisotropy ratio.

• Aluminum and tungsten, have values of A very close
to 1. Single crystals of tungsten are almost isotropic.
 Elastic compliances - for the isotropic case:

 S11 S12 S12 0 0 0 

 . S S 0 0 0 
 11 12

 . . S11 0 0 0  (7.11)
 . . . 2( S11  S12 ) 0 0 
 
 . . . . 2( S11  S12 ) 0 
 
 . . . . . 2( S11  S12 
)

Similarly, the 81 components of elastic compliance for the

cubic system have been reduced to three (3) independent
ones while for the isotropic case, only two (2) independent
elastic constants are needed.
The elastic constants for an isotropic material are given
by:

Young’s modulus
1
E (7.12)
S11

Rigidity or Shear modulus

1 1
G   (7.13)
2( S11  S12 ) S4
Compressibility (B) and bulk modulus (K):
1 11   22   33
B  (7.14)
K  1 (     )
11 12 13
3
Poisson’s ratio
S12
v (7.15)
S11
Lame’s constants:
1 1
u  C44  (C11  C12 )  G (7.16)
2 S44
  C12 (7.17)
  The equation to determine the compliance of isotropic
materials can be written as (by using Eqs. 7-2 and 7-11):

 1   S11 S12 S12 0 0 0   1 

    
  2   S12 S11 S12 0 0 0   2 
   S S12 S11 0 0 0   
 3    12  3 
4   0 0 0 2S11  S12  0 0   4 
   0 0 0 0 2S11  S12  0   
 5    5 
6   0 0 0 0 0 2S11  S12   6 

(7.18)
The relationship of Eq. 7-18 can be expanded and equated to
Eq. 6-9 to give:

1
1  S11 1  S12 2  S12 3   1    2   3 
E
1
 2  S12 1  S11 2  S12 3   2    1   3 
E
1
 3  S12 1  S12 2  S11 3   3    1   2 
E
(7.19)
Also,
1
 4  2S11  S12  4   4 ,
G
1 (7.19)
 5  2S11  S12  5   5 ,
G
1
 6  2S11  S12  6   6 ,
G
  Expressing the strains as function of stresses, we have

 1  C111  C12 2  C12 3  2   1   2   3 ,

 2  C121  C11 2  C12 3  1  2    2   3 ,
 3  C121  C12 2  C11 3  1   2  2    3 ,
1
 4  C11  C12  4   4
2
1
 5  C11  C12  5   5
2 (7.20)
1
 6  C11  C12  6   6
2 Note :   G
• A great number of materials can be treated as isotropic,
although they are not microscopically so.
• Individual grains exhibit the crystalline anisotropy and
symmetry, but when they form a poly-crystalline aggregate
and are randomly oriented, the material is microscopically
isotropic.
• If the grains forming the poly-crystalline aggregate have
preferred orientation, the material is microscopically
anisotropic.
• Often, material is not completely isotropic; if the
elastic modulus E is different along three perpendicular
directions, the material is Orthotropic; composites are a
typical case.
In a cubic material, the elastic moduli can be determined
along any orientation, from the elastic constants, by the
application of the following equations:

1 1
 S11  2( S11  S12  S44 )(li21l 2j 2  l 2j 2lk23  li21lk23 (7.21a)
Eijk 2
1 1
 S44  4( S11  S12  S44 )(li21l 2j 2  l 2j 2lk23  li21lk23 (7.21b)
Gijk 2

Eijk and Gijk are the Young’s and shear modulus, respectively, in
the [ijk] direction; li1 , l j 2 , lk 3 are the direction cosines of the
direction [ijk]
Table 7-2 Stiffness and compliance constants for cubic crystals
___________________________________________________
Metal C11 C12 C44 S11 S12 S44
___________________________________________________
Aluminum 10.82 6.13 2.85 1.57 -0.57 3.15
Copper 16.84 12.14 7.54 1.49 -0.62 1.33
Iron 23.70 14.10 11.60 0.80 -0.28 0.86
Tungsten 50.10 19.80 15.14 0.26 -0.07 0.66
___________________________________________________

Stiffness constants in units of 10-10 Pa.

