CHAPTER 5: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

5.1 The Theory of Deduction

5.2 Classes and Categorical Propositions

5.3 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

5.4 Quality, Quantity and Distribution

5.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition

5.6 Further Immediate Inferences

5.7 Existential Import and the Interpretation of Categorical Propositions

5.8 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions

5.1 The Theory of deduction

The theory of Deduction aims to explain the relations of the premise and conclusion in valid
arguments and to provide techniques for the appraisal of deductive arguments.

TWO BODIES OF THEORIES:

a). Classical or Aristotelian Logic (named after the Greek Philosopher Aristotle who initiated this
study) traditional account of reasoning in which certain interpretations of categorical propositions
are presupposed.
- Aristotle was one of the towering intellects of the ancient world. His great treaties
on reasoning were collected after his death and came to be called the ORGANON,
meaning literally the instrument, the fundamental tool of knowledge.

b). Modern or Modern Symbolic Logic (developed during 19th and 20th centuries)
- Account of syllogistic reasoning accepted today. Aristotelian logic has been the
foundation of rational analysis for thousands of years. It has been greatly refined and its notation
has been much improved.

This chapter deals mainly with Classical / Aristotelian logic.

Deductive Argument an argument whose premises are claimed to provide conclusive grounds for the
truth of the conclusion.

-Every deductive argument either does what it claims or it does not, therefore every deductive
argument is either valid or invalid;

Valid: an argument is said to be valid when whose premises if they were all true would provide
conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion.
Sound: an argument is sound if it is valid and the premises are true.

Ex 1: All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

The first premise states that all objects classified as men have the attribute of mortal.
The second premise states that Socrates is classified as a man a member of the set
men. The conclusion then states that Socrates must be mortal because he inherits
this attribute from his classification as a man.
It follows also the form: All P is Q
All R is P
: All R is Q

Ex 2: All television networks are media companies.

ABS CBN is a television network.
Therefore, ABS CBN is a media company.

Valid but Unsound: it is unsound because its premises are false.

Ex: No elephants are animals.

All spider monkeys are elephants
Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals.

Invalid: argument that is not valid. The invalidity can be test by assuming that all premises are true
and seeing whether it is still possible for the conclusion to be false.

Ex: All crows are black.

John is black.
Therefore, John is a crow.

The first premise is saying that all crows are black, but not that all black things in the
universe are crows. So EVEN IF John is black and EVEN IF all crows are black (both premises
being true), we know nothing else about John. The conclusion can be true or false, EVEN IF the
premises are true. Invalid because it does not follow the form that (All P is Q --- All R is P --- All R
is Q)
 The difference between the two kinds of arguments does not lie solely in the words used; it
comes from the relationship the author or expositor of the argument takes there to be
between the premises and the conclusion.

Deductive- If the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises definitely
establishes the truth of the conclusion (due to definition, logical entailment, logical structure, or
mathematical necessity.

Inductive - If the author of the argument does not think that the truth of the premises
definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, but nonetheless believes that their truth provides
good reason to believe the conclusion true.

5.2 Classes and Categorical propositions

Classical logic deals with arguments based on the relations of classes of objects to one another.

Class collection of all objects that have some specified characteristics in common.

Ex 1: All dogs are mammals.

(The class of all dogs is wholly included in the class of mammals)

Ex2: Some athletes are females.

(The class of athletes is partially included in the class of females)

Ex3: No triangles are circles.

(The class of all triangles and the class of all circles may be said to exclude one another.

In a deductive argument we present propositions that state the relations between one category
and some other category.

Categorical Propositions propositions with which arguments are formulated. These are fundamental
elements, the building blocks of argument in deductive logic.

Ex: No athletes are vegetarians.

All football players are athletes.
Therefore, no football players are vegetarians.

(This argument contains three categorical propositions that are about the class of all athletes, the
class of vegetarians and the class of all football players.)

The critical first step in developing a theory of deduction is based on classes; therefore, identify the
kinds of categorical propositions and to explore the relations among them.

