Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Branches and Campuses
TAGUIG BRANCH

Instructional Materials
In
GEED 10053

Mathematics in the
Modern World

Compiled by:

Israel G. Ortega
Faculty, PUP Taguig Branch
MODULE 1 – THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

OVERVIEW:
This module provides a holistic understanding of mathematics and its relation in our
modern world. We usually tend to identify and follow patterns, whether consciously or not. It feels
natural to recognize patterns, and it’s like that our brain is programed to recognize them. Humans
in early civilizations recognize the repeating interval of night and day, the cycle of seasons (winter,
spring, summer, and fall), the falling and rising of tides, and many others. Similarly, flowers follow
certain patterns such as arrangement of leaves and stems in a plant, the shape of snowflake, the
flower’s petals, and even the shape of the snail’s shell.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Identify the patterns in nature and regularities in the world.
2. Explain the importance of mathematics in our life.
3. Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

COURSE MATERIALS:
1.1 Mathematics
What is mathematics? Is it about arithmetic? The study of numbers? A body of formulas
and rules for solving and equations? A useless obstacle course in school? Many people consider
mathematics as a boring and formal science, but any good work in mathematics always has in it.
Mathematics has beauty, simplicity, structure, imagination, and crazy ideas! Mathematics is a
language. It enables us to communicate thoughts and meanings to each other. It is a powerful
language, helping us represent and communicate ideas with precision. It is the language of
science and technology.
The world is built in the ideas of mathematics. Mathematics is therefore a tool, with
applications in many aspects of our lives. Mathematics is a way of seeing, a way of making sense
of the world. In other words, mathematics is not: only about numbers and arithmetic, a useless
obstacle course in school, and study of formulas and techniques in computing.
We encounter math everyday:

Figure 1.1

For example, modern cars and machines run on calculus (Figure 1.1).

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1.2 Fibonacci Numbers
If you count the number of petals in most flowers, you will notice that they are either one
petal, two petals, three petals, five, or eight. This sequence of numbers form the set {1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
8, 13,…} whose pattern was discovered by Fibonacci, a great European mathematician of the
Middle Ages. His full name in Italian is Leonardo of Pisa (Figure 1.2), because he was born in
Pisa, Italy around 1775. Fibonacci is the shortened word for the Latin term “filius Bonacci” which
stands for “son of Bonaccio”. His father’s name was Guglielmo Bonaccio.

(Figure 1.2)

Numbers in nature are usually observed in Fibonacci. Surprisingly, these petal counts
represent the numbers in Fibonacci sequence. (However, not all numbers of petals of a flower
follow the patterns discovered by Fibonacci).

(Figure 1.3)

The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is as follows:

Let xn be the nth integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n+1)th term xn – 1 is
determined by adding nth and the (n – 1)th integers.
Example:
Let x1 = 1 be the first term, and x2 = 1 be the second term, the third term x3 is found by x3
= x1 + x2 = 1 + 1 = 2
The fourth term x4 is 2 + 1 = 3, the sum of the third and the second term.
To find the new nth Fibonacci number, simply add the two numbers immediately preceding
this nth number.

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 These numbers arranged in increasing order can be written as the sequence {1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, …}.

(Figure 1.4)

There are 34 spiral rows that go in the clock-wise direction and 55 spiral rows that go in
the counter clock-wise direction of the sunflower . 34 and 55 are both Fibonacci numbers.

1.3 Mathematics Around Us

We encounter mathematics everyday, everywhere! Below are some examples of
mathematics that can be found in nature.

(Figure 1.5)

Dead bees in hexagon (Figure 1.5) shows a hexagonal figure (a polygon of six sides)
which is common in nature.

(Figure 1.6)

A leaf (Figure 1.6) uses its own mathematics to create the pathways that deliver nutrients
to all its parts in the most efficient way possible.

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 (Figure 1.7)

Figure 1.7 shows how snowflakes appear when seen using a microscope. No two
snowflakes are ever exactly the same, but they all have six-fold symmetry.

(Figure 1.8)

When bubbles (Figure 1.8) get together, they turn into polygons, usually hexagons (six-
sided).
According to Galileo, “God wrote the universe in the language of mathematics”.
Mathematics is a science of pattern and order. It also provides the language for describing
patterns. Human culture has developed a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying,
and making sense of patterns – we call it mathematics.

1.4 Mathematics in the Modern World

(Figure 1.9) Prime numbers less than 100

The theory of prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, …) is behind the security of computer networks.

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 (Figure 1.10) Tokyo subway sytem

Queuing and network theory, topology, and Petri Nets are used to design efficient and
safe train schedules, as well as to understand how the brain works. The human brain is an
example of a neural network.

(Figure 1.11)

Internet routing protocols and search engines such as google (Figure 1.11) use Graph
Theory and Linear Algebra to manage and efficiently access information on the web.

(Figure 1.12) Global Positioning System

Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Statistics, and Linear Algebra are used in the design of
GPS (Global Positioning System). A GPS receives signals from satellites and computes your
exact location on earth.

(Figure 1.13) The movie Avatar was the first 3D movie

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 Geometry, Linear Algebra, Partial Differential Equations, and Vector Analysis help add
another dimension to the 2D screen (Figure 1.13). The abstract ideas of non-euclidean geometry
provide the mathematics for gravitation as well as the study of human vision.

(Figure 1.14) A coat made by metamaterials

Mathematicians and physicists are using the math they learn from nature to create
metamaterials and make invisibility a possibility in the near future (Figure 1.14).
Mathematics reveals nature’s secrets – both order and disorder. Mathematics powers
engines, transmit and secure information. Mathematics is the foundation of science and
technology and it connects our world.

