1|| MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

1. DEFINITION: A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and Set B = {A, B, C}
B. If it is possible to associate the elements of A with the elements of B in such
a way that each element of each set is associated with exactly one element of the
other. SUBSETS AND POWER SET
DEFINITION: A set which contains no elements is called an empty set or 0 null
2. DEFINITION: Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if there is a one-to- set. The empty set is denoted by ∅ or {}. {∅} – not allowed.
one correspondence between their elements. DEFINITION: The set A is to be a subset of the set B if every element of A is
Examples: an element of B. More specifically, A is a subset of B if x ∈ A. We denote this
1. Set of integers between 2 and 10. relationship by writing A ⊆ B.
Roster Method: A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} Examples:
Rule Method: A = {x|x is an integer between 2 and 10} = {x|2 1) Empty Set
≤ x ≤ 10 and x is a whole number} 1. A = {x|x > 4 but x < 2}
() = the elements must be listed in order, regardless of the position, we will still 2. B = {x|x is a name of a person such that his/her height is greater than
define and include the same elements of the set. Same set pa din kino-consider 200 feet.}
(closure) Subset:
{} = there is no definite order of elements. Order is not defined. (brace) If x is an element of Set A, it has to be found in Set B. We form
x = represents the individual elements of the given set, not the elements of the another set by writing a brace.
given set. Siya ay singular, not all the elements in the given set.
There must always be a representation. A =B
2. Equal Sets: two sets A and B are said to be equal, if in case that the two sets A⊆B
have precisely the same elements. Same number of elements and the same
elements. If there are 3 elements in set A there must
A = {1, 2, 3}
also be 3 elements in set B. 2) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} B⊆A A⊆B
B = {2, 3, 1}
C = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,} Aside on set A being equal to set B, set C is also equal B = {2, 4, 6} C⊆A D⊆B
A=B=C to sets A and B. Although there are 6 elements, in set C = {1, 3, 5} D⊆A D⊆C
C, take note that there are still elements 1, 2, 3. Unless D = {5, 6, 7, 8} C⊆B
distinction has been stated between the first 1 and the Remarks:
second 1, otherwise, 11, 12, 13,… has to be made in order to denote that the 1) If there is an element of A which is not in b, then we say that A is not a
elements are not one single entity. subset of B and we write A ⊄ B.
Let D = {x|x is a disctinct letter in the word “follow”} F, L, W, : D = E 2) Every set is a subset of itself: Reflexive Property of Inclusion
E = {x|x is a distinct letter in the word “flow”}
E≠F 3) Two sets A and B are equal, if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
4) The null set or empty set is a subset of every set. Counterexample: element of
Let F = {x|x is a distinct letter in the word “wolfs”} D ≠F
null set that the empty set doesn’t have.
5) If A is a subset of B A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C: Transitive Property of
*In one-to-one correspondence, the sets would be equivalent if they have the
same number of elements. A = B 1→a A is equivalent Inclusion.
to B 6) The number of subsets of a given set is 2 n where n is the number of elements of a
{2,3}≠{3,2} 2→b A≅B set.
{2,3} = {3,2} 3→c Examples:
 Statements: 1. A = {1, 2, 3}
1. If the two sets are equal, then the sets are equivalent. – True Subsets of A: {}, {1, 2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,3}, {1,2}
2. If the two sets are equivalent, then the two sets are equal. – False 2. B = {a, b, c, d}
Set A = {1, 2, 3} Equal Set, Equivalent set
2|| MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Subsets of B: {}, {a, b, c, d}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, a}, Mabibilang teaspoon of sand particles = finite
{b, c}, {b, d} Kayang Bilangin boundary = spoon endpoint = boundary = finite
Strand of hair – hair fall – the number of hair, boundary is the place where you
PROPER SUBSET AND SUBSET put on. Boundary is not exclusive for space but also specific time.