5.3 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

Standard form Categorical Proposition any categorical proposition of the form:

1). All S is P
2).No S is P
3).Some S is P
4). Some S is not P

1). Universal Affirmative Propositions. the whole of one class is included or contained in another class
Ex: All soldiers are brave.
(All S is P)

(The letters S and P represent the subject and the predicate terms, respectively. It asserts that every
member of one class, the class of soldiers, is a member of another class, the class of brave.)

(Such proposition affirms that the relation of class inclusion holds between the two classes and says
the inclusion is complete or universal)

They are called A propositions.

2). Universal Negative Propositions - the whole of one class is excluded or not contained in another class
Ex: No soldiers are coward.
(No S is P)

(It asserts that the any member of soldiers is excluded from the class of coward)
 (This kind of proposition denies the relation of inclusion between the two terms and denies it
universally.)

They are called E propositions

3). Particular Affirmative Propositions some particular member or members of one class is included or
contained in another class.
Ex: Some men are liars.
(Some S is P)

(It affirms that some members of the class of all men are members of class of all liars.)

(The proposition affirms the relation of class inclusion holds but it affirms it only partially of some
particular member or members of the class.)

4). Particular Negative Propositions some particular member or members of one class is excluded or not
contained in another class.)
Ex: Some men are not liars.
(Some S is not P)

(Some members of the class of men are excluded from the whole class of liars.)

(It denies the inclusion of some member or members of the first class in the second class.)

They are called O propositions

A, E, I, O propositions are the building blocks of deductive arguments.

Classes of objects and the relations among these classes is a highly sophisticated system for the analysis
of deductive arguments.

STANDARD- FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

PROPOSITION FORM NAME TYPE EXAMPLE

All S is P A Universal Affirmative All presidents are popular.

No S is P E Universal Negative No criminals are good citizen.

Some S is P I Particular Affirmative Some friends are enemies.

Some S is not P O Particular Negative Some people are not true.

5.4 QUALITY, QUANTITY AND DISTRIBUTION

A). Quality
- An attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition affirms or
denies class inclusion. Thus every categorical proposition is either universal in quality or particular in
quality.

2 kinds of quality:

1). Affirmative - If the proposition affirms some class inclusion, whether complete or partial.
Example: (AffIrmo) I affirm

All senators are citizens. (All S is P) = A proposition

Some birds have feathers. (Some S is P) = I proposition

2). Negative - If the proposition denies class inclusion, whether complete or partial.
Example: (nEgO) I deny

No athletes are vegetarians. (No S is P) = E proposition

Some judges are not lawyers. (Some S is not P)= O proposition
B). Quantity
- An attribute of every categorical proposition determined by whether the proposition refers to all
members or only to some members of the class designated by its subject term.

Classes of Quantity:
1).Universal Quantity (All and No)
- If the proposition refers to all members of the class designated by its subject term.

Example: All saints were martyrs. (All S is P) = A proposition

No organic compounds are metals. (No S is P)=E proposition

2). Particular Quantity (Some)

If the proposition refers only to some members of the class designated by its subject term.

Example: Some college athletes are professionals.

(Some S is P) =I proposition
Some soldiers are not officers.
(Some S is not P)= O proposition

(According to its quantity and quality)

A proposition Universal Affirmative
E proposition- Universal Negative
I proposition Particular Affirmative
O proposition- Particular Negative

C). General Schema of Standard-Form Categorical Propositions

Copula - Any form of the verb to be that serves to connect the subject term and the predicate term
of a categorical proposition.

Example: All senators are citizens.

No man is an island.
Some parents will not be present.

In these examples, is, are, and will not be serve as copulas.

4 parts of categorical proposition

(1) First the quantifier, ( 2) the subject term, (3) the copula, (4) the predicate term.

The schema may be written as-

Quantifier (subject term) copula (predicate term).

D). Distribution
- An attribute that describes the relationship between a categorical proposition and each one of
its terms, indicating whether or not the proposition makes a statement about every member of the
class represented by a given term.

A proposition distributes a term if it refers to all members of the class designated by that term.

In the A proposition (All senators are citizens): In this proposition, senators is distributed, but
citizens is not.

In the E proposition (No athletes are vegetarians): The subject term, athletes, is distributed,
because the whole class of athletes is said to be excluded from the class of vegetarians. It is also
asserted that the whole class of vegetarians is excluded from the class of athletes. Of each and
every vegetarian, the proposition says that he or she is not an athlete.

