UGC NET Paper 1

Unit 6: LOGICAL REASONING

A Journey of Discovery
By Ms. Lynessa Lynette Linson
 A proposition is the
basic building block of
logic

It is a declarative
sentence that is either
true or false
 Proposition

Good communicators are good teachers. Premise 1

I am a good communicator. Premise 2

I will be a good teacher. Conclusion

 ARGUMENT FORMS
❑ An argument is a group of propositions including one or more premises and one and only
one conclusion.

❑ A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.

❑ A premise is an argument that provides some basic reason or support to get the conclusion.
There can be one, two or many premises in a single argument.

❑ A conclusion is an argument that indicates - what the arguer is trying to convince the
reader or listener.

❑ Inference can be valid or invalid. If inference has its basis in implication, then it is valid.
On the other hand, if it does not enjoy the support of implication, then it is invalid.
 Premise 1: All bachelors are unmarried. Valid
Premise 2: John is a bachelor.
Conclusion: Therefore, John is unmarried. Inference

Premise 1: All basketball players are tall.

Invalid Premise 2: Anish is tall.
Inference Conclusion: Therefore, Anish is a basketball
player.
Which of the following denotes a statement of
relation between two terms?
(a)Proposition
(b)Denotation
(c) Syllogism
(d) None of the above

Answer: a: Proposition
Propositions that support the conclusion of an argument
are called
(a) Inferences
(b) Premises
(c) Concepts
(d) None of the above

Answer: b: Premises
That proposition which is affirmed on the basis of
premises is called
(a)Major term
(b)Concept
(c)Conclusion
(d)Syllogism

Answer: c: Conclusion
In logical reasoning, truth or falsehood is usually
associated with
(a)Arguments
(b) Inferences
(c) Propositions
(d) Syllogism

Answer: c: Propositions
Which of the following statements are correct?
A.Truth and falsity are attributes of individual propositions.
B.Validity and invalidity are attributes of individual
propositions.
C.Truth and falsity are attributes of arguments.
D.Validity and invalidity are attributes of arguments.

a)A and B
b)B and C
c)A and D
d)B and D

Answer: c: A and D
Structure of a logical argument is based on
(a) Formal validity
(b) Material truth
(c) Linguistic expression
(d) Aptness of examples

Answer: a: Formal validity

 Structure of Categorical Propositions
A categorical proposition is a statement that asserts or
denies something about the relationship between two
categories or classes of things.

A Proposition consists of the following four parts:

1. Quantifier: They specify a quantity. ‘
2. Subject: About which something is being said.
3. Predicate: Something that affirms or denies about the subject.
4. Copula: Relation between subject and predicate.

Example: All dogs are brown.

(Quantifier) (Subject) (Copula) (Predicate)
 The Four Standard Propositions:
❑ All S are P
Q “All humans are mortal.”
U Q
Affirmative
A ❑ Some S are P U
Universal
N
“Some dogs are friendly.” A
T L
❑ No S are P
I Particular “No insects have bones.” I
T Negative T
Y ❑ Some S are not P Y
“Some cars are not red.”
 Universal Particular
Affirmative All S are P Some S are P
(A) (I)
Negative No S are P Some S are not P
(E) (O)
A= E= I= O=
Universal Universal Particular Particular
affirmative negative Affirmative Negative

It denotes It denotes
It denotes It denotes
partial partial
inclusion. exclusion.
inclusion. exclusion
Copula is that part of a proposition which denotes the
relationship between…?
a)Major term and minor term
b)Known and unknown
c)Subject and Predicate
d)Subject and Object

Answer: c: Subject and Predicate

Which of the following denotes relation between two terms?
(a)Subject
(b) Predicate
(c) Object
(d) Copula

Answer: d: Copula
‘E’ denotes?
a)Universal affirmative proposition
b)Universal negative proposition
c)Particular affirmative proposition
d)Particular negative proposition

Answer: b: Universal negative proposition

 Mood and Figure

To be in standard form, a categorical syllogism must meet the following

qualifications:

1) It must be an argument with 2 Premises and 1 Conclusion.