DEFINITION: The set A is a proper subset of B if, first, A is a subset if B and DEFINITION: The cardinal number of a finite set A is the unique counting
secondly, if A is not equal to B. We denote A ⊂ B. number n such that the elements of a n are in one-to-on correspondence with the
DEFINITION: The set A is superset of B if every element of B is an element of set {1, 2, 3, …}, We denote the cardinal number of A by the symbol. In case the
A. Specifically, A is a superset of B, if x ∈ B implies x ∈ A. We denote this An set is infinite, then the cardinality is infinite.
relationship by writing A⊇B. ℵ0 → Aleph null (also Aleph naught or Aleph 0) is the smallest infinite
DEFINITION: The collection of all subsets of any set A is called the power set number. It is the cardinality (size) of the set of natural numbers (there are aleph
of A and we denote this by 2A. Enclosed by a brace.= subset of a given set null natural numbers). There is bigger infinite value than the infinite we know.
2n-1 → equality ℵ1 → By enumeration.
EXAMPLES:
Proper Subset OPERATIONS ON SETS
1) A = {1, 2, 3} Proper Subsets of A: {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 3}, DEFINITION: In any application of theory sets, all the sets under investigation
{2, 3} will likely be a subset of a bigger set, called universal set. We denote this by a
2) B = {2, 3, 4, 8, 10} Proper Subset of B: {}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {8}, {10}, {2, 4}, special kind of U/
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {4, 6}, {4, 8}, {4, 10}, {6, 8}, {6, 10}, {8, 10}, {2, 4, 6}, Set of real numbers = all
{2, 4, 8}, {2, 4, 10}, {2, 6, 8}, {2, 6, 10}, {2, 8, 10}, {4, 6, 8}, {4, 6, 10}, Set of alphabet =
{4, 8, 10}, {6, 8, 10}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, {2, 4, 6, 10}, {2, 4, 8, 10}, {4, DEFINITION: If A is a subset of a universal set, then the complement of A is
6, 8, 10}, {2, 6, 8, 10} defined to be the set of all elements in the universal set that is not in set A. We
Super Set: denote this by A1 or Ac
Set whose element is an empty set still has an element.
Examples: What are the complements?
U U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} Ac = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
A A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} Bc = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} Cc = {4, 5, 6, 8}
A⊇B→B⊆A B⊆A←A⊇B C = {1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10}
Remarks:
1) A = {1, 2, 3} 1) (A1)1 = A
Superset of A: (uncountable/innumerable) 2) ({})1 = U
{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {1, 2, 3, 5} 3) (U) 1 = ∅
Power set: DEFINITION: The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A∪B is a set of all
1) A = {1, 2, 3} elements in set A or in set B. A∪B = {x|x is x ∈ A or x ∈ B}. Without repetition
Power set of A Examples:
2A = {{}, {1, 2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}} 1) A∪B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
2) B = {a, b, c, d} 2) A∪C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 10}
Power set of B
3) B∪C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 1, 3, 7, 9}
2B = {{}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b, c, d},{a, b}, {a, c},{a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d},
4) A∪U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
{c, d}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}}
Remarks:
1) A∪A = A
CARDINALITY OF SETS
2) A∪B = B∪A
DEFINITION: A set is a finite if it contains a specific number of elements.
3) A∪B∪C = (A∪B) ∪C = A∪(B∪C)
Specifically, a set is finite if in counting the different elements, the counting
4) A∪U = U
process can come to an end. If a set is not finite, we say it is finite.
