ARGUMENTS

THE ELEMENTS OF AN ARGUMENT

An argument is a verbal expression of

mediate inference. It is made up of two
types of statements: 1. the conclusion and
2. the reasons.
The statements that contain the reasons or
the evidence are called the premises. The
statement that contains the main claim is
called the conclusion.
THE TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
Deductive Argument
• Conclusion necessarily follows from the
premise.
• Supporting premises are from within the
argument itself.
• Argument is evaluated as valid or invalid.

Ex. All men are bodily beings.

Ted is a man.
Therefore, Ted is a bodily being.
Inductive Argument
• Conclusion probably follows from premises.
• Supporting premises may come from information
outside the argument itself.
• Argument is evaluated as good or bad, weak or
strong, better or worse.

Ex. Karl Angelo is a man and is a rational being.

Omer Uriel is a man and is a rational being.
Jorem Joel is a man and is a rational being.
Probably, all men are rational beings.
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

A syllogism is a deductive
argument consisting of two
premises and one conclusion. It
is called a categorical syllogism
if all the propositions are
categorical propositions.
 TERMS

Major term is the predicate of the

conclusion and it is found in one of the
premises.
Minor term is the subject of the
conclusion and it is found in one of the
premises.
Middle term is that which provides the
linkage between the two premises. It is
found in both premises but not in the
conclusion.
Activity

1. Creatures are lifeless and

animals are creatures for
animals are lifeless.
2. Learners are nerds as students
are learners so as nerds are
students.
 THE USE OF UNIVOCAL TERMS
The terms must be used in the same sense (univocal)
throughout the syllogism. If term is used in different
senses (equivocal) it would not count as one but several
terms and so there will be than three terms.
Ex. The poor needs government subsidy.
The students’ performance is poor.
Therefore, the students’ performance need
government subsidy.
 TERMS IN SYNONYM
Ex. All business are wealthy persons.
All rich persons are hardworking individuals.
Therefore, all business are hardworking individuals.
THE SIGNIFANCE OF EDUCTION IN SYLLOGISM
The logic of eduction is anchored solely on the idea of
restating certain sentences into other sentences which
are equivalent in meaning but may have a different
logical form.
Ex. No non-intelligent teachers are terror teachers.
All intelligent teachers are non-compassionate
teachers.
Therefore, no compassionate teachers are terror
teachers.
 THE PROPOSITIONS
1. The major premise is the proposition that carries the
major term.
2. The minor premise is the proposition that carries the
minor term.
3. The conclusion or the main claim is the proposition
that carries both the minor term and the major term.
Ex. Major Premise: All men are mortal beings.
Minor premise: Ygee is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Ygee is a mortal being.
Some citizens are not registered voters.
Persons with age 18 and above are voters.
Therefore, with age 18 and above are not
citizens

Some moral people do not have faith.

For those who have faith are virtuous.
Therefore, some moral people are virtuous.
Directions: Supply the missing terms in each of the
propositions to complete the structure of the syllogism.

1. All_______ are voters.

Some voters are adults.
Therefore, some________ are candidates
2. Some_____ are popular candidates.
All senatoriables are financially stable persons.
Therefore, some financially stable persons are____.
3. All infinite beings are _______.
No ______ are infinite beings.
Therefore, no men are immortal beings.
4. All national holidays are special holidays.
Eid el-Fitr is a national holiday.
Therefore, __________ is a ____________.
5. No graduates are ________.
All graduates are degree holders.
Therefore, no ________ are illiterates.

II. Identify the respective conclusion and the premises of

the argument.

The missing plane crashed because an instrument

malfunctioned.
THE SYLLOGISTIC RULES AND
FALLACIES
Rule 1: There must only be three terms in
the entire syllogism, each of which must
occur twice and must be used exactly in the
same meaning throughout the argument.

An excess number of terms would make the

syllogism invalid under the “fallacy of excess
terms or fallacy of inadequate terms.”
 All men are handsome beings.
Juan is a man.
Therefore, Pedro is a handsome being.

