MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • Aristid Lindenmayer and Benoît Mandelbrot

showed how the mathematics of fractals could

create plant growth patterns.
Mathematics is the study of the relationships • W. Gary Smith adopted 8 patterns in his
among numbers, quantities, and shapes. It includes landscape work: scattered, fractured, mosaic,
arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, naturalistic drift, serpentine, spiral, radial and
statistics and calculus. dendritic.
- Mathematics nurtures human characteristics like
the power of creativity, reasoning, critical thinking, B. The Fibonacci Sequence
spatial thinking and others. It provides the
opportunity to solve both simple and complex Leonardo Pisano Bigollo lived between 1170 and
problems in many real-world contexts using a 1250 in Italy. His nickname, “Fibonacci” means
variety of strategies. “son of Bonacci”. He is famous for the Fibonacci
- is a universal way to make sense of the world Sequence. November 23 is named “Fibonacci Day.”
and to communicate understanding of concepts
and rules using mathematical signs, symbols, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377,
proofs, language and conventions. 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181…
- Mathematics helps organize patterns and
regularities in the world. Most patterns found in The terms of the Fibonacci sequence are obtained
nature were later on associated with numerals. by simply adding two consecutive numbers :
- Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature 1+1=2
and phenomena in the world. It is instrumental to 1+2=3
control natural phenomena for the betterment of 2+3=5
the human race. 3+5=8
- Mathematics is regarded as a science of patterns 5+8=13…
and it helps students to utilize, recognize and
generalize patterns that exist in numbers, in shapes The Golden Ratio
and in the world around them. The ratio of any two successive Fibonacci Numbers
is very close to what is referred to as the Golden
A. Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World Ratio and represented by phi (φ) and is
approximately equal to
• Patterns in nature are visible regularities found 1.618034... such as
in the natural world. The patterns can sometimes 21/13 = 1.615...
• Natural Patterns such as spirals, symmetries, 34/21 = 1.619...
mosaic, stripes and spots 55/34 = 1.617...
• Plato, Pythagoras, Empedocles and other early 89/55 = 1.618...
Greek philosophers studied patterns to explain 144/89 = 1.617...
order in nature. 233/144 = 1.618...

Examples: The Golden Spiral

(19th Century) The golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose
• Joseph Plateau – examined soap films, concept of growth factor is phi, the golden ratio. The golden
minimal surface. spiral gets wider (or further from its origin) by a
• Ernst Haeckel – painted hundreds of marine factor of phi for every quarter turn it makes.
organisms to emphasize their symmetry
• D’ ArcyThompson pioneered the study of growth
patterns, showing that simple equations could
explain spiral growth.

(20th Century)
• Alan Turing – predicted mechanisms of
morphogenesis which gives rise to patterns of
spots and stripes
C. Patterns and Regularities in the World as
organized by Mathematics
Patterns, relationships and functions constitute a
unifying theme of mathematics. Many beautiful
phenomena observed in nature can be described in
mathematical terms. The world is made up of
orders (such as the regular cycles of day and night,
recurrence of seasons and alternate sunrise and
TYPES OF PATTERNS
sunset) and symmetry such as the fractal patterns
from which similarity, predictability and regularity
• Spirals - series of circles, curve pattern
in nature and the world consequently exist.
• Symmetries (Bilateral or Mirror/Radial or
Rotational /Three fold /Four fold /Five fold /Six
Examples of Spectacular Patterns
fold) - the mirror of the other one, identical
• Mosaics (Tessellations) - regular/irregular stones
• Stripes - pattern of strips
• Spots - like cats
• Dendritic - pattern of branching, root
• Scattered - raindrops, clouds
Symmetries • Fractured - cracks
• Naturalistic Drift - wave, desert
• Serpentine / Meander - snake
• Foam - bubbles, bear

Mathematics helps organize patterns and

regularities in the world.

The great secret uncovered by mathematics:

Nature’s patterns are not just there to be admired;
they are vital clues to the rules that govern natural
processes.

What is it for?