Unlike an A proposition, therefore, an E propositions (universal negatives) distribute both their

subject and their predicate terms.

In summary: the A proposition distributes only its subject term; the E proposition distributes both its
subject and predicate terms; the I proposition distributes neither its subject nor its predicate term; and
the O proposition distributes only its predicate term.

The following diagram presents all these distributions graphically and may be useful in helping you to
remember which propositions distribute which of their terms:

Predicate term undistributed Predicate term distributed

Subject term undistributed A: All S is P. E: No S is P.
Subject term Undistributed I: Some S is P. O: Some S is not P.
 The A proposition
All bananas are fruits.
(S) (P)

In an A proposition, the subject term is always distributed. Meaning, every member of the
class of bananas is included in the class of fruits. But all fruits are not bananas because in an A
proposition, the predicate term is not distributed.

The E proposition
No athletes are vegetarians.
(S) (P)

In an E proposition, both the subject term and the predicate term are distributed.
This example asserts that every member of the class of athletes is outside the class of vegetarians.
Also, no athlete is vegetarian . Note that the concept of distribution has nothing to do with truth or
falsity.
This example proposition is certainly falsebut, as in every E proposition, both of its terms are
distributed.

The I proposition
Some boys are smart.
(S) (P)

In an I proposition, neither the subject term nor the predicate term is distributed.
The word some tells us that at least one member of the class designated by the subject term,
boys, is also a member of the class designated by the predicate term, smartbut this
proposition makes no claim about the subject class as a whole. We are told only that there is at
least one member of the class of bananas in it.

The O proposition
Some soldiers are not heroes.

In an O proposition, the predicate term is distributed but the subject term is not distributed.
The words some tell us that this proposition is not about all members of the class of soldiers and
that some soldiers are not heroes. Thus the entire class of heroes does not have one of those
subject soldiers among them.

QUANTITY, QUALITY AND DISTRIBUTION

PROPOSITION NAME QUANTITY QUALITY DISTRIBUTES

All S is P A Universal Affirmative S only

No S is P E Universal Negative S and P

Some S is P I Particular Affirmative Neither

Some S is not P O Particular Negative P only

5.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition

Opposition - the logical relation that exists between two contradictories, between two contraries,
or in general between any two categorical propositions that differ in quantity, quality, or other
respects.

-Standard-form categorical propositions having the same subject terms and the same
predicate terms may differ from each other in quality, or in quantity, or in both. This term is used even
when there is no apparent disagreement between the propositions.

Kinds of Opposition:

A). Contradictories
- Two propositions so related that one is the denial or negation of the other. On the traditional
square of opposition, the two pairs of contradictories are indicated by the diagonals of the square:
A and E propositions are the contradictories of O and I, respectively.

A proposition O proposition
(All judges are lawyers) contradicted by (Some judges are not lawyers)
 E proposition I proposition
(No politicians are idealists) contradicted by (Some politicians are idealists).

B). Contraries
- Two propositions so related that they cannot both be true, although both may be false.
- The universal propositions (A and E) having the same subject and predicate terms but
differing in quality, one affirming, the other denying, were contraries.

A proposition E proposition
All poets are dreamers Contrary to No poets are dreamers

Contingent where a proposition may be true or false.

C). Subcontraries
- Two propositions so related that they cannot both be false, although they may both be
true.
- The particular propositions (I and O) having the same subject and predicate terms but
differing in quality (one affirming, the other denying) are subcontraries.

I proposition O proposition
Some diamonds are precious stones = Some diamonds are not precious stones

D). Subalternation
- The relation on the square of opposition between a universal proposition (an A or an E
proposition) and its corresponding particular proposition (an I or an O proposition, respectively). In
this relation, the particular proposition (I or O) is called the subaltern, and the universal
proposition (A or E) is called the superaltern.

Corresponding propositions
- When two propositions have the same subject and the same predicate terms, and
agree in quality (both affirming or both denying) but differ in quantity (one universal,
the other particular).