Watch:
The Great Math Mystery
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tou8kXq6hHE

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 1 – The
Nature of Mathematics, p.2 – 11
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 1 – The Nature of Mathematics, p.
1 – 13

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
1. What is mathematics for you?
2. Where do you apply the principles of mathematics?
3. Do you need mathematics every day? Why?
4. What have you learned from school on mathematics so far?
5. Do you appreciate mathematics? Why or why not?

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MODULE 2 – MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

OVERVIEW:
This module aims to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that can serve you
in a wide variety of situations. When you start to work on a mathematical problem, you may often
have a vague sense to proceeds. You may begin by looking at examples, playing around with
notations, pictures drawing, rereading problems to focus on more details, and so forth. The closer
you get to a solution, the more your thinking has to be concrete. And the more you need to
understand, the more you need language that expresses mathematical ideas clearly, precisely,
and unambiguously.
This module will introduce you to some of the special language that is a foundation for
mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets, relations, and functions.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

COURSE MATERIALS:
2.1 Variables and Mathematical Statements
A variable is a placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you can
imagine that it has one or more values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want to
whatever you say about it to be true for all elements of a given set.
Example: No matter what number n is chosen, if n is greater than 2, then n2 is greater than 4.
A universal statement says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set.
Example: All negative numbers are less than zero.
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true, then some other thing also has to be true.
Example: If 522 is divisible by 18, then 522 is divisible by 6.
A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both universal and conditional.
Example: For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
A universal existential statement is a statement that is universal because its first part says that
a certain property is true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its second
part asserts the existence of something.
Example: “Every real number has an additive inverse.”

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This statement can also be written as: “For all real numbers r, there is an additive inverse for r.”
Or “For all real numbers r, there is a real number s such that s is an additive inverse for r.
An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential because its first part asserts
that a certain object exists and is universal because its second part says that the object satisfies
a certain property for all things of a certain kind.
Example: “There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive integer.”
This statement can be written as: “There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.”
Or “There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is greater than or equal to m.”
Or “There is a positive integer m with the property that for all positive integers n, m ≤ n.”

2.2 The Language of Mathematics

Mathematics is also a language since it has its own symbol system, the same way the
English or Greek languages have their own alphabet. Mathematical language is precise which
means it is able to make very fine distinctions or definitions among a set of mathematical symbols.
Mathematics is a symbolic language. Some of the symbols you may encounter as you read this
module are the following:
Σ − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
∃ − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠
∀ − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦
∈ −𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 (𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓)
→ − 𝑖𝑓 … , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
↔ − 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓
ℝ − 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℕ − 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℤ − 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℚ − 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
∞ − 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦

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2.3 Sets
A set is a collection of distinct well-defined objects (exisiting or imaginary) having common
characteristics. These objects are called elements.
Examples of sets:
1. The set of vowels in the English alphabet
2. Set of whole numbers less than 5.
3. Set of integers less than 0.
4. Set of prime numbers that are even.
5. Set of counting numbers.
To name a set, we use any letter and describe the set by enumerating the elements or
state the common characteristics. From the example above, we have:
1. A = {a, e, i, o, u}
2. B = {all whole numbers less than 5}
3. C = {all negative integers}
4. D = {2}
5. E = {x|𝑥 is counting number}
In the first given set, the letters a, e, i, o, u are elements of set A. To show that each of
them is an element, we use the symbol ∈. Thus, a ∈ A is read as “a is an element of set A”.

2.4 Methods of Describing a Set

1. Listing or Roster Method
The elements of the set are listed, enclosed by braces. This is the method used in example
1.
2. Rule Method
Sometimes called describing method, where the common characteristics of the elements
are simply stated. Example 2 is of this type.
3. Set Builder Notation Method
This method makes use of a kind of notation as in example 5.

2.5 Kinds of Sets According to Number of Elements

1. Finite Sets – have a definite (limited) number of elements.
2. Infinite Sets – have unlimited number of elements. Set E in example 5 is one such set.
3. Null Set – a set with no element. It is also called an empty set. It is denoted by the symbol ∅ or
{ }.

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2.6 Other Kinds of Sets
1. Equivalent Sets. Sets are said to be equivalent when the numbers of elements in both sets are
equal.
Example: If set A = {a, b, c} and set B = {1, 2, 3}, then set A and set B are equivalent.
2. Equal Sets. Two sets are equal if both sets have exactly the same elements.
Example: If A = {3, 4, 5} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then set A = set B.
3. Disjoint Sets. If two sets do not have common elements, then the two sets are disjoint.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}, then sets A and B are disjoint.
4. Intersecting Sets. If two sets have common element/s, then they are intersecting sets.
Example: If C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and D = {4, 5, 6, 7}, then C and D are intersecting sets since
elements 4 and 5 are common in both sets.
5. Universal Set. It is the totality of all the elements involved. It is denoted by the symbol U.
6. Subsets. A set is said to be a subset of another set if every element of A is an element of
another set.
Example: If A = {a, b, c} and B = {b}, set B is a subset of A. Hence, B ⊂ A read as “B is a subset
of A”. However, A is not a subset of B. Thus, A ⊄ B read as “ A is not a subset of B”.
7. Power Set. The set of all the possible subsets of a given set. Power set is denoted by P(A).
Example: Let A = {a, b, c} then the power set is P(A) = { {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c},
∅ }.
The power set of A has 2n subsets, hence when A has 3 elements then A should have 23 = 8
subsets. The given set itself and the null set are always subsets of any given set.
8. Product Set (Cartesian Product of Two Sets). It is a set of ordered pair (x, y) such that x belongs
to A and y belongs to B.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. The product set of A and B is A x B, read as “A cross
B”. Hence, A x B = { (1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b) }

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
A. Identify the following sets according to the number of elements (i.e. finite, infinite, unit, or null).
1. Set of whole numbers less than 10.
2. Set of rational numbers greater than zero but less than 1.
3. Set of letters in the English alphabet.
4. Set of whole numbers less than one.
5. Set of integers that are multiples of 5.
6. Set of real numbers greater than 10 but less than 10.