All men are bodily beings.

Carlos is a man.
Therefore, Carlos is a bodily being.--valid

All stars are luminous celestial bodies.

Sharon Cuneta is a star.
Therefore, Sharon Cuneta is a luminous celestial
body.
Fallacy of Equivocation or Fallacy of Excessive Terms
Rule 2: The middle term must be universal in at
least one of the premises.

All monkeys are banana-eaters.

Juan is a banana- eater.
Therefore, Juan is a monkey.

If the middle term were particular inn both

premises, then the two portions of the
designated class of which they speak might be
completely unrelated to each other. Syllogisms
that violate this rule are said to commit the
“fallacy of the particular middle.”
Rule 3: The major and minor terms must be
universal in the premises if they are universal in
the conclusion.

This violation has two varieties, namely: fallacy of

illicit major and the fallacy of the illicit minor.
1. The fallacy of illicit major is committed when
the major term in the conclusion is universal
but particular in the major premise.
Ex. All judges are lawyers.
Some professionals are not judges.
Therefore, some professionals are not
lawyers.
2. The fallacy of illicit minor is committed when the minor
term in the conclusion is universal but particular in the
minor premise.

Ex. All communists are subversive elements.

Some communists are critics of the present
administration.
Therefore, All critics of the present administration are
subversive elements.
If the conclusion is: Then, rule 3 requires that in
the premise:

1. A- All S is P S: must be universal and

P: may either be universal or
particular

2. E- No S is P S: must be universal and

P: must be universal

3. I- Some S is P S: may either be universal or

particular and
P: may either be universal or
particular

4. O- Some S is not P S: may either be universal or

particular and
P: must be universal.
4. There must be at least one affirmative premise.

Ex. Major Premise: No dogs are cats.

Minor Premise: No dogs are mice.
A conclusion drawn from two negative premises commits
The “fallacy of exclusive premises.”

The fourth syllogistic rule requires that at least one of the

premises must be affirmative in order to make syllogism
valid. An example is:

No pig is a horned animal.

All horses are horned animal.
Therefore, no horses are pigs.
Based on this rule, there are three implications to be considered:

1. A syllogism is valid with two affirmative premises.

Ex. All mammals are animals that breathe but means of lungs.
All whales are mammals.
Therefore, All whales are animals that breathe by means of
lungs.

2. A syllogism is valid with an affirmative premise and a negative

premise.
Ex. No LAKAS senator advocates CONCORD
All LAMP senators advocate CONCORD.
Therefore, No LAMP senators are LAKAS senators.

3. A syllogism is invalid with two negative premises.

Ex. No apples are orange.
Some pineapples are not oranges.
Therefore, no pineapples are apples.
Rule 5: There must be at least one universal premise.
A violation of this rule commits the fallacy of particular
premises.

1. A syllogism is valid with two universal premises.

Ex. All beauty pageants are popular shows.
Bb. Pilipinas is a beauty pageant.
Therefore, Bb. Pilipinas is a popular show.

2. A syllogism is valid with particular and universal premises.

Ex. All Olympics delegates are trained athletes.
Some Olympics delegates are basketball players.
Therefore, some basketball players are trained athletes.

3. A syllogism is invalid with two particular premises.

Ex. Some politicians are Filipinos.
Some Cebuanos are not politicians.
Therefore, some Cebuanos are not Filipinos.
1. Some people are supporters of democracy.
All supporters of democracy are
freedom loving individuals.
Therefore, some freedom loving
individuals are people.
2. All presidential daughter are respectable
persons.
Some presidential daughters are
intelligent persons.
Therefore, some intelligent persons are
respectable persons.
3. All Court Justices are impeachable officers.
Some impeachable officers are senators.
Therefore, some Senators are Court Justices.
4. No AFP generals are persons with impeccable character.
Some persons with impeccable character are high-ranking officials.
Therefore, some high-ranking officials are not AFP generals.
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