A proposition (superaltern) I proposition (subaltern)

All spiders are eight-legged animals Some spiders are eight-legged animals

E proposition (superaltern) O proposition (subaltern)

No whales are fishes Some whales are not fishes

E). The Square of Opposition

- A diagram in the form of a square in which the four types of categorical propositions (A,
E, I, and O) are situated at the corners, exhibiting the logical relations (called oppositions) among
these propositions.

(All S is P) A Contraries E (No S is P)

Superaltern Superaltern

Subalternation Contradiction Subalternation

Subaltern Subaltern
(Some S is P) I Subcontraries O (Some S is not P)

Mediate inference - Any inference drawn from more than one premise.

Immediate inference - An inference that is drawn directly from one premise without the mediation
of any other premise. Various kinds of immediate inferences may be distinguished, traditionally
including conversion, obversion, and contraposition.

If an A proposition is the premise, then (according to the square of opposition) one

can validly infer that the corresponding O proposition (that is, the O proposition
with the same subject and predicate terms) is false.
 If an A proposition is the premise, then the corresponding I proposition is true.

If an I proposition is the premise, its corresponding E proposition, which contradicts

it, must be false.

Given the truth, or the falsehood, of any one of the four standard-form categorical propositions,
the truth or falsehood of some or all of the others can be inferred immediately. A considerable
number of immediate inferences are based on the traditional square of opposition; we list them
here:

E is false; I is true; O is false.

A is given as true:
A is false; I is false; O is true.
E is given as true:
E is false; A and O are undetermined.
I is given as true:
O is given as true: A is false; E and I are undetermined.
A is given as false: O is true; E and I are undetermined
E is given as false I is true; A and O are undetermined
A is false; E is true; O is true.
I is given as false:
A is true; E is false; I is true.*
O is given as false:

Undetermined proposition - if one does not know that it is true and one also does not know that it is
false.

Conversion - A valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of propositions. To form
the converse of a proposition the subject and predicate terms are simply interchanged.
P1:No circles are squares (convertend)
C: No squares are circles, (converse of the original proposition)

5.6 Further Immediate Inferences

Immediate Inference is an inference that is drawn directly from one premise without the
mediation of the other premise.

Three Kinds of Immediate Inference:

A). Conversion
B). Obversion
C). Contraposition

A). CONVERSION
- is an inference that proceeds by interchanging the subject and predicate terms of a
proposition.
- is a valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of propositions, to form
the converse of a proposition the subject and predicate terms are simply interchanged.

Ex: The premise some women (subject) are lawyers (predicate).

Is logically equivalent to = Some lawyers (predicate) are women (subject).

Application of Conversion

Convertend Converse

A: All S is P I: Some P is S (by limitation)

E: No S is P E: No P is S

I: Some S is P I: Some S is P

O: Some S is not P (conversion not valid)

Conversion is perfectly valid for all E propositions and for all I propositions. One standard
form categorical proposition is said to be the converse of another when we derive it by
simply interchanging the subject and predicate terms of that other proposition.
 Ex. for E proposition: No politicians are idealists. is equivalent to No idealists are
politicians.

Ex. For I proposition: Some writers are men is equivalent to Some men are writers.

- The original proposition is the Convertend which is Some writers are men and its
Converse is Some men are writers.

The conversion of an O proposition is not valid. The reason is that an O proposition and its
converse is not logically equivalent.

Ex for O proposition: Some animals are not dogs is plainly true, its converse is the
proposition Some dogs are not animals which is plainly false.

The A proposition presents a special problem because the converse of an A proposition

does not follow from its convertend.

Ex: All dogs are animals we certainly may not infer that All animals are dogs

- However the remedy here is by combination of subalteration and conversion.

Illustration: In the Traditional square of opposition, A and I are subalterns. The A proposition,
All dogs are animal its subaltern I proposition Some dogs are animals.
The A proposition says something about all members of the subject class (dogs); the I
proposition makes more limited claim, about only some members of that class. It was held
that one could infer Some S is P from All S is P. As we saw earlier, an I proposition
maybe converted validly: Some dogs are animal, then some animals are dogs

So, if we are given the A proposition, All dogs are animals, we first infer that Some dogs
are animals by subalterations and from subaltern we can by conversion validly infer that
some animals are dogs. Hence, by a combination of subalterstion and conversion, we
advance validly from All S is P to Some S is P.
- This pattern of inference is called conversion by limitation (conversion per accidens)
proceeded by interchanging subject and predicate terms and changing the quantity of
the proposition from universal to particular.

