Historical Note

Logic is the science of correct thinking. One of the first mathematicians to

make serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716).
 
Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical subject
to a formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely this goal; however,
several mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George
Boole (1815-1864), contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a
mathematical discipline.
 
George Boole published the books “The Mathematical Analysis of Logic” in
1848 and “An Investigation of the Laws of Thought”.
 
 
 MODULE 2
ELEMENTARY LOGIC:CONNECTIVES,
QUANTIFIERS, NEGATIONS AND VARIABLES
 Some Uses of Logic

1. Lawyers and judges, use logic to communicate more effectively,

construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts and make decisions.
 
2. Law schools consider a knowledge of logic to be one of the most
important predictors of future success for their new students.
 
3. Programmers use logic to design computer software.
 
4. Electrical engineers use logic to design circuits for smart phones.
 
5. Mathematicians use logic to solve problems and construct
mathematical proofs.
 What is a Statement?
 

• Statement
  is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but NOT both true and false.

Illustration
 
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
• Is the test today?
• Go get the newspaper.
• Florida is a state in the United States.
• How are you?
• is a prime number.
 What is a Statement?
 

Answers
• Not statement. It ends with a question mark and not a
declarative sentence. The sentence is interrogative.
• Not statement. The sentence is not declarative because it is
imperative.
• Statement. It is a declarative sentence whose truth value is
true.
• Not statement. It ends with a question mark and not a
declarative sentence.
• Statement. It is a declarative sentence whose truth value is
either true or false
 Kinds of Statement

• A simple statement is a statement that

conveys a single idea while a compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or
more ideas.
• Connecting simple statements with words and
phrases such as and, or, if … then and if and
only if creates a compound statement.
 Kinds of Statement
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧, ∨, ∼,
→and ↔
to represent connectives.

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

Negation

Conjunction

Disjunction

Conditional

Biconditional
 Types of Statement

•• Negation.
  The negation of statement is the statement, denoted
by , that has the opposite truth value of
• Conjunction. A statement of the form denoted by , which is
true only when are true at the same time.
• Disjunction. A statement of the form denoted by , which is
true only when is true, is true, or both are true.
• Conditional. A statement that has form “If then ”, denoted by .
It is always true except in the case in which is true and is false.
• Bi-conditional. A statement of the form “ if and only if ”,
denoted by which is true only when have the same truth
value.
 EXERCISE NO.4
•   1. Consider the following simple statements.
PART
Today is Friday. : It is raining.
I am going to a movie. I am going to the basketball game.
 
Express the following compound statements in symbolic form.
1. Today is Friday and it is raining.
2. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
3. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
 ANSWER
•1.  
 EXERCISE NO.4
•   2. Consider the following simple statements.
PART
The game will be played in Atlanta.
: The game will be shown in CBS.
The game will not be shown on ESPN.
The Mets are favoured to win.
Express each of the following symbolic statements in words.
1.
2.
3.
 ANSWER
1. The game will be shown in CBS and it will be
played in Atlanta.
2. The game will be shown on ESPN and the
Mets are favored to win.
3. The Mets are favored to win if and only if the
game will not be played in Atlanta.
  
Truth Value and Truth Table

Every statement has a truth value of either true or false

but NOT both. The truth value of a simple statement is
either true (T) or false (F).
 
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the
truth values of its simple statements and its connectives.
 
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a
compound statement for all possible truth values of its
simple statements.
  
Truth Value and Truth Table

Truth table for ~p .

T F

F T
  
Truth Value and Truth Table

Truth Value of a Conjunction

The conjunction p∧q is true if and only if BOTH p and q are TRUE. Sometimes
the word but is used in place of the connective and.
The table below is the truth table for p∧q.

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F
  
Truth Value and Truth Table

Truth Value of a Disjunction

The disjunction p∨q is true if and only if p is true, q is true,
or both p and q are true.
The table below is the truth table for p∨q.

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F
  
Truth Value and Truth Table
Truth Value of a Conditional
The conditional p→q is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all
other cases. Here,
statement p is called a premise or hypothesis while statement q is called
consequent or conclusion.
The table below is the truth table for p→q.

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T
  
Truth Value and Truth Table

Truth Value of a Bi-Conditional

The statement (p→q)∧(q→p) is called a bi-conditional and is
denoted by p↔q. The bi- conditional p↔q is true only when p and q
have the same truth value.
The table below is the truth table for p↔q.

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T
 EXERCISE NO.4
Create a truth table for the compound statement ~(~p∨q)∨q, create a table
showing p, q, ~p, ~p∨q, ~~p∨q and ~~p∨q∨q as
columns. Then, write all possible truth values for p and q. See the table
below.

T T        

T F        

F T        

F F        
 ANSWER

T T F T F T

T F F F T T

F T T T F T

F F T T F F