Legal Technique and

Logic
2nd Semester AY 2018-2019
Leo B. Malagar
 Categorical Propositions
Propositions - expressed as declarative sentences
(have a specific form)

All declarative sentences have a subject & a predicate.

Proposition = (S) and (P)
S: what the sentence is about
P: what we are asserting about the subject
 Categorical Propositions
A sentence is
– True: if & only if S does have the property asserted by P
– False: if the S does not have the property asserted by P

A proposition can either be

– universal vs. particular
– affirmative vs. negative
 Categorical Propositions
4 Types
1. universal affirmative: All As are B. (denoted as A)
All people have noses.
2. universal negative: No As are B. (denoted as E)
No circles have angles.
3. particular affirmative: Some As are B. (denoted as I)
Some people are blonde.
4. particular negative: Some As are not B. (denoted as O)
Some wines are not expensive.
Square of Opposition
Square of Opposition
 Some vs. All
Some - means at least one; not all (PARTICULAR)
All – empty categories (unicorns, superheroes) (UNIVERSAL)
- 2 meanings: hypothetical vs. existential viewpoint

Hypothetical: “All unicorns have a horn” is true

because it means that all unicorns, if there are any (and there might not be),
have a horn.

Existential: “All unicorns have a horn” is false

because it now means that there are unicorns and all of them have a horn.

We need to know whether we are working with the hypothetical or existential

viewpoint before we start doing our logical manipulations.
 Categorical Syllogisms

syllogism = is an argument with two premises.

to know when to believe a conclusion (valid)

if we also believe the premises are valid
 Categorical Syllogisms
*arguments with a conclusion (categorical sentence) and
premises (two categorical sentences)

Premise: All humans are mortal.

Premise: All Greeks are human.
Conclusion: Therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
* conclusion has 2 terms:
1. Subject (minor term)
2. Predicate (major term)
.
 Categorical Syllogisms
Premise: All humans are mortal.
Premise: All Greeks are human.
Conclusion: Therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
* conclusion has 2 terms:
1. Subject (minor term) - Greek
2. Predicate (major term) - mortal
*another term that appears in both premises, but not in
the conclusion. This is called the middle term (M).
*“Human” is the M.
 Categorical Syllogisms
Major Premise: All humans (M) are mortal (P).
Minor Premise: All Greeks (S) are human (M).
Conclusion: Therefore, all Greeks (S) are mortal (P).
* 1. Subject (minor term S) - Greek
2. Predicate (major term P) - mortal
3. middle term (M) – human
* Minor premise – premise with minor term S & middle term M
* Major premise – premise with the M and the major term P.
* Write out the major premise first.
Square of Opposition
 Categorical Syllogisms: Mood
(A) Major Premise: All humans (M) are mortal (P).
(A) Minor Premise: All Greeks (S) are human (M).
(A) Conclusion: Therefore, all Greeks (S) are mortal (P).
Mood: AAA
 Order of terms matters (similar Mood)

A premises, but different arguments.

first example: valid
second example: not valid
The point - order of the terms matters.
 Categorical Syllogisms: Figures
There are 4 possible arrangements of the terms.
Each arrangement is called a figure.
Categorical Syllogisms: Figures
Categorical Syllogisms: Mood & Figure

Mood Figure
 Categorical Syllogisms: Mood & Figure
Some dogs have four legs. (I)/PM
Some four-legged beings are not cats. (O)/MS
Therefore, no cats are dogs. (E)/SM
Mood/Figure IOE/4
64 possible Mood x4 figures for each Mood=256
How do we determine the validity of these 256
categorical syllogisms ? Aristotle’s Five Rules
256 Categorical Syllogisms: Mood & Figure

Mood Figure
 Aristotle’s Five Rules:
In all valid syllogisms -
1. M is distributed in at least one of the premises
2. any term (S P M) distributed in the conclusion is also
distributed in the premises
3. at least one of the premises must be affirmative
4. if the conclusion is negative, one premise must be
negative
 Aristotle’s Five Rules
Additional rule for the hypothetical viewpoint:
5. if the conclusion is particular, at least
one of the premises must be particular
(not applicable to existential viewpoint)
 Aristotle’s Five Rules: Distributed Term
 (A) sentence: “All Greeks are human,” the subject is distributed because it tells
us something about all Greeks.

 (E) sentence: “No cowboys are werewolves,” the subject is distributed

because we are told something about the entire class of cowboys.

X (I) sentence: “Some people are allergic to peanuts,” we are not told anything
about any entire class, so no term is distributed.

 (O) sentence: “Some computers are not made by Apple,” it seems intuitively
that, like with I sentences, neither term is distributed. But, in fact, the
predicate of an O sentence is distributed. We know of the entire category of
products made by Apple that it fails to include some computers.
 Aristotle’s Five Rules: Distributed Term
(O) sentences distribute the predicate
(A) and (E) sentences distribute their subjects
(I) sentences distribute nothing

a term in a categorical sentence is distributed

if that sentence says something about the ENTIRE
CATEGORY the term refers to.
Deductive Validity
 Venn Diagrams
A method that allows us to see why a categorical
syllogism is or is not valid.

A way of visually representing the content of

each type of categorical propositions in
diagrams that forever bear his name.
Venn Diagrams