Compliance in units of 10-11 Pa
Using the direction cosines l, m, n (as described in the text book)
the equation for determining the Elastic Moduli along any direction
is given by:
1 1
 S11  2[(S11  S12 )  S44 ](l 2 m2  m2 n 2  l 2 n 2 ) (7.22)
E 2
Typical values of elastic constants for cubic metals are given in
Table 7.2.

All the relations described in Eqs. 7-12 to 7-20 for obtaining Elastic
constants are applicable. This include:

1 v 1
S11  S12   S44 
E E G
Example
A hydrostatic compressive stress applied to a material
with cubic symmetry results in a dilation of -10-5. The
three independent elastic constants of the material are
C11 = 50 GPa, C12 = 40 GPa and C44 = 32 GPa. Write an
expression for the generalized Hooke’s law for the
material, and compute the applied hydrostatic stress.
SOLUTION
Dilation is the sum of the principal strain components:
 = 1 + 2 + 3 = -10-5
Cubic symmetry implies that 1 = 2 = 3 = -3.33 x10-5
and
4 = 5 = 6 = 0
From Hooke’s law,
i = Cijj
and 1  C111  C12 2  C12 3
the applied hydrostatic stress is:
p = 1 = (50 + 40 + 40)(-3.33) 103 Pa
= -130 x 3.33 x 103 = -433 kPa
Example: Determine the modulus of elasticity for tungsten and iron
in the <111> and <100> directions. What conclusions can be drawn
about their elastic anisotropy? From Table 7.1
____________________________

S11 S12
________________ S44
Fe: 0.80 -0.28 0.86
W: 0.26 -0.07 0.66
SOLUTION
The direction cosines for the chief directions in a cubic lattice are:
_______________________________________
Directions li1 l j2 lk 3
_______________________________________
<100> 1 0 0
<110> 1/ 2 10/ 2
<111> 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
For iron:
1  1 1 1
 0.80  2{(0.80  0.28)  0.86 / 2}   
E111 9 9 9
1  1  1
 0.80  2(1.08  0.43)   0.80  1.30 
E111  3  3

 0.80  0.43
1
E111   2.70 x1011 Pa
0.37

1
 0.80  1.30(0)  0.80 E100  1.25 x1011 Pa
E100
For tungsten:

1 
 0.26  2(0.26  0.07) 
0.66  1 
 
E111  2  3 
1  1
 0.26  20.33  0.33   0.26
E111  3
1
E111   3.85 x1011 Pa  385GPa
0.26

1  0.66 
 0.26  2(0.26  0.07)  0   0.26
E100  2 
 1
E100   3.85 x1011 Pa
0.26

Therefore, we see that tungsten is elastically isotropic while iron

is elastically anisotropic.
 Anisotropy of Young’s modulus
120 °
105 ° TD
90 °
75 °
60 °

135 ° 45 °

150 ° 30 °

ND 165 ° 15 °

g1 = (0 ,0 ,0 ) 180 ° RD
0

195 ° 345 °

TD 210 ° 330 °

225 ° 315 °

240 ° 300 °
255 ° 285 °
RD 105 °
270 °
90 °
75 °
120 ° 60 °

135 ° 45 °

150 ° 30 °

165 ° 15 °

g2 = (0 ,45 ,0 ) 180 ° 0

195 ° 345 °

210 ° 330 °

225 ° 315 °

240 ° 300 °
255 ° 285 °
270 °

90 °
105 ° 75 °
120 ° 60 °

135 ° 45 °

150 ° 30 °

165 ° 15 °

g3 = (60 ,54.7 ,45 ) 180 ° 0

195 ° 345 °

210 ° 330 °

225 ° 315 °

240 ° 300 °
255 ° 285 °
270 °

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Plastic Deformation

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Plastic Deformation Mechanisms
Crystalline Materials
Deformation by Slip

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Deformation by Twinning

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Amorphous Materials

In amorphous materials, plastic deformation also

occurs at stresses below the ideal strength.
Thermal motion continually breaks the bonds.
The applied stress displaces atoms and
permanently deforms the neighborhood of atoms.
Dislocation movement also plays some role in
some amorphous materials.