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7. Set of students of PUP in the year 2020.
8. Set of rational numbers less than one-half.
9. Set of integers greater than negative 20.
10. Set of Filipinos in the year 2020.

B. Identify the set whether they are equivalent, equal, intersecting, disjoint, or subset.
1. Set of rational numbers and set of real numbers.
2. Set of positive integers and set of negative integers.
3. Set of integers greater than – 5 and set of whole numbers less than 10.
4. Set of PUP students in Sta. Mesa and set of PUP students in Taguig.
5. Set of even whole numbers and set of integers that are multiples of 3.
6. Set of letters in the word “supercalifragilisticexpialidocious” and set of letters in the English
alphabet.
7. Set of real numbers less than 12 and set of real numbers less than – 10.
8. Set of rational numbers and set of irrational numbers.
9. Set of whole numbers greater than 10 and set of whole numbers greater than 20.
10. A = {a, b, c, d, e} and set of the first five letters in the English alphabet.

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 2 –
Mathematical Language and Symbols, p.20 – 24
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 2 – Speaking Mathematically, p.
24 – 35

Watch:
“Iba't ibang Pamamaraan sa Pagsulat ng Set Notation”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYiIUALMuP0

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MODULE 3 – LOGIC

OVERVIEW:
It is not easy to summarize in a few paragraphs the subject matter known as logic. For
lawyers and judges, logic is the science of correct reasoning. They often use logic to communicate
more effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make decisions.
Many other professions also make extensive use of logic. For instance, programmers use
logic to design computer software, electrical engineers use logic to design circuits for smart
phones, and mathematicians use logic to solve problems and construct mathematical proofs.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Analyze information and the relationship between statements.
2. Determine the validity of arguments.
3. Determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions.

COURSE MATERIALS:
3.1 Logic and Propositions
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish good (correct) from
bad (incorrect) reasoning. Logic is the study of formal reasoning based upon statements or
propositions. Logic focuses on the relationship among statements rather than to the content of
just one statement. Consider the following:
1. If a number is prime, then every man loves to eat broccoli.
2. If every man loves to eat broccoli, then the moon is made of cheese.
In the above statements, common sense would tell us that the above argument cannot be true.
But if the first two statements are assumed to be true, logic assures us that the statement “The
moon is made of cheese.” is a logical consequence of the previous statements.
Consider the following:
1. The sun rises in the east every night.
2. Go to Cebu via Air Pacific.
3. Five is an even integer.
4. Zero is composite.
5. 3x – 4 = 0
6. Are you with us?
7. There exist an 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 such that x2 + 1 = 0.

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 8. If the waves are rough, then the dogs are barking.
9. I am bored.
10. There is life in planet Mars.
A declarative sentence or statement that can be determined to be either true or false, but
not both at the same time, is called a proposition.
To every proposition is assigned a truth value. A true proposition has a truth value “True”
and a false proposition has truth value “False”. Sometimes, the symbols T or 1 are used for true
propositions and F or 0 are assigned to false propositions. Can you determine which statements
are propositions on the above examples?

Typically, to denote a proposition, we shall use lower case letters such as 𝑝, 𝑞 or 𝑟. These
variables are called propositional variables or sentential variables. When a sequence of letters
and/or logical connectives are given such that when the variables are replaced by a specific
sentences, a proposition is formed, then we call these sequence of symbols as sentential form
of the proposition.
To define a proposition, say 𝑝, we usually write: 𝑝:<the given statement>.
Examples of propositions:

• 𝑝 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑠.

• 𝑞 : 𝑆𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 49.

• 𝑡 : 𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑐.

Consider the following examples and determine which of these propositions are true, and which
are false.

1. 𝑝 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑙.

2. 𝑞 : 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑦.

3. 𝑢 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.

4. 𝑟 : 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦.

5. 𝑣 : √2 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒.

6. 𝑡 : |𝑥| ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥.

7. 𝑠 : 𝐼𝑓 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 8 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.

3.2 Negation and Compound Statements

Given a proposition 𝑝,the statement that says “𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝”, is a proposition known as the
negation of p. This proposition is true if and only if 𝑝is false and is denoted by ~𝑝. In other
literature, the notations ¬𝑝 and 𝑝 are also used.

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Consider the following.

1. 𝑝 : 3 − 6 = 5.

~𝑝 : 3 − 6 ≠ 5.

2. 𝑞 : 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛.

~𝑞 : 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛. Another form of ~𝑞 may be: “It is not true
that Claudine is the sister of Gretchen”.

3. 𝑟 : Every real number has a multiplicative inverse.

~𝑟 : Not every real number has a multiplicative inverse.

Similarly, ~𝑟 may be stated as: “There exists a real number that has no multiplicative
inverse.”

4. If “𝑤 : Today is a Wednesday.” and “𝑣 : Today is a Thursday.”, then 𝑣 is not the

negation of 𝑤, as both statements can be both false at some given time.
A proposition which cannot be broken down further into two or more smaller sentences is
called simple or elementary proposition.

