THINK WITH

PHILBERT JOSEPH KOMU

CRITICAL THINKING AND ARGUMENTATION
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 PL 111: CRITICAL THINKING,
ARGUMENTATION
• Rhetorical Speech could reinforce truth
• Ethos (Ethical Appeal)
• Modes of Persuasion to convince audiences
• Used to convince an audience of author’s credibility
• Use of Iconic or magnetic Personality
• Truth is that which is said by a trustworthy person
• E.g. politicians, artists, etc
 PL 111: CRITICAL THINKING,
ARGUMENTATION
• Pathos (emotional appeal) GK: suffering/experience
• Persuading audience by appealing to their emotion
• Taming people’s popular discontent for popular support
• Argumentum ad populum (appeal to people)
• Invoke sympathy (make them feel what you want them)
• Argumentum ad misercordiam (appeal to pity)
 PL 111: CRITICAL THINKING,
ARGUMENTATION
• Logos (appeal to logic or reason)
• Convince audience by use of logic
• One could use reason to justify or twist facts
• What is false is made to appear true
• What is bad to appear good
• Reason is used manipulatively
 LOGIC
• Gk Logos: reason or word.
• Advanced Gk Logike Tekne: art (of) reason.
• Latin Logica English Logic.
• Logic: an art of valid reasoning.
• Tool that shapes our reasoning
• Makes the use of language more competent.
• Categorical (term) or propositional as basic unit of thought.
• Logic: word: sentences: languages
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF LOGIC
• Non-Contradiction:
• A thing cannot ‘be’ and ‘not be’ at the same time.
• Excluded Middle:
• A thing either is, or is not. A proposition either is TRUE or
FALSE.
• Identity:
• Each thing is the same to itself and different from another.
 Propositions and Sentences
• A sentence is a group of words that makes a complete meaning
• Cognitive and non-cognitive types of sentences
• 1. Interrogative or question
• 2. Imperative or command non-cognitive
• 3. Exclamative

• 4. Declaratives or statements cognitive

 Propositions
• Statements used in logic
• Sentences that either affirm or deny something
• Sentences that are capable of becoming true or false
PROPOSITIONS
PROPOSITIONS
PROPOSITIONS
, FALSE , AFFIRM

PROPOSITIONS PROPOSITIONS
, TRUE , DENY
 Arguments, Premises and Conclusion
• An argument is a set of propositions some of which provide support to
the truth of another.
• A premise is a proposition in an argument that provides reason or
support for the conclusion.
• The conclusion is that which the arguer tries to convince the listener or
the audience.
• There can only be one conclusion in an argument.
 Recognizing Arguments
• Premise Indicators
• But, Since, And, Because, For, As, …..
• Abortion is wrong because life is present from the moment of
conception.

• Conclusion Indicators
• Therefore, So, Thus, It follows that, Hence, as a result, …..
• We tell lies everyday as a result the word trust has lost meaning.
 Deduction and Validity
• Deductive arguments (To deduce)
• The truth of the conclusion follows necessarily from its premises
• A deductive argument is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to
be true unless all the premises are true.
• The premises imply the conclusion
• Premises provide absolute support for the conclusion
• Information contained in the conclusion is completely contained in
premises
 Validity and Truth
• Truth applies to Propositions
• Validity applies to Arguments
• There is a close relationship between truth and validity
• A sound argument is the best possible argument
• A sound argument must be valid and the truth of its premises must
be reasonably well established
• Soundness requires that an argument is valid and all propositions are
true
 Induction and Probability
• Inductive Arguments (To induce)
• Arguments whose premises intend merely to support their
conclusions as probable or probably true
• Premises provide some, but not absolute, support for the conclusion
• Good induction has the truth of the premises well established
(cogent)
• Strong induction (higher probability or addition of premises)
• Weak induction (less probable or reduction of premises)
• Of all possible arguments in support of this conclusion, this is stronger
 CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
• Four standard form categorical propositions (A, E, I, O)
• Quantifier
• Subject Term
• Copula
• Predicate Term
• All S are P
• No S is P
• Some S are P
• Some S are not P
 Quality, Quantity
• Quality refers to whether Categorical Propositions are Negative or
Affirmative
• Quantity refers to whether Categorical Propositions are Universal or
Particular
• A = UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
• E = UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE PROPOSITION
• I = PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
• O = PARTICULAR NETATIVE PROPOSITION
 Distribution of Terms
• A term is said to be distributed if:
• It totally includes all the members designated by the term, or
• It totally excludes all the members designated by the term.
• A propositions distribute the Subject Term
• E propositions distribute both Subject and Predicate terms
• I propositions do not distribute any term
• O propositions distribute the Predicate term
TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
CONTRARY Propositions
• Contrary (A E)
• Propositions with the same quantity (universal) but
• Different quality (one affirmative and one negative)
• They cannot both be TRUE but they can both be FALSE
• (At least one is FALSE)
• All politicians are liars No politicians are liars
• If A is True, E must be false. If A is FALSE, E is undetermined (T/F)
• E.g. Komu is older than Mihanjo. Mihanjo is Older than Komu.
SUBCONTRARY Propositions
• Sub-contrary (I O)
• Propositions with the same quantity (particular) but
• Different quality (one affirmative and another negative)
• They cannot both be FALSE but they can both be TRUE
• At least one is TRUE
• Some girls are beautiful Some girls are not beautiful
• If I is False, O must be True. If I is True, O is undetermined (T/F)
CONTRADICTORY Propositions
• Contradiction (A O or E I)
• Propositions that are different BOTH in Quality and Quantity
• They cannot BOTH be TRUE
• They cannot BOTH be FALSE
• All Chaggas are thieves Some Chaggas are not thieves
• No thinkers are foolish Some thinkers are foolish
• If A is True, O is False. If O is True, A is False.
• If E is False, I is True. If I is False, E is True
SUB-ALTERNATE Propositions
• Sub-alternation (A I or E O)
• Propositions with the same Quality but different Quantity
• They have TRUTH value going DOWN
• They have FALSE value going UP
• It is indeterminate when the movement is swapped
• All animals are mortal Some animals are mortal
• No M Girls are humble Some M Girls are not humble
• A is True, I is True. I is False, A is False. A/I is False/True, I/A is T/F
 Symbolism and Venn Diagram
•A All S are P

•E No S are P
 Symbolism and Venn Diagram
•I Some S are P

•O Some S are not P

 Categorical Equivalence and Validity
• Conversion: Mechanism of exchanging the S and P terms.
• Only valid in E and I propositions

• Obversion: The mechanism of first changing the quality

• Then replace the Predicate term with its compliment

• Contraposition: First switch S and P then compliment of both S and P

• It is same as Obversion Conversion the Obversion