2) All three statements must be categorical propositions.

3) It must contain exactly 3 different terms.

4) Each term must be used exactly twice.

 Predicate of the conclusion
i.e. Mortal
Subject of
the conclusion Parts Example
Major Premise All humans are mortal.
i.e. Greeks
Minor Premise All Greeks are humans.
Conclusion All Greeks are mortal.

Middle term:
One term common in both the premises
It is not a part of conclusion.
i.e. Humans in the above example
The major term is the
(a) Subject of the conclusion
(b) Copula
(c) Predicate of the conclusion
(d) Predicate of the minor premise

Answer: c: Predicate of the conclusion

The minor term is the
(a) Subject of the conclusion
(b) Predicate of the conclusion
(c) Subject of the major premise
(d) Predicate of the major premise

Answer: a: Subject of the conclusion

That term which occurs in the premises and not in the
conclusion is
(a)Major term
(b) Minor term
(c) Middle term
(d) None of the above

Answer: c: Middle term

Which of the following performs the function of an
intermediary?
(a)Major term
(b) Middle term
(c) Minor term
(d) Copula

Answer: b: Middle term

How many times each term occurs in the syllogism?
(a)Once
(b) Twice
(c) Thrice
(d) Four times

Answer: b: Twice
A syllogism must have
(a)Three terms
(b) Four terms
(c) Six terms
(d) Five terms

Answer: a: Three terms

Mood depends on the type of propositions
{i.e. if they are A or E or I or O}
Example 1:
All birds are animals. (A)
All parrots are birds. (A)
All parrots are animals. (A)

Mood = AAA

Example 2:
All birds are animals. (A)
No bird is a parrot. (E)
Some animals are parrots. (I)

Mood = AEI
 The term "figure" refers to the arrangement of the middle term in a
syllogism.
There are four possible figures of syllogism, which are distinguished by the placement of
the middle term in the premises.
Figure I: Figure II:
The middle term is the M P The middle term is P M
subject of the first premise S M the S M
and the predicate of the S P predicate of both S P
second premise. premises.

M P
Figure IV: P M
Figure III: The middle term is the
M S M S
The middle term is the predicate of the first
subject of both premises. S P premise and the subject S P
of the second premise .
Figure I:
M P
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man. S M
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. S P

Figure II:
P M
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded
Premise 2: All dogs are warm-blooded. S M
Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs are mammals. S P

Figure III:
M P
Premise 1: All philosophers are thinkers.
Premise 2: Some philosophers are logicians. M S
Conclusion: Therefore, some logicians are thinkers. S P

Figure IV:
Premise 1: All singers are performers. P M
Premise 2: All performers are passionate.
M S
Conclusion: Therefore, all singers are passionate.
S P
Illustration - Identify the mood and figure of the following argument:

All birds can fly.

No penguins can fly.
Therefore, no penguins are birds.

AEE – II

No actors are poor.

Some students are actors.
Therefore, some students are not poor.

EIO - I
Within the framework of traditional logic, in any given figure
only six moods are valid and they are as follows:

I AAA AAI EAE EAO EIO AII

II AEE AEO EAE EAO EIO AOO
III AAI AII IAI EAO EIO OAO
IV AAI IAI AEE AEO EAO EIO
 Formal and Informal Fallacies
A fallacy is ‘an argument, or an apparent
argument, which professes to be decisive
of the matter at the issue, while in reality
or it is not’.

Fallacy is an error of reasoning if it

occurs accidentally.

It is a trick of reasoning if a speaker

or writer uses it in order to deceive or
manipulate his audience.
FORMAL FALLACIES:
Premise: All black bugs are carnivores.
Premise: All rats are carnivores.
Conclusion: All rats are black bugs

Bugs are a subset of carnivores. Rats also are a subset of carnivores. But these two subsets do not
overlap, and that fact makes the conclusion illogical.

Most formal fallacies are errors of logic, where the conclusion is not supported by the premises,
so it does not really ‘follow from’.

Formal fallacies involve an error in the form, arrangement or technical structure of an argument.