If 𝑝 is a simple proposition, then ~𝑝 is again a simple proposition. However, simple

propositions may be combined using connectives to form another proposition. We call these
propositions as compound propositions. To form compound propositions we use logical
connectives such as “or” “and” and “implies”.
Considering the propositions 𝑞and𝑟, the statements: “𝑞 or 𝑟”, and “𝑞 and 𝑟” are again
propositions. These propositions are respectively known as the disjunction and conjunction of
𝑞 and 𝑟.
Given propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞, the statement “𝑝 or 𝑞”, is a proposition known as the
disjunction of 𝒑 and 𝒒. This proposition is true if and only if at least one of 𝑝 or 𝑞 is true. The
disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is denoted by 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞. The components 𝑝 and 𝑞 are called the disjuncts of
the disjunction.
Example: Let

𝑝 :3 > 0

𝑞 :7 + 8 = 3

𝑟 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑎𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑙.

𝑠 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ.

𝑡 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑙.

𝑢 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑙.

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Then

1. 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 : 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 3 > 0 𝑜𝑟 7 = 8 = 3

2. 𝑟 ⋁ 𝑠 : Charice will either hold a concert in Tutuban Mall or she will brush her teeth.
A variation would be:

3. 𝑟 ⋁ 𝑠 : Either Charice will hold a concert in Tutuban Mall or she will brush her teeth.

4. 𝑡 ⋁ 𝑢 : Either the dog is a mammal or the dugong is a mammal.

Another way of saying the above disjunction is:

5. 𝑡 ⋁ 𝑢 : Either the dog is a mammal or the dugong is a mammal.

6. r ⋁ 𝑡 : Either Charice will hold a concert in Tutuban Mall or the dog is a mammal.
Remarks:
1. 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 is true even if 𝑝 is true but 𝑞 is false. The same is true if 𝑝 is false but 𝑞 is true.
2. 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 is true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 is true.
3. 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 is false only when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are false.
A variation of the “or” proposition is what is called the “exclusive or”. Exclusive or
propositions is what we may deem as the “common sense or”.
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions, the statement “Exclusively 𝑝 or 𝑞”, is known as exclusive or
(exor), denoted by 𝑝V𝑞. This proposition is true only when exactly one of 𝑝 or 𝑞 is true.
Example:

1. 𝑚 : 𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.

2. 𝑛 : 𝐴 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒.

3. 𝑤 : 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑎𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑔.

4. 𝑢 : 𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡.

Given propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞, the statement “𝑝 and 𝑞”, is a proposition known as the
conjunction of 𝒑 and 𝒒.This proposition is true if and only if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both true. It is denoted
by 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞. The components 𝑝 and 𝑞 are called the conjuncts of the conjunction.
Note: If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions, then we can see that 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞 is false if at least one of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is
false.
Example:

1. 𝑝 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑞 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞: 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

15
Alternately, 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 could be:

𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 : 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

~𝑝(⋁ 𝑞): 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.
Alternately, ~(𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞): could be:

~(𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞): 𝑁𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

~(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞): 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎.

Two statements 𝑢 and 𝑣 are said to be equivalent or logically equivalent if whenever 𝑢 is true, it
follows that 𝑣 is also true, and vice versa.
Example: Let

𝑝 : 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑞 : 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑛.

𝑟 : 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑡 : 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ.

Then

𝑝 ⋀ 𝑟: 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑞 ⋁ 𝑡 : 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ.

~(𝑟 ⋁ 𝑡): 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ.

𝑡 ⋀ ~𝑝 : 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔.

~(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞): 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.

𝑝 ⋁(𝑞 ⋀ 𝑡) : 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
A. Give the negation of the following statements.
1. The sun rises in the East.
2.Every mother has a husband.
3. |𝑥 − 2| ≥ 3.
4. There exists a dog that lay eggs.
5.𝑥 3 − 8 < 0.

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B. Given the following simple propositions, form the compound statements as required.

𝑝 : 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑠.

𝑞 : 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑟 : 𝐽𝑜𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑡 : 𝐽𝑜𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟.

Form the following compound statements.
a. 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞
b. 𝑟 ⋀ 𝑡
c. ~𝑝 ⋁ ~𝑟
d. 𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑡
e. 𝑟~ ⋀ ~𝑞
f. ~(𝑟 ⋀ 𝑞)
g. (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑟) ⋁( 𝑞 ⋀ 𝑡)

C. Identify the elementary propositions that formed the following compound propositions.
Represent the elementary propositions with variables. Form these variables, give the sentential
forms.
1. The set of real numbers is infinite while the set of letters in the English language is finite.
2. Either the sun revolves around the Earth or it is made up of cotton.
3. Either Monic or Elaine is going to Hong Kong to go shopping.
4. Kangaroos and koala are either marsupials or monotremes.
5. Amy is going to the market to buy fish and pork but not eggs.

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 2 –
Mathematical Language and Symbols, p.31 – 32
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 5 – Logic, p. 165 – 167

Watch:
Logical Operators − Negation, Conjunction & Disjunction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kYngPvoGxU

17
MODULE 4 – PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

OVERVIEW:
Most occupation require good problem-solving skills. For instance, architects and
engineers must solve may complicated problems as they design and construct modern buildings
that are aesthetically pleasing, functional, and that never meet stringent safety requirements. Two
goals of this module are to help you become a better problem solver and to demonstrate that
problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Apply inductive and deductive reasoning to solve problems.
2. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s strategy.
3. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

COURSE MATERIALS:
4.1 Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct. When you examine a list of numbers and predict
the next number in the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive
reasoning.
Example: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we can say that the next
number is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and third number differ by 3. It shows that the
difference between two numbers is 1 greater than the previous difference. Since 10 and 15 differ
by 5, we can assume that the next number is 6 larger than 15, and that is 21.