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Fracture

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3. Solid Surface Characterization
The Nature of Surfaces

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Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers

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Topography of a surface
In atomic scale

The surface appears as a series of steps/ledges and atomic planes containing

numerous point defects. This description of the surface is known as the Terrace
Ledge Kink (TLK).
Depending on their orientation, the crystallographic planes can appear more or
less smooth and therefore present varying degrees of roughness.
Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting

One important intrinsic property that must be

considered is the surface tension, or free surface
energy (Adamson, 1990; Israelachvili, 1992).

Liquids have a surface tension, that is, the

surface atoms or molecules of liquids have
energy over and above that of similar atoms and
molecules in the interior of the liquids. Surface
tension affects the physisorption process.
This surface tension is responsible for many of the striking
properties of liquids, among them capillary action, the
formation of spherical drops and bubbles (which ensures a
minimum surface and, consequently, minimum surface
energy for a given volume), and the meniscus.

The key thermodynamic quantity, the surface tension or free

surface energy γ is the reversible work, W, required to
create a unit area of the surface A, at constant volume,
temperature, and chemical potential:

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Surface energy
quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occurs
when a surface is created.

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Surface energy is sensitive to temperature. With increased temperature the
network atoms vibrate with increasing amplitude, leading to a decrease in the
cohesion energy of the material and a decrease in surface energy.
 Surface roughness

It is quantified by the deviations in the direction of the normal vector

of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the
surface is rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth.

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Relationship between Surface roughness and surface energy

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Grain boundary energy
 Contact angles
The contact angle results from the equilibrium between the three interfacial
tensions:

The equilibrium of the drop in the presence of the liquid’s vapor is represented by
Young’s equation:

For the case of liquid–solid contact,

Mechanical properties

The mechanical state of a surface can be characterized using four

quantities:

1) Hardness, which describes the resistance of materials to plastic

deformation;

2) Young’s modulus and the elasticity limit (or plastic flow threshold),
which characterizes a material’s elastic properties;

3) Toughness, which accounts for the relative brittleness of a material;

4) Residual stresses, which play an important part in the resistance of

the material to wear and cracking.
Analysis of Surface Roughness

Surface texture is the

repetitive or random
deviation from the nominal
surface that forms the 3D
topography of the surface.
Surface texture includes: (1)
roughness (nanoand
microroughness); (2) waviness
(macroroughness); (3) lay; and
(4) flaws

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General behavior

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Average Roughness Parameters
Amplitude Parameters

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Statistical Analyses
Amplitude Probability Distribution and
Density Functions

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Surface Height Distribution Functions

If the surface or profile heights are considered as random

variables, then their statistical representation in terms of the
probability density function p(z) is known as the height
distribution or a histogram. The height distribution can also be
represented as cumulative distribution function P(z)

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Surface characterization techniques
Surface topography in microscale
Surface characterization techniques
Surface topography in microscale
3D profilometers
 sand-paper-image on universal-profiler

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Atomic force microscope (AFM)

AFM images
Atomic force microscope (AFM)

Left: AFM image of a GaP/Si sample. Right: By measuring the cantilever vertical
displacement, with the feedback signal on, an image equivalent to the derivative of the AFM
image is obtained. This image is particularly useful to detect sudden variations of the
topography, such as steps on the top of the terraces.

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Surface characterization techniques
Chemical composition of the surface

Energy dispersive X-ray analysis

– Primary particle: electron.
– Secondary particle: photon.
– Acronym: EDX.
– Characteristics of the technique:
- elemental analysis of materials to a depth of a few microns,
- possibility of generating X-ray images showing the distribution of
elements,
- detection sensitivity in the range of 0.1–1 wt%, depending on the
atomic number, and
- not well-suited for light element analysis (Z < 11).