D. Phenomena in the World as Predicted by

Mathematics
• To describe symmetry-breaking processes.
• To help us unravel the puzzles of nature, a useful
way to think about nature.
• To exercise the human mind in abstracting the
results of observation to find similarities and
differences between phenomena. To summarize,
formalize, interpolate and extrapolate from
recorded observations.
We live in the Universe full of Patterns
– Ian Stewart
MATHEMATICS IS EVERYWHERE!
E. Nature and Occurrences in the World as
Controlled by Mathematics
Logic and creativity are essential aspects of
Mathematics. For a particular person, the essence
of mathematics lies in its beauty and intellectual
challenge. Many scientists and engineers apply
Mathematics to their own work. In medicine,
applied mathematics plays an important role
especially in the unprecedented area of research.
Political scientists likewise use mathematics and
statistics to make predictions on the behavior of a
group of people.
Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences
in the world for our own ends.
verbs that express the difference between objects
and the actions these objects carry.
It is distinct and unique from the usual
language that people are used to.
Numbers, measurements, spaces, shapes,
functions, patterns, data, and arrangements are
mathematical nouns while the mathematical verbs
may be considered as the four main actions
attributed to problem-solving and reasoning.
Used to communicate abstract and logical
ideas.

F. Applications of Mathematics in the World A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to
express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians
like to express. It is:

• Precise: able to make very fine distinctions

12 ≠ 22
Means “accurate or exact”.

The pictures show how mathematics is utilized in Mathematical Symbol

various fields of expertise. Used to refer certain quantities, concepts, ideas
and others
Mathematics has numerous applications in the
world making it indispensable.

MODULE 2: Mathematical Language and Symbols

Just like any ordinary language, sentences of

mathematics also have complicated structures
which can be easily understood if one knows some
• Concise: able to say things briefly
of the basic terminologies of grammar in math.
- We can convert mathematical language into
Some parts of speech in math are very similar to
expressions or equations
those in natural language and some are quite
different.
The language of mathematics can be learned,
but requires the efforts needed to learn any foreign
language.
Language is the system of words, signs and
symbols which people use to express ideas,
thoughts and feelings; systematic means of
communicating ideas or feelings by the use of
conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks
having understood meanings (Merriam-Webster,
2017).
Mathematical Language is the system used to • Powerful: able to express complex thoughts with
communicate mathematical ideas, concepts and relative ease
theories among others that are more precise than
any other language one may think of. It has its own
grammar, syntax, vocabulary, word order,
synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms,
abbreviations, sentence structure and paragraph
structure. All human languages have grammatical
• Nontemporal: no past, no present, no future
structures that distinguish between nouns and