5) A∪∅ = A
3|| MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
6) A∪ A1 = U
A B A B
7) A ⊆(A⊆B), B⊆(A∪B)
A-B B-A
DEFINITION: The intersetion of two sets A and B, denoted by A∩B is the set
of all elements in A and B
Examples:
A∩B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
U = {1, 2, 3,… 10}
Examples: A-B = {1, 7, 9}
A = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10}
1) A∩B = A B
B-A = {8}
B = {2, 4, 8, 10}
2) A∩C = {1, 3, 7, 9} A-C = {2, 4, 7, 9, 10}
C = {3, 6, 8}
3) B∩C = {2, 10} C-A = {3, 6, 8}
*Is there any set whose number of
Remarks: B-C = {2, 4, 10}
subset is just equal to one? Yes, it’s
1) A∩A = A PEMDAS – is not conclusive; it still depends A- U = ∅
null set
on
2n→ number of elements The set containing one element = subset = 1. 2 1-1 = 2-
2) A∩B = B∩A the parenthesis
1=1→empty set. It cannot consder itself as its own subset.
3) A∩B∩C = (A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C) Formulas vary when written or spoken
*A-B = B-A, if and only if both sets have identical elements, they will have an
A∪B∩C is not going to be a problem The problem is there is no order of
empty set.
PEM
*When is A-AI? AI-A, A⊆AI = empty; disjoint set
No answer, because of two DAS when the problem is orally
*TRUE or FALSE: A = {1, 2, 3} is this an element of set A? False, element is
spoken.
not a set, an element is a subset.
possible answers.
*Is there any case that A = A I? Yes, there is. ∅ = universal set, no element/or set
(A∪B)∩C A∪C∩B
will be produced.
4) A∩U = A
*Given the number, is there any set in a Proper set? Empty set is not the answer.
5) A∩∅ = ∅
There should be atlest two subsets. There’s no set containing a power set.
6) A∩A = ∅
* A = (1, 2, 3): subset is a set and must be enclosed by a brace 2 ⊆ A is False.
7) A∩B⊆A
DEFINITION: CARTESIAN PRODUCT/CROSS PRODUCT
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B denoted by A + B is the set of all
DEFINITION: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if their intersection is
possible ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is the element a ∈ A and b ∈ B, that is,
empty. A disjoints B if A∩B = ∅.
A x B = {a, b| a ∈ A and b ∈ B }
Examples:
Example: Note: (1, a) ≠ (a, 1) = right
1. A disjoint B 2. A disjoint AI
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {a, b} positioning should be observed.
Cartesian Product
A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} {1, 2} = {2, 1} (1, 2) ≠ (2, 1)
Sets and Relation
B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
Function
Remarks:
Linear Programming – assigning transportation method from consumers to
1. A x B = B x A if B = A
producers
2. A = {1, 2, 3} B ≠ ∅. If either of the two is empty A x B is automatically
Assignment Model – designation of task
empty. n(A x B) = n(A)∙n(B)
Decision Theory – Job offering, job description, job qualification
3. The cardinality of A x B = A-B. Empty set will not produce and empty set.
Cardinal number*
February 21, 2020 *Two random set A-B, B-A, A∩B – has a disjoint relationship: their intersection
DEFINITION: The difference of sets A and B denoted by A-B is the set of all is always empty. Mutually disjoint set, any pair will result to an empty set.
elements in A that is not in B. Cartesian Plane and Cartesian Product
ℝ x ℝ = {(x, y)|x, x ∈ ℝ} A⊆B and B⊆A if and only if A=B
B A DEFINITION: A relation R from set A to set B is a subset of A x B
4|| MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Example: 5. ℝ5 doesn’t imply the one on the other side. Is A=B? Counterexample: (1, 1),
A = {1, 2, 3} There are so many relations we can form. (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)
B = {a, b} subset of AxB = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} 6. ∅ = symmetric; no element in the form (A, B), (B, C)
Let ℝ be a relation from set A and set B
February 28, 2020
ℝI = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} *How many possible relations
“A survey was made in an anime convention. They asked 100 anime lovers if
can we form? 64 with no repetitive pairs.
they were a fan of Naruto, Fairy Tail or One Piece. 56 of them were fan of
Will there be a relation out of this example with 7 elements? No, the highest
Naruto, 50 were fan of Fairy Tail and 51 were fan of One Piece. Furthermore,
possible value will be 6.