The question is not whether the conclusion is true or false, but whether the form of argument is
correct or incorrect, valid or invalid.
Truth and Validity are two separate things!

All men are mortal. All men are green.

Joe is a man. Joe is a man.
Therefore, Joe is mortal. Therefore, Joe is green.

(True and Valid) (False but Valid)

Some men are mortal. Some men are green.

Joe is a man. Joe is a man.
Therefore, Joe is mortal. Therefore, Joe is green.

(True but Invalid) (False and Invalid)

INFORMAL FALLACIES:
It is a flaw in the substance of the argument.

It involves misuse of words or grammar, misstatement of fact or opinion,

misconception, presupposition, illogical thought sequence etc.
Informal fallacies develop when
1. The relationship between premises
and conclusion does not hold up.

2. When premises are unsound.

3. Informal fallacies are more dependent

on misuse of language and of evidence
TYPES OF INFORMAL FALLACIES:

1. Argument by Equivocation
It involves constructing an argument using one meaning of a word in one
premise and another meaning of the same word in another premise.

A bank gives loans.

River banks are banks.
Therefore, river banks give loans.
2. Ad Hominem

Replacing logical argumentation with attack-language unrelated to the

truth of the matter.

“You can't believe anything Bob

says, he's always wrong about
everything. Just look at his
haircut!"
3. Straw Man

Distorting an argument in order to make it easier to defeat.

We need to re-
examine school
lunch budgets to
cut out waste.

This guy wants

to starve our
children!!!
4. Appeal to ignorance

Asserting that a claim must be accepted because no one can prove

otherwise.

Ghosts exist because

no one has been able
to find evidence that
they don’t exist.
5. False Dichotomy

Fails by limiting the options to two when there are in fact more options
to choose from.
6. Slippery Slope

Rushes from a seemingly benign premise to an improbable extreme or

ridiculous outcome.

“He hasn’t replied

to my text
message... I am
going to die all
alone.”
7. Circular Argument

Using a claim to prove itself, without providing external evidence or

support..

“I’m right
because I said “I’m a good person
because I always do the
so!” right thing, and I know
I'm doing the right
thing because I'm a
good person."
8. Hasty Generalization

Illicit assumptions, stereotyping, unwarranted conclusion, overstatement

or exaggeration are committed.

Tina hit the car on her

compound wall last
night. All women are
such bad drivers!
9. Red Herring

It is a distraction from the argument typically with some sentiment that

seems to be relevant but is not on-topic.
Eat your
vegetables. There
are children
starving with no
food.
10. Bandwagon Fallacy

It assumes that something is true because other people agree with it.

Everyone was
speeding. I
shouldn’t get a
ticket!

I think it is true.
Everyone says
so!
‘A is true because B is true; B is true because A is true’.
This type of argument is termed as
(a)Inductive argument
(b) Deductive argument
(c) Circular argument
(d) None of the above

Answer: c: Circular argument

Which of the following is true about the slippery slope fallacy?

A. It involves assuming that one event will inevitably lead to another without
sufficient evidence.
B. It involves attacking someone's character or motives rather than addressing the
substance of their argument.
C. It involves presenting a false choice between two options as if they are the only
ones available.
D. It involves using emotional language to manipulate an audience.

Answer: A. It involves assuming that one event will inevitably lead to another
without sufficient evidence.
 Informative Performative
Use Use

Uses of Language

Evocative
Use Evaluative
Use

Expressive
Use
 OPINIONS
BELIEFS
❑ Judgements PREJUDICE
FACTS ❑ Conviction based
based on facts ❑ Half-baked
❑ Verifiable on cultural or
❑ Things believed opinion based on
❑ Known for personal faith,
insufficient
to have morality or value.
certain to be evidence.
happened, ❑ They are
true ❑ It is testable. It
believed to be inarguable.
❑ Known for can be contested
true and ❑ They cannot serve
certain to exist. and disproved on
as the thesis of a
believed to the basis of facts.
formal argument.
exist.
 DEFINITIONS!