4.2 Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement providing it is true for all cases. If you can find one case
for which a statement is not true, called counterexample, then the statement will become a false
statement.

18
Example: Verify that each of the following statement by finding a counterexample.
For all number x:
a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥

c. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥
Solution: A statement may have more than one counterexamples but we only need to find one
counterexample for a statement to be false.
a. Let x = 0, then |0| = 0. Since 0 ≯ 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus, |𝑥| > 0 is not true
for all values of x.
b. Let x = 1, then 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus,
𝑥 2 > 𝑥 is not true for all values of x.

c. Consider 𝑥 = −3. Then √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to −3, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, √𝑥 2 = 𝑥 is not true for all values of x.

4.3 Deductive Reasoning

Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is the
process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.
Example: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedures produces a number that
is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract by 3.
Solution: Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8𝑛
Add 6 to the product: 8𝑛 + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide the sum by 2: 2
= 4𝑛 + 3

Subtract 3: 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces a number
that is four times the original number.

4.4 Polya’s Problem – Solving Strategy

One of the recent mathematicians who outlined a strategy for solving problems from
virtually any discipline is George Polya (1887 – 1985). In his book, How to Solve It, he writes, “A
great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any
problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your
inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and

19
enjoy the triumph of discovery.” Because of his ideas, he is considered the father of problem-
ssolving among mathematicians. The following four – step strategy is named after him.

Polya’s Four – Step Problem Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.

Understand the Problem

This part of problem – solving is sometimes, if not always, neglected. In order to solve a
problem, one must first know what is being asked, and what information or data can be extracted
from what is given. Furthermore, one must see to it that he or she can state the problem in his or
her own words.
Devise a Plan
For this step, one must think of strategies to solve a problem. Some of these strategies
include organizing the given information using a list, table or chart, drawing a diagram, working
out the problem backwards, looking for a pattern, trying to solve a similar but simpler problem,
writing an equation, or simply guessing at a possible solution and then later checking if the result
is valid.
Carry Out the Plan
Carrying out a plan to solve a problem is basically implementing the strategy chosen in
the second step until the problem is solved or until a new course of action is suggested. One may
get ideas from others in deciding the best strategy to make sure that the best solution is employed.
Review the Solution
Questions like “Is your answer reasonable?” is important in checking the veracity of the
answer to the problem. For example, if one is looking for the dimensions of a rectangular box at
least cost and his or her answer yields a negative length, he or she can automatically say that
there must be something wrong with the solution because there is no such box with negative
dimensions.
Example: Brgy. Ginebra basketball team won two out of their last four games. In how many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution: Applying Polya’s Strategy,
Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two and won the last two
(LLWW). Of course there is also other possibilities like (WLWL).
Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders using a system that
ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

20
Carry Out the Plan. Each entry in our list should contain two W’s and two L’s. We will use this
strategy to make sure that every order in considered having no duplication. One strategy is to
always write W unless doing so will produce too many W’s or a duplicate of one of the previous
orders. If it’s not possible to write a W, then and only then we do write an L. This strategy produces
the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL (start with two wins)
2. WLWL (start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (start with two losses)
Review the Solution. We made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and it considers all
possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which Brgy. Ginebra team
can win exactly two out of four games.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

A. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.

1. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ?
2. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ?
3. 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, ?
4. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ?
5. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
6. -2, 3, -4, 5, -6, 7, ?
7. -1, 4, -9, 16, -25, ?
1 2 3 4 5 6
8. 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , ?
1 3 5 7 9 11
9. 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , ?

10. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

B. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces a number that
is equal to the original number.
1. Pick a number. Multiply the number by 5 and add 10. Divide the sum by 5, and subtract 2.
2. Pick a number. Add 3 to the number and multiply the sum by 2. Subtract 6 from the product
then divide the result by 2.

21
C. Apply Polya’s strategy in solving the problem below.
1. The GSW basketball team won three out of their last six games. In how many different orders
could they have attained three wins and three losses in six games?

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 3 – Problem
Solving and Reasoning, p.42 – 47, p.54 – 57
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 3 – Problem Solving Strategies, p.
56 – 60, p.80 – 85

Watch:
Polya's 4-step problem solving process
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMlVcGEn7EE

Polya's Problem Solving Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhL3EMFSm6o

22
MODULE 5 – THE STATISTICAL TOOLS

OVERVIEW:
The Philippine government collects data on the population of the Philippines. It then issues
statistical reports that indicate changes and trends in the Philippine population. For instance,
according to Worldometer elaboration of the latest United nations data, the current population of
the Philippines is 109,682,866 as of July 28, 2020.
Here are some other statistics from the Worldometer:
• The Philippines 2020 population is estimated at 109,581,078 at midyear according to UN
data.
• The Philippines population is equivalent to 1.41% of the total world population.
• The Philippines rank number 13 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.
• The population density in the Philippines is 368 per Km2 (952 people per mi2).
• The total land area is 298,170 Km2 (115,124 sq.miles).
• 47.5% of the population is urban (52,008,603 people in year 2020)
• The median age in the Philippines is 25.7 years.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Apply a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.
2. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given
certain conditions.
3. Recognize the importance of statistical analyses in making decisions.