29 were fan of both Fairy Tail and One Piece, 21 voted for Naruto and One
DEFINITION: What if set A=B? A relation in set A is a subset of AxA. 2 sets
Piece, and 12 were fan of three anime.”
are the same..
1. How many of them were fan of Naruto and Fairy Tail but not fan of One
Properties of a relation:
Piece?
1. ℝ is reflexive, if for every a ∈ A
2. How many were fan of Naruto or One Piece but not fan of Fairy Tail?
2. ℝ is symmetric, if for every a, b ∈ A and (a, b) ∈ ℝ, then (b, a) ∈ ℝ
3. How many were fan of Naruto but not fan of Fairy Tail and One Piece?
3. ℝ is transitive, if for every a, b, c ∈ A and (a, b), (b, c) ∈ ℝ, then (a, c) ∈ ℝ
4. How many were fan of Naruto or not fan of the three anime?
4. ℝ is antisymmetric, if for every a, b ∈ ℝ and (a, b), (b, a) ∈ ℝ, then a = b.
5. How many were fan of Naruto or fan of Fairy Tail or One Piece?
5. ℝ is an equivalence relation, if ℝ is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
1) n((N∩F)-O) =
Examples:
2) n(N-(F∩O) =
1. A = {1, 2, 3} = Let ℝ be in relation in A
3) n(N∪(N∪O∪F)) =
ℝI = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)} Reflexive
4) n(N∪O∪F) =
ℝ2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 1)} Not Reflexive
5) n(N∪O)-F) =
2. Symmetric
ℝ2 = symmetric; ordered pairs are interchangeable.
ℝ3 = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1)} Not reflexive/all elements. Ordered pairs: (3, 2),
2. Let A∪B∪C = U
(1, 3)
ℝ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1)} 1) n((A∪B) ∩C) =
ℝ = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 2)} (a, b) (b, c) 2) n(A1-B1) =
ℝ = {(1, 2), (3, 3)} 3) n(B1-C1) =
3. Transitive 4) n(A∩B∩C) =
ℝ1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)} 5) n((A∪C)-B) =
ℝ2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1)}
ℝ3 = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
ℝ4 = {(1, 2), (3, 3)} SETS RELATION AND FUNCTION
ℝ5 = {(2, 3), (3, 1), (1, 3)}
Relation Reflexive Symmetri Transitive Anti-symmetric Equivalence
s c DEFINITION: A function f from set A to set B is a relation from A to B such
ℝ1 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✘ ✔ that for every a ∈ A there exist a unique elements of b ∈ B where (a, b). We call
ℝ2 ✘ ✔ ✔ ✘ A as the domain and B as the codomain of f. A set D ⊆ B, is called the range of
f if every second element in (a, b) ∈ f is in D.
ℝ3 ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘
ℝ4 ✔
dom(f): = domain of f
ℝ5 ✘ ✘ cod (f): = codomain of f
4. Antisymmetric: (a, b), (b, a) = no elements. Abscissa and ordinate must be Im (f): = range of image of f
identical. *Every function is a relation, but not
5|| MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
all relation is a function

Examples: Tell whether of the following relations are functions or not functions
A. Let ℝ be a relation in A = {1, 2, 3}
1) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3)} = not a function | unique
2) {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1)} = many to one function | one to many function is not
allowed
3) {(1, 1,) ,(2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)} = not a function | uniqueness has been violated
4) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)} = function | ordered pairs that has the same value of
abscissa
5) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (2, 1)} = not a function
B. Let ℝ be a relation in A (a real number). A = B = ℝ
1) {(x, y)| y = 4x-5}
2) {(x, y)| y = x2}
3) {(x, y)| y = x}
4) {(x, y)| y = 4x-3
5x-2
5) {(x, y)| y = x3}
*Vertical Line test -