Vocabulary vs Sentences
Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and
its rules for combining these words into complete
thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no
exception. As a first step in discussing the
mathematical language, we will make a very broad
classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics
(used to name mathematical objects of interest)
and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state
complete mathematical thoughts).
B. Mathematical Expressions and Sentences
English: Nouns vs Sentences
Mathematics: Expressions vs Sentences
The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be
called an expression. Thus, an expression is a name
given to a mathematical object of interest.
Whereas in English we need to talk about people,
places, and things, we’ll see that mathematics has
many different ‘objects of interest’. The
mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will also be
called a sentence. A mathematical sentence, just as
an English sentence, must state a complete
thought. The table below summarizes the analogy.
Since people frequently need to work with
numbers, these are the most common type of
mathematical expression. And, numbers have lots
of different names.
For example, the expressions
7 5+2 7(1) 14 ÷ 2 (8 – 2) + 1 1+1+1+1+1+1+1
The simple idea—that numbers have lots of
different names—is extremely important in
mathematics. English has the same concept:
synonyms are words that have the same (or nearly
the same) meaning. However, this ‘same object,
different name’ idea plays a much more
fundamental role in mathematics than in English.
2. The number ‘six’ has lots of different names.
Give names satisfying the following properties.
There may be more than one correct answer.
a) the ‘standard’ name 6
b) a name using a plus sign, + 5+1
c) a name using a minus sign, - 8 – 2
d) a name using a division sign, ÷ 12÷2
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION
- A mathematical expression is a mathematical
analogue of an English noun.
- It DOES NOT state a complete thought.
- The most common expressions are numbers,
variables, sets, functions
Examples: 6 5x y-5
MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE
- A mathematical sentence is a mathematical
analogue of an English sentence.
- It states a complete thought
Examples:
1 + 6 = 7 , 8x = 16 , x – 3 > 2
- It always used relation symbols such as = , ≠ , < , >
, ≤ or ≥ .
- Mathematical sentences have verbs.
- In 1 + 6 = 7 , the verb is equal “ = “ .
A mathematical sentence can
1. Always TRUE
2. Always FALSE
3. Sometimes True / Sometimes False
Ideas regarding sentences
1. Sentences have verbs.
Just as English sentences have verbs, so do
mathematical sentences. In the mathematical
sentence “3 + 4 = 7 “, the verb is “ = “. If you read
the sentence as ‘three plus four is equal to seven’,
then it’s easy to ‘hear’ the verb. Indeed, the equal
sign “= “is one of the most popular mathematical
verbs.
2. Truth of Sentences
Sentences can be true or false. The notion
of truth (i.e., the property of being true or false) is
of fundamental importance in the mathematical
language.
 The negations of a ∈ A, A ⊆ B, and A = B are
Conventions in the Mathematical Language written as a ∉ A, A ⊈ B and A ≠ B, respectively.
It is common practice in mathematics to put
Languages have conventions. In English, for a vertical line or slanted line through a symbol to
example, it is conventional to capitalize proper indicate the opposite or negative meaning of the
names (like ‘Juan’ and ‘Mandaluyong’). This symbol.
convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish The statement A ⊆ B does not exclude the
between a common noun (like ‘teacher’, a possibility that = B . In fact, for any set A, we have
Christmas song) and a proper noun (like ‘Ms. since, trivially, every element in A belongs to B.
Reyes’). Mathematics also has its conventions, However, if A ⊆ C and A ≠ B, then we say that A is
which help readers distinguish between different a proper subset of B (sometimes written as A ⊂ B).
types of mathematical expressions.
Suppose every element of a set A belongs to a set
There are two things to consider to understand B, and every element of B belongs to a set C. Then
the meaning of mathematical symbols clearly every element of A belongs to C. In other
words, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C , then A ⊆ C.
1. Context that refers to a particular topic being
studied and it is important to understand the
context to understand mathematical symbols.
Example: different meaning of “is”:
• 2 is a square root of 4.
• 2 is less than 5.
• 2 is a prime number.
2. Convention is a technique used by
mathematicians, engineers, scientists in which each
particular symbol has particular meaning.
2. SPECIFYING SETS
Examples: position of numbers and symbols;
subscripts and superscripts; Greek and Latin Letters
● roster/tabular method – obtained by
simply listing or enumerating the elements
D. Four Basic Concepts
of a set, enclosed by braces and separated
by a comma
1. SETS
example: A = {2, 4, 6 ,8}
A set is a well-defined collection of objects
● rule/descriptive method – obtained by
called elements or members of the set. Class,
describing the set with a general rule and
collection and family are words that are
usually represented by a set builder
synonymous to sets. Capital letters are usually used
notation.
to denote a set and lowercase letters are used to
example: B = {x: x is an even integer, x > 0}
denote the elements of the set.
Example: A = {a, e, i, o u}
3. KINDS OF SETS
The statement that an element a belongs to a set s
is written as a ∈ S
1. empty/null/void set is a set without any
Example: a ∈ A, x ∉ A
element denoted by { } or ∅ and is regarded as a
We also write a, b ∈ S when both a and b belong
subset of every other set.
to S. Suppose every element of a set A also belongs
2. Finite set is a set with countable number of
to a set B, that is, suppose a ∈ A implies a ∈ B,
elements
then
3. Infinite set is a set with an uncountable number
A is called a subset of B, or A is said to be contained
of elements and often characterized by ellipses.
in B, which is written as A ⊆ B.
4. Universal set is some large fixed set also known
Example: B = {letters of the English
as the universe of discourse denoted by U.
alphabet} Then A ⊂ B.
5. Disjoint sets are sets with no elements in
Two sets are equal if they both have exactly
common otherwise, they are called joint sets.
the same elements, or equivalently, if each is
6. Equivalent sets are two or more sets with the
contained in the other. That is
same cardinal number.
A = B if A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {3, 2, 1},then A = B.
 *Cardinal number refers to the number of
elements in a set denoted by n.

Example: 5. Finite and Countable Sets - Sets can be finite or

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} infinite. A set S is finite if S is empty or if S consists
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} of exactly m elements where m is a positive
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} integer; otherwise, S is infinite.
C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Counting Elements in Finite Sets
U, A, B, and C are finite sets. The notation n(S) or |S| will denote the number of
A and B are disjoint. elements in a set S. Thus, n(A)=26 where A consists
A and C are joint sets. of the letters in the English alphabet, and n(D)=7
B and C are equivalent and joint at the same time. where D consists of the days of the week. Also,
n(Ø)=0, since the empty set has no elements.
4. SET OPERATIONS
Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then A⋃B is
1. Union - The union of two sets A and B, denoted finite and n(A⋃B) = n(A) + n(B) that can be restated
by A⋃B, is the set of all elements which belong to as follows: Suppose S is the disjoint union of finite
A or B or both. sets A and B. Then S is finite and n(S) = n(A) + n(B)
Examples:
2. Intersection - The intersection of two sets A and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B, denoted by A∩B, is the set of all elements which B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
belong to both A and B. n(A⋃B) = n(A) + n(B) = 5 + 4 = 9