COURSE MATERIALS:
5.1 Statistics
Statistics is the systematic collection, classification, organization, analysis and
interpretation of numerical or quantitative data obtained by the conduct of surveys and
experiments. Its essential purpose is to described and draw inferences about the numerical
properties of populations.
There are different types of statistics. Descriptive statistics define or describe or give
information about a set of data or distribution. Correlational statistics study of the relationship
between or among variables. Inferential statistics involves the “study” of a sample/s for the
purpose of making generalizations/conclusions/inferences about the population from which the
sample/s were taken.
In statistics, data is very important. Data can be classified as continuous or discrete.
Continuous data may take any value within a defined range of values. The possible values of the
variable belong to a continuous series. Between any two values of the variable an indefinitely
large number of in-between values may occur. Discrete or discontinuous data can take specific
values only.

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The levels or scales of measuring data is as follows:
a. Nominal – they are measures of identity; numbers serve as labels to identify items or class;
they are used to identify, label or classify objects, people, places and events, there is no
concept of greater than or less than, no fundamental operation can be performed.
Examples: the number at the back of the basketball players; the No.1 to identify male and
2 for female.
b. Ordinal – they reflect the rank order of objects or individuals in a group; there is already
the concept of greater than or less than, but no operation can be performed. Example: the
numbers used to designate the honor students.
c. Interval – they show equal differences between any two consecutive values of the
characteristic being measured. There is only a relative zero point. Examples: the scores
in the achievement test, in an attitude scale.
d. Ratio – they have the same characteristics as the interval scale and there is an absolute
zero point. Examples: the weight and the height of a person.

5.2 The Measures of Central Tendencies

5.2.1 The Mode. It is the most frequent score in an ungrouped data; the score with the highest
frequency in grouped data with i=1 (1 is the size of a class interval); the midpoint of the class
interval with the highest frequency in grouped data with i>1. It is the least reliable of all measures
of central tendencies because it could be very low or very high. A distribution can have more than
one mode; if it has two modes, it is bimodal, three modes trimodal. It can be determined by
inspection.
5.2.2 The Mean. It is the arithmetic average of a set of scores.
∑𝑥
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥̅ =
𝑛

Example: Six friends in a math class of 20 students received test grades of

92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and 90

Find the mean of these test score.

Solution: The 6 friends are a sample of the population of 20 students. Use 𝑥̅ to represent the
mean.
∑𝑥 92 + 84 + 65 + 76 + 88 + 90 495
𝑥̅ = = = = 82.5
𝑛 6 6

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5.2.3 The Median. Another type of average is the median. It is the middle number or the mean of
the two middle numbers.
Example: Find the median of the data in given list.
4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
Solution: Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest, then find the middle number.
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
Answer: 9 is the median.
Note: If the given list are even number of items, just find the average of the two middle numbers
to get the median.

5.3 Correlation
Correlation is the measure of association or the strength of the relationship between two
variables say, x and y.
Note:
 Two variables are positively correlated if the values of the two variables both increase
or both decrease.
 Two variables are negatively correlated if the values of one variable increase while the
values of the other decrease.
 Two variables are not correlated or they have zero correlation if one variable neither
increase nor decrease while the other increases.
While scatter plot may be convenient way of inspecting correlation between two variables, it does
not offer a measure of the strength of a correlation. Fortunately, Karl Pearson invented a formula
that can give a numerical value to the measure of correlation. The formula named after him is
called the Pearson product – moment correlation (or Pearson r).
In order to determine how strong the relationship is between two variables, a formula must
be followed to produce what is referred to as the coefficient value. The coefficient value can
range between -1.00 and 1.00. If the coefficient value is in the negative range, then that means
the relationship between the variables is negatively correlated, or as one value increases, the
other decreases. If the value is in the positive range, then that means the relationship between
the variables is positively correlated, or both values increase or decrease together. Let's look at
the formula for conducting the Pearson correlation coefficient value.

25
Example: Find the value of the correlation coefficient from the following table.
Given:
Test Subject Age (X) Glucose Level (Y)
1 43 99
2 21 65
3 25 79
4 42 75
5 57 87
6 59 81

Solution: Solve for X2, Y2, and XY. Then find the total (summation) of each column.

Test Subject Age (X) Glucose Level X2 Y2 XY

(Y)
1 43 99 1849 9801 4257
2 21 65 441 4225 1365
3 25 79 625 6241 1975
4 42 75 1764 5625 3150
5 57 87 3249 7569 4959
6 59 81 3481 6561 4779
Σ 247 486 11409 40022 20485

Substitute the summation values to the Pearson r formula. The correlation coefficient will be
6(20,485) – (247 × 486) / [√[[6(11,409) – (2472)] × [6(40,022) – 4862]]]
= 0.5298

Our result is 0.5298 or 52.98%, which means the variables have a moderate positive correlation.
Here is a guide for the interpretation of correlation coefficient.

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5.4 Regression Analysis

The height of a person and the length of his or her hands are observed to be positively correlated.
To confirm the observation, you can collect actual measurements of the heights of your
classmates and the corresponding lengths of their hands. Given the height of a classmate, can
you estimate the length of his or her hands? To come up with an estimate, you need to determine
the equation of the line that best fits the collected data. This line is known as the line of best fit.
In statistical modeling, regression analysis is a set of statistical processes for estimating the
relationships between a dependent variable (often called the 'outcome variable') and one or
more independent variables (often called 'predictors', 'covariates', or 'features'). The most
common form of regression analysis is linear regression, in which a researcher finds the line (or
a more complex linear combination) that most closely fits the data according to a specific
mathematical criterion. For example, the method of ordinary least squares computes the unique
line (or hyperplane) that minimizes the sum of squared distances between the true data and that
line (or hyperplane).

Example:
The sales of a company (in million pesos) for each year are shown in the table below.

x (year) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

y (sales) 12 19 29 37 45

a) Find the least square regression line y = a x + b.

b) Use the least squares regression line as a model to estimate the sales of the company in
2012.