B). OBVERSION
- It is a valid form of immediate inference for every standard form categorical proposition.
To obvert a proposition, we change its quality (from affirmative to negative or from
negative to affirmative) and replace the predicate term with its complement.

To explain other types of immediate inference we must examine more closely the concept
of a class and explain what is meant by the complement of a class. Any class, we have
said, is the collection of all objects that have a certain common attribute, which we may
refer to as the class defining characteristic. Every class has associated with it, a
Complementary class, or complement, which is the collection of all things that do not
belong to the original class. Note that a class is the (class) complement of its own
complement.
Complement or Complementary Class collection of all things that do not belong to a given
class.

Ex: The complement of the term voter is nonvoter.

The complement of non-voter should be written simply as voter rather as
nonvoter.

Ex: Winner and loser are contraries, because no person can be both a winners and
losers.
The proper term should be: Winners and non-winners.

Application of Obversion

Obvertend Obverse

A: All S is P E: No S is non P
 E: No S is P A: All S is non P

I: Some S is P O: Some S is not non P

O: Some S is not P I: Some S is non P

Examples:
In A proposition: All residents are voters obverse:
E proposition: No residents are nonvoters

In E proposition: No umpires are partisans obverse:

A proposition: All umpires are nonpartisans

In I proposition: Some metals are conductors obverse:

O proposition: Some metals are not nonconductors

In O proposition: Some nations were not belligerents obverse:

I proposition: Some nations were non belligerents

C). CONTRAPOSITION
- To for the contrapositive of a given proposition, its subject term is replaced by the
complement of its predicate term and its predicate term is replaced by the complement
of its subject term. Neither the quality nor the quantity of the original proposition is
changed.

Ex: In A proposition: All lawmakers are voters contrapositive:

A proposition: All nonvoters are non-lawmakers

Application of Contraposition

Premise Contrapositive

A: All S is P A: All non P is non S

Some non P is not non S (by

E: No S is P O:
imitation)

I: Some S is P (contraposition not valid)

O: Some S is not P O: Some non P is not non S

Contraposition is plainly valid form of immediate inference when applied to A propositions.

Ex: A proposition: All lawmakers are citizens contrapositive:
All noncitizens are no non-lawmakers

Contraposition is a valid form of immediate inference when applied to O propositions.

Ex: O proposition: Some students are not idealists cumbersome of: Some non-
idealists are non-students which is logically equivalent to its premise.

For I propositions, however, contraposition is not a valid form of inference.

Ex: I proposition: Some citizens are non-legislators contrapositive false
proposition: Some legislators are noncitizens = INVALID because it becomes
evident when we try to derive the contrapositive of the I proposition by
successively obverting, converting and obverting.

In the case of E proposition, the contrapositive does not follow validly from the original, as
can be seen when we begin with the true proposition.
Ex: No wrestlers are weaklings, contrapositive the obviously false proposition: No
non weaklings are non-wrestlers.

However in case of E proposition we can apply the conversion by limitation to become

valid. In the traditional square of proposition, E and O are subalterns.
Contraposition by imitation, in which we infer an O proposition from an E proposition (we
infer Some non P is not non S from No S is P)
Ex: E proposition: No wrestlers are weaklings contrapositive:
Some non-weaklings are not non wrestlers which is an O proposition.
5.7 Existential Import and the Interpretation of Categorical Propositions

Existential Import - is an attribute of those propositions that normally assert the existence of objects
of some specified kind.
Particular propositions ( I and O propositions) always have existential import thus the
proposition Some dogs are obedient asserts that there are dogs that are obedient. It plainly
asserts that the classes designated by their subject terms (example: soldiers and dogs) are not
empty --- the class of soldiers, and the class of dogs (if examples given here are true each has at
least one member.

Boolean interpretation modern interpretation of categorical propositions was adopted and

named after the English logician George Boole.
- Boolean interpretation is often contrasted with the Aristotelian interpretation, universal
propositions (A and E propositions) do not have existential import.