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of precipitation and segregation in metallurgical materials
and the characterization of thick thermal oxide films and hard anti-
wear and anti-corrosion coatings.
EDS analysis

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X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
– Primary particle: photon.
– Secondary particle:electron.
– Acronym: ESCA, XPS.
– Characteristics of the technique:
- elemental analysis of materials,
- information about the environment of the atoms identified and the
nature of chemical bonds, and
- analysis of a surface of a few mm2 to a depth of 0.1–2 nm.

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of oxide films and corrosion layers in order to determine the
nature of chemical bonds of the main elements as well as that of
impurities; analysis of passivation layers; characterization of the state
of chemical bonds within polymers; and analysis of the core level and
valence band.
XPS Spectra

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Auger electron spectroscopy
– Primary particle: electron.
– Secondary particle: electron.
– Acronym: AES.
– Characteristics of the technique:
Auger electron spectroscopy

- elemental analysis of the top few-atom layers of solids. The

depth of analysis is 2 to 3 monolayers (of the order of a
nanometer),
- local analysis (primary electron beam diameter less than 10
nm); the use of an ion beam allows in-depth analysis
alternating between analysis and ionic erosion (down to
several microns). This is also made possible by photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS).

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of adsorbed layers. Analysis of thermal or anodic oxide
films. Characterization of thin deposits and analysis of
segregated layers on surfaces or within grain boundaries.

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What can we do after knowing the surface characteristics?
3D profilometers
Atomic force microscope (AFM)
Surface characterization techniques
Chemical composition of the surface

Energy dispersive X-ray analysis

– Primary particle: electron.

– Secondary particle: photon.
– Acronym: EDX.
– Characteristics of the technique:
- elemental analysis of materials to a depth of a few microns,
- possibility of generating X-ray images showing the distribution of
elements,
- detection sensitivity in the range of 0.1–1 wt%, depending on the
atomic number, and
- not well-suited for light element analysis (Z < 11).

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of precipitation and segregation in metallurgical materials
and the characterization of thick thermal oxide films and hard anti-
wear and anti-corrosion coatings.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

– Primary particle: photon.

– Secondary particle:electron.
– Acronym: ESCA, XPS.
– Characteristics of the technique:
- elemental analysis of materials,
- information about the environment of the atoms identified and the
nature of chemical bonds, and
- analysis of a surface of a few mm2 to a depth of 0.1–2 nm.

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of oxide films and corrosion layers in order to determine the
nature of chemical bonds of the main elements as well as that of
impurities; analysis of passivation layers; characterization of the state
of chemical bonds within polymers; and analysis of the core level and
valence band.
Auger electron spectroscopy

– Primary particle: electron.

– Secondary particle: electron.
– Acronym: AES.
– Characteristics of the technique:

- elemental analysis of the top few-atom layers of solids. The depth

of analysis is 2 to 3 monolayers (of the order of a nanometer),
- local analysis (primary electron beam diameter less than 10 nm);
the use of an ion beam allows in-depth analysis alternating
between analysis and ionic erosion (down to several microns).
This is also made possible by photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS).

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS:
Analysis of adsorbed layers. Analysis of thermal or anodic oxide
films. Characterization of thin deposits and analysis of segregated
layers on surfaces or within grain boundaries.
What can we do after knowing the surface characteristics?
4. Contact between Solid Surfaces

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Analysis of the Contacts
Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids
Elastic Contact

Hertz (1882) assumed: (1) the

surfaces are continuous,
smooth and nonconforming;
(2) the strains are small; (3)
each solid can be
considered as an elastic half-
space in the proximity of the
contact region; and (4) the
surfaces
are frictionless.

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Limit of Elastic Deformation

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Limits of Elastic Deformation

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Statistical Analysis of Contacts

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5. Adhesion
When two solid surfaces are brought into contact, adhesion or
bonding across the interface can occur which requires a finite
normal force, called adhesive force, to pull the two solids
apart.

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It depends on different types of bonding:
Covalent
Ionic bond
Metallic bond
Hydrogen bond

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REFERENCES

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