Properties of Union and Intersection Suppose A is a subset of a finite universal set U.

i) Every element x in A∩B belongs to both A and B.
Thus, A∩B is a subset of A and of B; hence, x
belongs to A and x belongs to B, that is A∩B ⊂A
and A∩B⊂ B
ii) An element x belongs to the union A⋃B if x
belongs to A or x belongs to B; hence, every
element in A belongs to A⋃B, and every element in
B belongs to A⋃B. That is, A⊂ A⋃B and B ⊂A⋃B
All sets under consideration at a particular
time are subsets of a fixed universal set U.
Then n(A)
Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets
where sets are represented by enclosed areas in
the plane. The universal set U is represented by the
points in a rectangle, and the other sets are
represented by disks lying within the rectangle.

3. Set Complement - The absolute complement or,

simply complement of Set AC, is the set of
elements which belong to U but which do not
belong to A, that is, = {x: x∈U, x∉A}
4. Difference of Sets - The difference of two sets,
A – B, is a set whose elements belong to A but not
to B.
Examples: Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Classes of Sets
Given a set S, we may wish to talk about some of its
subsets. Thus, we would be considering a “set of
sets”. Whenever such a situation arises, we use the
terms class of sets or a collection of sets. Or a”
subcollection” that has meanings analogous to
subset.
Example Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Find
1) A, the class of subsets of S which contains exactly
3 elements of S
Answer: A = {(1,2,3), (1,2,4), (1,3,4), (2,3,4)}
2) B, the class of subsets of S which contains the
numeral 2 and two other elements of S
Answer: B = {{2,1,3), (2,1,4), (2,3,4)}
Power Sets
For any given set S, we may consider the class of all
subsets of S. This class is called the power set of S,
denoted by P(S). If S is finite, then so is P(S). In fact,
the number of elements in P(S) is 2 raised to the
power of S; that is n(P(S)) = 2n(S) or 2S
Example:
1. Suppose S = {1, 2, 3}. Find the power set of S.
Solution: n(P(S)) = 2n(S)= 23 = 8
P(S) = {(1), (2), (3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 2, 3), ({ })}
2. Suppose S = {h, o, p, e}. Find the power set of S.
Solution: n(P(S)) = 2n(S)= 24 = 16
P(S) = {(h), (o), (p), (e), (h, o), (h, p), (h, e), (o, p), (o,
e), (p, e), (h, o, p), (h, o, e), (h, p,
e), (o, p, e), (h, o, p, e), ({ })}
2. Relations
A relation is a rule that relates values from a set of
values (called the domain or x-values) to a second
set of values (called the range or y-values).
The elements of the domain can be imagined as
input to a machine that applies a rule to these
inputs to generate one or more outputs. A relation
is also a set of ordered pairs (x, y).
Examples:
1. (-2, -3), (-1, -2), (0, -1), (1, 0)
2. (8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 4), (8, 8)
3. (-1, 0), (0, -1), (1, 0), (2, 3)
4. (6, 2), (6, 3), (4, 2), (4, 1)
Kinds of Relations
1. One-to-one
2. One-to-many
3. Many-to-one
4. Many-to-many
Relations can be represented through ordered
pairs, tables of values, mapping diagrams and
graphs.
Relation Symbols
Relation symbols behave like adjectives that
refer to a property rather than an object.
Statement of relationship
Example: 2 is less than 5
Example: “Equals” and “is an element of” are two
other examples of relations
3. FUNCTIONS
A function is a relation where each element
in the domain is related to only one value in the
range by some rule. It is a set of ordered pairs (x,
y) such that no two ordered pairs have the same
x–value but different y–values. Thus, only one-
to-one and one-to-many relations exist as
functions.
DOMAINS (x value) SHOULD BE UNIQUE
1. f = {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
answer: function because all the domains are
unique
2. g = {(-1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4)}
answer: function because all the domains are
unique
3. h = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)}
answer: not a function because the ordered pairs
(1, 3) and (1, 4) have the same domain
Evaluating Functions
To evaluate a function is to replace the variable in
the function, such as x, with a value from the
function’s domain and calculate the result and is
denoted by f(x) for some value of x in the domain
of f.
Operations on Functions
To perform operations on functions, the rules for
adding, subtracting, multiplying
and dividing algebraic expressions as well as
fractions are utilized.
Adding, subtracting and multiplying two or more
functions together will result in
another function while dividing functions will result
in another function if the
denominator is not a zero function.
Definition