Comparison between the Traditional Square of Opposition and Modern Square of Opposition:

TRADITIONAL : MODERN :

In Boolean interpretation, the All may refer to possibly empty classes. For example, if a
property owner were to say, All trespassers will be prosecuted far from presupposing that
the class of trespassers has members, he would be intending to ensure that the class will
become and remain empty. This statement can be true even if no one is ever prosecuted
and the word all in that statement refers to empty class.

The word some is interpreted to mean at least one but never zero and that
concreteness commits particular propositions, if they are to be true, to a state of affairs in
which the subject class is not empty. If the property owner, suppose he had asserted that
Some trespassers will be prosecuted. If there were no trespassers, then we would call his
statement false.

Boolean Interpretation of the Categorical Proposition

1). I and O proposition continue to have existential import.

Ex: The proposition Some S is P (Some trespassers will be prosecuted) is false if the class S
is empty (If there were no trespassers).

2). Universal propositions, A and E are the contradictories of the particular propositions, O and I.
Ex: All men are mortal contradict: Some men are not mortal
No Gods are mortal contradict: Some Gods are mortal

3). Universal propositions are interpreted as having no existential import.

4). In ordinary discourse, we utter a universal proposition with which we do intend to assert
existence. The Boolean interpretation permits this to be expressed, but doing so requires two
propositions, one existential in force but particular, the other universal but not existential in force.
Ex: All planets in our solar system revolve around the sun has no existential import. It says
only that if there is a planet in our solar system, then it revolves around the sun. if we
express he proposition intending also to assert the existence of planets in our solar system
that do so revolve, we would need to add: Mars is a planet in our solar system. This
 proposition has that desired existential force, referring as it does to actually existing
planets.

5). A and E propositions can be both be true and are therefore not contraries.
Ex: A proposition All unicorns have wings and E proposition No unicorns have wings
can indeed be true if there are no unicorns.

6). I and O propositions are not subcontraries. The reason is that corresponding I and O
propositions, if they do have existential import, can both be false if the subject class is empty.
Ex: I proposition Some unicorns have wings and O proposition Some unicorns do not
have wings can both be false if the subject class is empty. Therefore they are not
subcontraries.

7). In subalteration inferring an I proposition from its corresponding A and O proposition from its
corresponding E is not valid. This is because plainly, one may not validly infer a proposition that has
existential import from one that does not.

8). Conversion for E and for I proposition is reserved; contraposition for A and O proposition is
preserved; obversion for any proposition is preserved. But conversion by limitation and
contraposition by limitation are not valid.

9). Relations along the sides of the square are undone, but the diagonal, contradictory relations
remain in force.

Existential Fallacy is any mistake in reason that arises from assuming illegitimately that some class
has member.

5.8 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions

- it is convenient to have a special symbol to represent it because the Boolean

interpretation of categorical propositions depends heavily on the notion of an empty class.

Zero symbol (0) used to represent an empty class. To say that the class designated by the term
has no members, we write an equal sign between S and O (S=0). Thus, the equation S=0 says that
there are no Ss or that S has no members.
Inequality sign() symbolize denial. To say that the class designated by S does have members is
to deny that S is empty. To assert that there are Ss is to deny the proposition symbolized by S=0.
Thus the inequality S0 says that there are Ss by denying that S is empty.

SP used to represent the class of all things that belong to both of them. For example letter S
designates the class of all satires and the letter P designates the class of all poems, then the class of
all things that are both satires and poems is represented by the symbol SP, which thus designates
the class of all satirical poems. The common part or common membership of two classes is called
Product orbiter section of the two classes. In the given example the product is the class of all
satirical poems.

Symbolic Representation of Categorical Proposition

SYMBOLIC
FORM PROPOSITION EXPLANATION
REPRESENTATION

The class of things that

A All S is P SP = 0 are both S and non P is
empty

The class of things that

E No S is P SP = 0 are both S and P is
empty
 The class of things that
are both S and P is not
I Some S is P SP 0
empty. (SP has at least
one member)

The class of things that

are both S and non P is
O Some S is non P SP 0
not empty(has at least
one member)