Math 1: Logic

Objective:
At the end of this topic, learners are expected to use logic to
1. Understand logical statements and arguments.
2. Analyze information and relationship between statements, its truth values and
truth table.
3. Determine validity of arguments using truth table.

I. Logical Statements
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and
commands. For instance,
“Tigaon is implementing total lockdown.” – is a statement
“You look so beautiful today.” – is an opinion.
“Can I borrow your phone?” – is a question
“Don’t leave me without saying goodbye.” – is a command
The symbolic logic that was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences that are
statements (or in other logic books, is called Proposition). Proposition is a declarative sentence
that is either true or false, but not both true and false
Examples of proposition
a. Tigaon is a town.
b. Naga is a city.
c. 1 + 1 = 3.
d. COVID 19 is not a virus.
e. President Duterte is providing protection to Filipino citizens by implementing ECQ
and GCQ.
f. Roses are red and tulips are yellow.
g. Read a book or watch a YouTube tutorial.
h. If the sun comes up, then the water in the pit will be drained.
i. You are an animal if and only if you can produce milk.
The examples a, b, c, d, and e are called simple propositions while examples f, g, h, and i
are called compound propositions.
A simple proposition is a declarative sentence that conveys a single idea, while
compound proposition is two or more simple proposition.
Connecting simple proposition with words and phrases such as and, or, if … then, and if
and only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will send you module or we will have
an online class”. It is composed of two simple propositions, “I will send you module” and “we
will have an online class”. They are two simple proposition connected with the word “or”.
 II. Truth Value and Truth Table
The truthfulness and the falseness of a proposition is called the Truth Value. The Truth
value of a simple proposition is either true (T) or false (F). The given examples a, b, and e are
true, while c and d are false. It is easy to identify the truth value of a simple proposition.
The truth value of a compound proposition depends on the truth values of its simple
propositions and its connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
proposition for all possible truth values of its simple proposition.
proposition Connective Symbolic form Type of proposition
not p not ~p negation
p and q and p˄q conjunction
p or q or p˅q disjunction
If p, then q If … then p→q conditional
p if and only if q If and only if p↔q biconditional

The negation of the proposition “today is Friday” is the proposition “Today is not
Friday”. in logical symbol, the ~ is used to denote the negation of a proposition. If the
proposition p is true, then the negation ~p is false, and if a proposition p is false, its negation ~p
is true. (see the table below)
p ~p
T F
F T

Here are some examples of propositions and their negation:

Proposition Negation
It is raining. It is not raining.
Today is Friday. Today is not Friday.
I will go to Atlanta. I will not go to Atlanta.
The movie exceeded my expectation. The movie doesn’t exceed my expectation.

The truth value of a compound proposition depends on the truth values of its simple
propositions and its connectives.
Conjunction
The conjunction p ˄ q is true if and only p and q are both true.
p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Disjunction
The disjunction p ˅ q is false if and only p and q are both false.
p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Conditional
The conditional p → q is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all other cases.
p q p→ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Biconditional
The Biconditional p ↔ q is true if and only p and q are both true or both false.
p q p→q q→p (p → q) ˄ (q → p) p↔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

III. Arguments
 Arguments is a series of proposition where there is a premise(s) and a conclusion; where
the conclusion is derived from premise(s). Not all series of propositions are arguments, only
those who has a conclusion that is affirmed from the premise(s).
Here are some examples of arguments.
1. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the
people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.
Premise: A well-regulated militia is necessary for the security of a free state.
Conclusion: The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed

2. Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual
things, but more frequently than not struggles against the divine Word, treating with
contempt all that emanates from God.
Premise: it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but more frequently than not
struggles against the divine Word, treating with contempt all that emanates from
God.
Conclusion: Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has

3. Houses are built to live in, not to look on; therefore, let use be preferred before
uniformity.
Premise: Houses are built to live in, not to look on
Conclusion: therefore, let use be preferred before uniformity.
There are indicators can be used to identify the conclusion and premise(s) called
conclusion indicator and premise indicator.
Here is a partial list of conclusion indicators:
therefore consequently
for these reasons which entails that
hence proves that
it follows that which implies that
so as a result
I conclude that which allows us to infer that
accordingly for this reason
which shows that which points to the conclusion that
in consequence thus
which means that we may infer

Here is a partial list of premise indicators:

since as indicated by
because follows from
the reason is that may be derived from
for as shown by
for the reason that may be deduced from
as inasmuch as
may be inferred from in view of the fact that

Note: not all arguments has an indicator.

There are two ways to validate an argument. First is through its content while the second
is by its construction. In validating argument by its content, the fallacies are useful. By validating
arguments by its construction, there are different ways. One of those ways is the use of Truth
Table.

IV. Validating Arguments using Truth Table.

The following truth table procedure can be used to determine whether an argument is
valid or invalid.
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth values of each premise and the truth value
of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the simple proposition.
3. If there is at least one row where the conclusion is false and all the premises are true,
then the argument is invalid. Otherwise, it is valid.
Example 1
If you finish your homework, then you may attend the reception, you did not finish your
homework. Therefore, you cannot go to the reception.
Solution:
Every simple proposition should first be written as a variable.
Variable Simple proposition
p you finish your homework
q you may attend the reception

Premise 1: p→q
Premise 2: ~p
Conclusion: ~q
In truth table
p q ~p ~q p→q
T T F F T
T F F T F
 F T T F T
F F T T T

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

(p → q) (~ p) (~ q)
T F F
F F T
T T F
T T T

Since in the row 3, all the premises are true and the conclusion is false. Then that
argument is invalid.

Example 2
If the GCQ will be extended in Tigaon till June, then there is a COVID positive in Tigaon. There
is no COVID positive in Tigaon. So GCQ will not be extended in Tigaon till June

Solution:
Every simple proposition should first be written as a variable.
Variable Simple proposition
p GCQ will be extended in Tigaon till June
q there is a COVID positive in Tigaon

Premise 1: p→q
Premise 2: ~q
Conclusion: ~p

In truth table
p q ~p ~q p→q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
 Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
(p → q) (~ q) (~ p)
T F F
F T F
T F T
T T T

Since there is no row where all premises are true and the conclusion is false. Then that
argument is valid.

Example 3
If the movie was directed by Steven Spielberg, then I want to see it. The movie’s production
costs must exceed $50 million or I do not want to see it. The movie’s production cost were less
than $50 million. Therefore, the movie was no directed by Steven Spielberg.

Solution:
Every simple proposition should first be written as a variable.
Variable Simple proposition
p The movie was directed by Steven Spielberg
q I want to see it
r The movie’s production cost exceed $50 million

Premise 1: p→q
Premise 2: r˅~q
Premise 3: ~r
Conclusion: ~p

In truth table
p q r ~p ~q ~r p→q r˅~q
T T T F F F T T
T T F F F T T F
T F T F T F F T
T F F F T T F T
F T T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F
 F F T T T F T T
F F F T T T T T

Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 Conclusion

(p → q) (r ˅ ~ q) (~ r) (~ p)
T T F F
T F T F
F T F F
F T T F
T T F T
T F T T
T T F T
T T T T

Since there is no row where all premises are true and the conclusion is false. Then that
argument is valid.