* A composite function is a function within a
function. The process of obtaining a composite
function is called composition function.
4. Binary Operations
Binary literally means consisting of two parts.
Mathematically speaking, binary numbers belong
to a system of numbers called the binary system
that uses the base 2. Thus, binary numbers are
numbers made up of only 0’s and 1’s that has many
applications in the digital world especially in
programming.
A single binary digit is known as a bit so that the
binary number 11001 has 5 bits. A binary number is
written with a subscript 2 to distinguish it from a
decimal number – the one we are familiar with that
uses 10 as a base.
Binary Numbers to Decimal
To convert a binary number to its decimal
equivalent, use the powers of 2 and its
multiplicative inverse for binary numbers
containing a decimal part.
For the decimal part, use the negative powers of
two converted to their fractional and decimal
equivalents such as:
 contracts, and make decisions. Many other
professions also make use of extensive logic.
Programmers for instance use logic to
design computer software, electrical engineers use
logic to design circuits for smartphones, and
mathematicians use logic to solve problems and
construct mathematical proofs.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) was one of

the first mathematicians to make a serious study of
symbolic logic. He tried to advance the study of
logic to a formal mathematical subject but he never
completely achieved this goal. Several
mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan
(1806–1871) and George Boole (1815–1864),
contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic
Decimal to Binary Numbers
as a mathematical discipline. The Mathematical
To convert decimal numbers to their binary
Analysis of Logic was the title of the book
equivalent, use division by the base of the binary
published by Boole in 1848. In 1854 he published
numbers that is 2 and for the decimal part, use
another more extensive work entitled An
multiplication by the base 2.
Investigation of the Laws of Thought. Concerning
this document, the mathematician Bertrand
Russell stated, “Pure mathematics was discovered
by Boole in a work which is called The Laws of
Thought.”

Symbolic Logic
Symbolic logic studies relationships of
natural language by using symbols. Main
ingredients are statements and connectives.

Sentences
A statement is an assertion of something that can
be either true or false.
Examples:
25.21875 = 11001.00110 1. Today is Monday.
*NOTE: The decimal part is written from top to 2. Tomorrow is a Tuesday.
bottom. A rule for combining two values to 3. I did not bring an umbrella.
produce a new value is called binary operation. Not sentences:
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division How’s the weather? (questions)
on various sets of numbers are fundamental Cool! (interjections)
operations where binary operations can be applied.
Simple Statements
Binary Operations act like a conjunction that sits Simple statements do not contain other
between two objects (nouns). statements as their parts. We typically represent
Example: “two plus four” simple statements using letters P, Q, R, ...; for
Some familiar examples of binary operations are example
“plus”, “minus”, “times”, “divided by” and “raised to S: Your dress is beautiful;
the”. C: I like its color.