A definition is a statement that is trying to make things more clear.

Bachelor: Unmarried man

(Definiendum) (Definien)
 Extended Definition

Formal Definition: To make the context more

Consists of term, genus precise
and differential
Types:
Etymology (Origin of words)
“A human being is a History
species can be defined as Cause and Effect
an animal that can reason.” Description
Classification
Contrast
Analogy
Examples
 EXTENSIONAL DEFINITION:
Defines a term or concept by providing a
list of its examples or instances.

For example, Planets are Earth,

Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune etc.
INTENSIONAL DEFINITION:
Defines a term or concept by specifying
its essential properties or
characteristics.

For example, an intensional definition

of a "square" might be "a quadrilateral
with four equal sides and four right
angles."
TYPES OF DEFINITIONS:

Lexical definition: Stipulative definition:

Dictionary definition Arbitrary, specified definition. Used to assign new
Also called Reportive definition meaning to the term.

“Innovation is the introduction of new “Innovation is developing new features in our

things, ideas or ways of doing something.” product that enhance user experience.”

Precising definition: Persuasive definition:

To clarify vague concepts Attempt to persuade using emotions
Often used in academics Used in rhetoric to form public opinion

“Innovation is a deliberate and systematic “Innovation is a disruptive and transformative

process of ideation, design, development, process that dares to leave the comfort zone of
and implementation that results in the the old and fearlessly, creatively and powerfully
creation of a novel product, service, or challenges the status quo and takes mankind to
process” greater heights ”
 “A dish consisting of a flat,
round base of dough topped
with tomato sauce, cheese,
and various other
ingredients, and herbs, and
baked in an oven.”
V/S
“A delicious, satisfying meal that
brings people together and can be
enjoyed in many different ways,
from a quick and easy snack to a
memorable feast with friends and
family."
Determine the nature of the following definition, ‘poor’
means having an annual income of `1000.
(a)Persuasive
(b) Precising
(c) Lexical
(d) Stipulative

Answer: b: Precising
Determine the nature of the following definition,
‘ Abortion means the ruthless murdering of innocent
beings’.
(a)Lexical
(b) Persuasive
(c) Stipulative
(d) Theoretical

Answer: b: Persuasive
The definition that has a meaning that is deliberately assigned to a
new symbol is called?
A.Lexical
B.Precising
C.Persuasive
D.Stipulative

Answer: D: Stipulative
If we are talking about the class members of a term, this is known
as?
A.Intensional
B.Extensional
C.Formal
D.Lexical

Answer: B: Extensional
A ______ definition simply reports the way in which a term is already
used within a language community?
A.Lexical
B.Persuasive
C.Stipulative
D.Precising

Answer: A: Lexical
In which type of definition do we have a favourable or unfavourable
responses to the object so defined?
A.Lexical
B.Persuasive
C.Stipulative
D.Precising

Answer: B: Persuasive
When a definition implies a proposal to use the definiendum to
mean what is meant by the definiens, it is called?
A.Lexical
B.Persuasive
C.Stipulative
D.Precising

Answer: Stipulative
A stipulative definition may be said to be______
A.Always true
B.Always false
C.Both true and false
D.Neither true nor false

Answer: D: Neither true nor false

A definition put forward to resolve a dispute by influencing
attitudes or stirring emotions is called?
A.Lexical
B.Persuasive
C.Stipulative
D.Precising

Answer: B: Persuasive
Consider the following statements.
I. The sunset is beautiful.
II. Mahatma Gandhi believed in non-violence.
III. Do not tell the world what you can do, just do it.
IV. Those who own a car are rich.
Which one of the following is correct?
Fact Opinion Advice Assumption
a) I IV III II
b) II III IV I
c) IV II I III
d) II I III IV

Answer: d
 Connotations and Denotations of Terms

“I’m literally dying right now…”

“He has an Home v/s House in

attitude.” Advertising
 Reserved:
Denotation refers to the literal or explicit Slow to reveal
emotions or
dictionary definition of a word
opinions.