Solution:

We first change the variable x into t such that t = x - 2005 and therefore t represents the number

of years after 2005. Using t instead of x makes the numbers smaller and therefore manageable.

The table of values becomes.

t (years after 2005) 0 1 2 3 4

y (sales) 12 19 29 37 45

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 We now use the table to calculate a and b included in the least regression line formula.

t y ty t2

0 12 0 0

1 19 19 1

2 29 58 4

3 37 111 9

4 45 180 16

Σx = 10 Σy = 142 Σxy = 368 Σx2 = 30

We now calculate a and b using the least square regression formulas for a and b.

a = (nΣt y - ΣtΣy) / (nΣt2 - (Σt)2) = (5*368 - 10*142) / (5*30 - 102) = 8.4

b = (1/n)(Σy - a Σx) = (1/5)(142 - 8.4*10) = 11.6

b) In 2012, t = 2012 - 2005 = 7

The estimated sales in 2012 are: y = 8.4 * 7 + 11.6 = 70.4 million pesos.

Example:

Calculate the regression coefficient and obtain the lines of regression for the following data

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Solution:

Regression coefficient of X on Y

29
(i) Regression equation of X on Y

(ii) Regression coefficient of Y on X

(iii) Regression equation of Y on X

Y = 0.929X–3.716+11

= 0.929X+7.284

The regression equation of Y on X is Y= 0.929X + 7.284

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

Solve the following:

1. A group of ten Grade 12 students were given a 45 – item pre-test before attending a review for
the PUP College Entrance Test. A 45 – item post-test was also administered two weeks after the
review. Given the following hypothetical data, check if there is a correlation between the pre-test
and post-test results.

2. The table below lists the scores of nine students in Mathematics quiz and Physics test.

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Math
Score
(X) 3 6 5 8 9 4 5 7 8

Physics
Score
(Y) 6 5 7 6 2 3 4 6 4

a. Compute the correlation coefficient of the variables X and Y.

b. Give the regression equation.

c. Predict the Physics score of a student when he or she got a score of 10 in Mathematics.

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3. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the average change in prices of commodities
over time. In the following table, the CPI for each year is based on a cost of P1000 in 1992.

Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

CPI (Pesos) 1200 1500 1800 2100 2500

a. Fit the data into a linear equation and compute for the regression equation.

b. Predict the CPI in 2020 using the regression equation, assuming the equation holds beyond
2015.

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 4 – The
Statistical Tools, p.67 – 72, p.86 – 89
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 4 – Statistics, p. 102 – 105, p.143
– 146

Watch:
Statistics 101: Understanding Correlation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4EXNedimDMs

The (Pearson) Correlation Coefficient Explained in One Minute: From Definition to Formula +
Examples
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WpZi02ulCvQ

What is REGRESSION ANALYSIS? What does REGRESSION ANALYSIS mean?

REGRESSION ANALYSIS meaning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hb563V4Ece8

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MODULE 6 – THE MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS

OVERVIEW:
In this module, you will learn how to analyze and solve variety of problems, such as how
to find the least expensive route of travel on a vacation, how to determine the most efficient way
in which to run errands, and how to schedule a meeting at a conference so that no one has two
required meetings at the same time.
Think of all the various connections we experience in our lives – friends are connected on
Facebook, cities are connected by roads, computers are connected across the Internet. A branch
of mathematics called graph theory illustrates and analyzes connections such as these.

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
After successfully completing the module, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate Eulerian from Hamiltonian graphs.
2. Apply Euler and Hamiltonian paths to solve problems.
3. Apply Euler and Hamiltonian circuits to solve problems.
4. Solve problems using graphs.

COURSE MATERIALS:
6.1 Introduction to Graph Theory
Graph theory is a branch of mathematics that was developed after Leonhard Euler (1707
– 1783), a Swiss mathematician, solved an eighteenth century problem involving the seven
bridges of Konigsberg in Old Prussia. The city of Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) has four
districts divided by the Pregel River. Seven bridges connected these districts as shown in the
figure below.

In Euler’s time, people were puzzled if there is a travel route that would only cross each
of the seven bridges exactly once. Euler proved in 1736 that it is impossible to take a stroll that
would lead them across the bridge and return to the starting point without traversing the bridge
twice. Problems involving connections such as the seven bridges of Konigsberg is the subject
matter of this module.

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 At present, graph theory finds many applications in the social sciences (social networking
sites), computer science (networks of communication), chemistry (chemical structure),
communication arts (networks of communication), and operations research (network analysis).

6.2 Graphs
A graph is a collection of points called vertices or nodes and line segments or curves
called edges that connect the vertices. The position the vertices, the lengths of the edges, and
the shape of the edges do not matter in a graph. Sometimes the edges are given orientations and
are represented by arrows or are given values (weights). But it is the number of vertices and which
of them are joined by the edges that matter most.
Graphs can be used to illustrate huge connections such as social networks in Facebook,
flight destinations or airlines, the simple community garbage collection route, or even the
computer system connectivity in a school.

6.3 Eulerian Graphs

We will first present some definitions and then present a theorem that Euler used to show
that it is in fact impossible to walk through the town and traverse all the bridges only once.
Eulerian trail. An Eulerian trail is a trail that visits every edge of the graph once and only once. It
can end on a vertex different from the one on which it began. A graph of this kind is said to be
traversable.
Eulerian Circuit. An Eulerian circuit is an Eulerian trail that is a circuit. That is, it begins and ends
on the same vertex.
Eulerian Graph. A graph is called Eulerian when it contains an Eulerian circuit.