E. Elementary Logic Connectives

Logic is the science of correct reasoning Connectives join simple statements into
according to lawyers and judges. These more complex statements, called compound
professionals often use logic to communicate more statements.
effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze legal
 The most common connectives and their
symbols are: and/but ∧; or ∨; if ...,then →.
Example:
Your dress is beautiful and I like its color.
S∧C
G. Formality
Formality is a relational concept. An
expression can be more or less formal relative to
another expression, involving an ordering of
expressions. But it is said that no expression is
absolutely formal or absolutely informal and all
linguistic expressions lie somewhere in the middle
of absolute formality and absolute informality.
An expression is said to be completely
formal when it is context independent, definite and
precise. It represents a clear distinction that is
undeviating regardless of context.
Generalizations:
1. Mathematics is a language in itself. Hence, it is
useful in communicating important ideas.
2. Mathematics as a language is clear and
objective.
3.Language conventions are necessary in
mathematics for it to be understood by all.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
Problem Solving is the ability to make
choices, interpret, formulate, model and
investigate problem situations, and communicate
solutions effectively.
Reasoning is a sophisticated capacity for
logical thought and actions, such as analyzing,
proving, evaluating, explaining, inferring, justifying,
and generalizing.
There are two major types of reasoning, inductive
and deductive is a process by which someone
creates a conclusion as well as how they believe
their conclusion to be true.
● Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles. It starts with a few
general ideas, called premises, and applies them to
particular situations. Deductive arguments are
meant to prove a conclusion.
A conclusion is right if it can be proven by
recognized rules, laws, theories, and other widely
accepted truths. The most basic form of deductive
reasoning in practice is the
syllogism, where two premises that share some
idea support a conclusion. It may be easier to think
of syllogisms as the following theorem: If A=B and
C=A, then B=C.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING- GENERAL > SPECIFIC
● INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a
general conclusion by examining specific examples.
The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning
is often called a conjecture, which may or may not
be correct. It uses specific observations before
reaching a conclusion.
It starts with a few particular premises then
creates a pattern that can give way to a broad idea
that is likely true. Inductive reasoning is based on
finding a conclusion that is most likely to fit the
premises. It is usually used when making
predictions, creating generalizations, and
analyzing cause and effect.
Inductive arguments are meant to predict a
conclusion and try to show that the conclusion is
probable based on the given premises. An inductive
argument is considered either as weak or strong
based on whether the conclusion is likely to explain
the premises.
INDUCTIVE REASONING- SPECIFIC > GENERAL
Determine Types of Reasoning
1. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced
plums every other year.
Last year the tree did not produce plums. So, this
year the tree will produce plums.
- DEDUCTIVE
2. All students need an internet connection these
days.
Juan is a student.
Therefore, Juan needs internet connection.
- DEDUCTIVE
3. All Dan Brown novels are worth reading.
Origin is a Dan Brown novel.
Therefore, Origin is worth reading.
- DEDUCTIVE
4. Maria is not allowed to go outside her home
according to the IATF law.
People under 21 years old are not allowed to go
out these days.
Therefore, Maria is under 21 years old.
- DEDUCTIVE
B. Intuition, Proof & Certainty
Intuition is the ability to understand something
instinctively, without the need for conscious
reasoning.
Mathematical Proof is an argument, which
convinces other people that something is true.
Proof is an inferential argument for a
mathematical statement.
Certainty is a total continuity and validity of
inquiries to the highest degree of precision. It is a
conclusion that is beyond doubt.
● Perform an experiment.
● Guess at a solution and then check your
result
3. Carry Out the Plan. After devising a plan, you
must carry it out.
● Work carefully.
● Keep an accurate and neat record of all your
attempts
● Realize that some of your initial plans will
not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.

C. Polya’s Four Steps 4. Review the Solution. Once you have found a
solution, check the solution.
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to
make a study of problem solving was George Polya ● Ensure that the solution is consistent with
(1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved the facts of the problem.
to the United States in 1940. After his brief stay at ● Interpret the solution in the context of the
Brown University, he moved to Stanford University problem.
in 1942 and taught there until his retirement. While ● Ask yourself whether there are
at Stanford, he published 10 books and a number generalizations of the solution that could
of articles for mathematics journals. Of the books apply to other problems.
Polya published, How to Solve It (1945) is one of
his best known. In the book, he outlined a strategy D. Problem Solving Strategies
for solving problems from virtually any discipline. ● Guess and check
● Act it out
Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy ● Draw
● List/Tabulate
1. Understand the Problem. You must have a clear
understanding of the problem. To help you E. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
understand the problem, consider the following
questions: Terms of a sequence
● Can you restate the problem in your own A sequence is an ordered list of numbers.
words? The numbers in a sequence separated by commas
● Can you determine what is known about are the terms of the sequence.
these types of problems?
● Is there missing information that, if known,
would allow you to solve the problem?
● Is there extraneous information that is not
needed to solve the problem?

2. Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a

variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a
problem. Some frequently used procedures are the
following.
● Make a list of the known information and
information that is needed.
● Draw a diagram.
● Make a table or a chart.
● Work backwards.
● Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
● Look for a pattern.
● Write an equation. If necessary, define what
each variable represents.
F. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

Recreational mathematics is mathematics carried

out for recreation or entertainment rather than as
a strictly research and application-based
professional activity.

Recreational mathematics involves mathematical

puzzles, riddles and games, often appealing to
children and untrained adults, inspiring their
further study of the subject. Math puzzles and
riddles are fun and interesting, and they help
improve problem solving skills and thinking
capacity.