Connotation refers to the emotional, social, or Reserved:

cultural associations and meanings that a word Aloof ? Cold?
may carry. Unfriendly?
The sum total of the objects to which the term can be
applied is its
(a)Connotation
(b) Denotation
(c) Meaning
(d) Function

Answer: a: Connotation
The function of suggesting qualities possessed by the
objects is known as
(a)Evaluating
(b) Denoting
(c) Connoting
(d) Meaning

Answer: c: Connoting
Classical Square of Opposition
 Some men No men
are are
honest! honest!

All men Some men

are are not
honest! honest!

OPPOSITION:
Same subject and predicate terms but differ in quality and/or quality.
CONTRADICTORY:
“All crows
are black”

“Some crows are not black.”

One exception would disprove the truth of the universal affirmative proposition.

Similarly, “No crows are blue” is contradictory to “Some crows are blue.”

Contradictory: Differs in both quality and quantity

(Relation between A & O … E & I)
 “All crows
are black”

VERSUS
“Some crows are not black.”

Both
If one is If one is cannot be
true, other false, other true or
is 100% is 100% false at the
false true same time
CONTRARY:
Both have universal quantity.

One affirms and the other denies its predicate of the subject.

The relationship between A and E.

“All men are “No men

liars.” are liars.”
 “All crows
are black.”

“No crows
are black.”

Both can be
If one is
false. Both If one is
true, other
cannot be false, other
is 100%
true at the is doubtful.
false.
same time.
 SUB-CONTRARIES

Particular propositions differing in quality. Some

flowers
Relation between I and O. are red.
Some
flowers are
not red.
 “Some crows are
black.”

“Some crows are not

black.”

Both cannot
be false at If one is
If one is true,
the same false, other
other will be
time, but will be 100%
doubtful.
both can be true.
true.
SUB-ALTERNATION
Differing in quantity “No
men are
Relation between E and O “Some honest.”
men are
not
honest.”
 “Some
“No crows crows are
are blue.” not blue.”

If
If universal If
If universal particular
is true, particular
is false, is false,
particular is true,
particular universal
will be universal is
is doubtful. will be
100% true. doubtful.
100% false.
Affirmative or negative is the classification of propositions
on the basis of
(a)Quantity
(b) Quality
(c) Validity
(d) Truth

Answer: b: Quality
Universal or particular is the classification of the
propositions on the basis of
(a)Quantity
(b) Quality
(c) Validity
(d) Truth

Answer: a: Quantity
A proposition in which the predicate refers to all
individual objects denoted by the subject is called
(a)Particular
(b) Negative
(c) Disjunctive
(d) Universal

Answer: d: Universal
A proposition in which the predicate belongs only to a part of the
denotation of the subject is called
(a)Particular
(b) Negative
(c) Disjunctive
(d) Universal

Answer: a: Particular
The proposition ‘all men are mortal’ is an example of
(a) Universal affirmative
(b) Universal negative
(c) Particular affirmative
(d) Particular negative

Answer: a: Universal affirmative

The proposition ‘some Indians are not pet owners’ is an example for
(a)Universal affirmative
(b) Universal negative
(c) Particular affirmative
(d) Particular negative

Answer: d: Particular negative

Which of the following shows the relationship between two universal
propositions having the same subject but differing in quality only?
(a) Contrary opposition
(b) Contradictory opposition
(c) Subaltern
(d) Sub contrary

Answer: a: Contrary opposition

Which of the following terms show the relationship between two
propositions having the same subject, but differing in both quality
and quantity?
(a) Contrary opposition
(b) Contradictory opposition
(c) Sub alternation
(d) Sub contrary

Answer: b: Contradictory opposition

The relation between two particular propositions having the same
subject and predicate but differing in quality is
(a)Contrary
(b) Contradictory
(c) Sub alternation
(d) Sub contrary

Answer: d: Sub-contrary
Which of the following shows that an opposition is the relation
between two propositions having the same subject and predicate but
differing in quantity only?
(a)Contrary
(b) Contradictory
(c) Subalternation
(d) Subcontrary

Answer: c: Subalternation