Figure: An example of an Eulerian trial. The actual graph is on the left with a possible solution
trail on the right - starting bottom left corner.

A vertex is odd if its degree is odd and even if its degree is even.

34
Theorem:
An Eulerian trail exists in a connected graph if and only if there are either no odd vertices
or two odd vertices.
For the case of no odd vertices, the path can begin at any vertex and will end there; for
the case of two odd vertices, the path must begin at one odd vertex and end at the other. Any
finite connected graph with two odd vertices is traversable. A traversable trail may begin at either
odd vertex and will end at the other odd vertex.
Note: From this we can see that it is not possible to solve the bridges of Konigsberg problem
because there exists within the graph more than 2 vertices of odd degree.
Question: Are either of the following graphs traversable - if so, graph the solution trail of the graph?

6.4 Hamiltonian Graphs

Hamiltonian Circuit. A Hamiltonian circuit in a graph is a closed path that visits every
vertex in the graph exactly once. (Such a closed loop must be a cycle.)
A Hamiltonian circuit ends up at the vertex from where it started.
Hamiltonian graphs are named after the nineteenth-century Irish mathematician Sir
William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865). This type of problem is often referred to as the traveling
salesman or postman problem.
Hamiltonian Graph. If a graph has a Hamiltonian circuit, then the graph is called a
Hamiltonian graph.
Note: An Eulerian circuit traverses every edge in a graph exactly once, but may repeat vertices,
while a Hamiltonian circuit visits each vertex in a graph exactly once but may repeat edges.

Figure: On the left a graph which is Hamiltonian and non-Eulerian and on the right a graph
which is Eulerian and non-Hamiltonian.

35
Example 1:

Answers
 5, 6, 7, 5, 8, 1, 4, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4, 2 is an Euler circuit for G
 5, 6, 7, 5, 8, 1, 4, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4, 2 is an Euler trail for H
 5, 6, 7, 5, 8, 1, 4, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 5 is an Euler trail for G

Example 2: Consider the graph below.

Answers:
 G has both an Euler circuit and an Euler trail.
 G has neither an Euler circuit nor an Euler trail.
 G has an Euler circuit but doesn’t have an Euler trail.
 G has an Euler trail but doesn’t have an Euler circuit.

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Example 3: Does the graph have a Hamiltonian Path?

Answer: Yes! 12, 9, 17, 14, 3, 1, 15, 5, 10, 13, 16, 8, 2, 11, 7, 6, 4

37
Example 4: Does the graph have a Hamiltonian cycle?

Answer: Also Yes! 12, 9, 17, 14, 3, 1, 15, 5, 16, 8, 13, 10, 6, 4, 2, 11, 7

6.5 Graph Coloring

Graph coloring started in the mid – 1800’s when Francis Guthrie tried to color the map of
England so that it would be easy to distinguish the countries sharing a common boarder. He made
sure that countries with the same boarder must have different colors. After many attempts, he
found out that a maximum of four colors were required to color the map.
In graph coloring, each vertex of a graph will be assigned one color in such a way that no
two adjacent vertices have the same color. The interesting idea here is to determine the minimum
number of distinct colors to be used so that each vertex of a graph is colored such that no two
adjacent vertices have the same color. A practical application of the graph coloring problem is in
scheduling meeting or events.

38
A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn so that no edges intersect each other (except at
vertices).
Example of planar graph: A butterfly graph.

Example of non-planar graph:

6.6 The Chromatic Number of a Graph

The minimum number of colors needed to color a graph so that no edge connects vertices
of the same color is called the chromatic number.

2 – Colorable Graph Theorem

A graph is 2 – colorable if and only if it has no circuits that consist of an odd number of
vertices.

Four – Color Theorem

The chromatic number of a planar graph is at most 4.
Example:
Consider the complete graphs K4 and K5. Determine their chromatic number.
Solution:
First, assign vertex A with one color, say red, then vertex B with another color, say blue.
Since you cannot color two adjacent vertices using the same color, use green to color vertex C,
and finally yellow to color vertex D. Thus, K4 is four – colorable. It is important to note that K4 is
planar, hence the Four – Color Theorem is satisfied.

39
 Since K5 is not planar, then the Four – Color Theorem does not hold here. Now, assign
each vertex of the graph with one color in such a way that no two adjacent vertices have the same
color. Thus, the chromatic number of K5 is 5.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT:
1. A garbage collector would like to collect the garbage in all the streets of a subdivision along a
shortest possible. Is this an Eulerian or Hamiltonian problem? Explain why?
2. A school bus driver would like to bring the kids back to their homes along a least expensive
route. Is this an Eulerian or Hamiltonian problem? Explain why?
3. Five classes at an elementary school have arranged a tour at zoo where the students get to
feed the animals:
Class 1 wants to feed the elephants, giraffes, and hippos.
Class 2 wants to feed the monkeys, rhinos, and elephants.
Class 3 wants to feed the momkeys, deer, and sea lions.
Class 4 wants to feed the parrots, giraffes, and polar bears.
Class 5 wants to feed the sea lions, hippos, and polar bears.
If the zoo allows animas to be fed only once a day by one class of students, can the tour be
accomplished in two days? (Assume that each class will visit the zoo only on one day.) If not, how
many days will be required?

References:
Baltazar, Ragasa and Evangelista, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 5 – The
Mathematics of Graphs, p.99 – 104, p.111 – 115
CENGAGE, 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Chapter 6 – The Mathematics of Graphs,
p. 228 – 237, p.269 – 275

Watch:
Euler and Hamiltonian Paths and Circuits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwsMTEl79wI

The Four Colour Theorem

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANY7X-_wpNs

40