This module cites the

implications of Biology being a field of

Science. Life is explained by
characterizing living things.
Furthermore, the heterotroph hypothesis
is discussed to explain the origin of life
on earth. Then, a short discussion on
evolution and the diversity of living
things on earth is presented.
 Introduction to the
Living World

Biology, The Science of Life

Biology is defined as the science

of life. This field of study deals with
living things, their structure and
functions, development, diversity and
interactions with each other and the
environment they live in.

Biology as a Science

Science is a systematized body of

knowledge based on observations. All
facts and truths in science have been
acquired through the process of
observation. Like any other fields of
endeavor, the main objective of science
is for man to understand himself and
the universe he lives in. However,
unlike other disciplines, the authority
in science is observation because
science relies on observations for
proofs and explanations.

The definition of Science clearly

implies that it is limited in scope,
wherein it can only prove or disprove
things through observations. Whatever

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 2

cannot be proven by observation is not
within the realms of science.

Science is amoral and it does not

make value judgment. It seeks the
truth and does not tell men what is
right o wrong, moral or immoral.
Rather, man decides for himself how to
use the facts and discoveries presented
to him by Science.

In Science, a standard procedure

is followed in search of answers to
scientific problems. This process is
the scientific method. Its preliminary
observation triggers a problem. The
problem has to be formulated that it is
limited and definite. A tentative
answer, an intelligent guess, called
the hypothesis is then formulated. The
hypothesis has to be proven by
experimentation and it guides the
researcher on what to do during
experimentation.

In conducting an experiment, there

are basic things to consider. There
should be a control set-up and
experimental set-ups. The control
serves as a basis for comparison. There
should be replication, to have more
accurate data and observation and to
show that the results were not just by
chance. There should be randomization
to prevent bias of results. As much as
possible it is ideal to collect data
that are quantitative so that they can

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 3

be easily subjected to statistical
analysis. Data collected should be
synthesized and analyzed to come up
with the conclusion. The conclusion
answers the problem and proves or
disproves the hypothesis.

The scientific method as a process

takes a lot of time that in science
there is no quick answers to problems.
All inquiries are answered through the
scientific method.

Biology is a science, therefore;

it follows the method of scientific
inquiry. Facts and truth in Biology
have been acquired through
experimentation .It is not the
objective of Biology to moralize but to
present the facts related to living
things so that man can have a broader
understanding of himself and the world
he lives in.

Characteristics of Living Things

Biology deals with living things.
Life, per se is a phenomenon very
difficult to define. To understand
life, one has to understand the various
characteristics of living thing. These
unique sets of characteristics
differentiate living things from non-
living things.
The first characteristic of living
thing is that they are highly
organized. They are made up of atoms

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 4

that bind to form molecules. Distinct
macromolecules in living systems
perform specific functions and form
structures like organelles and the
cell. All living things are made up of
cells. These cells group to form
tissues, then organs and systems and
eventually the organism. This
organization is referred to as the
hierarchy of levels of organization of
living things.

The second characteristic of

living things is that they maintain a
chemical composition different from
that of their surroundings. Atoms found
in living are likewise found in non-
living things but their arrangement
differs. Organic compounds like
proteins; carbohydrates, lipids and
nucleic acids are exclusive
macromolecules of living things.
Moreover, living things keep a stable
environment and characteristic chemical
composition – this property is called
homeostasis or physiological
equilibrium.

The third characteristic of living

things is that they are capable of
taking in energy from the environment
and transforming this into another
form. For example, green plants absorb
and convert light energy into chemical
energy in the form of sugar in the
presence of water and carbon dioxide.
In turn, this sugar can be converted

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 5

into other macromolecules and be used
as mechanical, electrical and heat
energy as needed and utilized by the
organism for its survival. Myriad of
chemical reactions take place
simultaneously in living systems so
that life processes could be performed.
Metabolism is the sum of all these
chemical reactions.

The fourth characteristic of

living things is that they respond to
stimuli. Stimuli are changes in the
environment. Although, living things
respond differently to stimuli, the
ability to respond to each change in
both external and internal environment
is a basic function of living things.
Responses are necessary to maintain
homeostasis.

The fifth characteristic of living

things is that they are capable of
reproduction. Species of the same kind
are found in succeeding generations.
Living things self-perpetuate
ascertaining the continuity of species
through generations.

The sixth characteristic of living

things is that they are capable of
adapting to the environment. They
adapt to survive in the environment
they live in. For example, beaks of
birds are shaped in ways to suit their
feeding habits. Some animals have
similar coloration as their habitats as

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 6

camouflage so that their enemies and
predators cannot easily sight them.

The seventh characteristic of

living things is that they grow and
develop. From zygote, an organism
develops changes and grows into a
mature individual through several
differentiation processes. This may
mean increase in size as in growth
accompanied by differentiation of body
parts.

These characteristics are

intimately related and each depends to
a large extent on the presence of the
others. At any given time of its life,
an organism is organized maintaining a
constant internal environment,
transforming energy and adapting to its
environment, the organism may or may
not be responding to stimuli and
reproducing at all times.

One can therefore say that living

things metabolize and self-perpetuate.
Metabolism is the sum of the chemical
reactions taking place in the organism.
Self-perpetuating activities involve
the assurance of continuity of species
through generations. Thus, metabolism
and self-perpetuation comprise all the
functions of living things from steady
–state control to reproduction, growth
and development and adaptation.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 7

Branches of Biology
Biology is broad field of science
that it has different sub-sciences
under it. The major fields of Biology
are:

Zoology- science that deals with
animals

Botany – science that deals with
plants

Microbiology – science that deals
with microorganisms

Yet under each of these fields of

specialization, there are still other
sub-branches of biology based on the
concepts and principles they study. The
following are some of the major fields
of studies and their focus of study

Cytology or Cell Biology - cells

Histology - tissues

Anatomy - internal parts

Morphology - external parts and
structures of organism

Physiology - functions -

Taxonomy and Systematics --
diversity of organisms, their
classification, identification
and naming

Genetics - heredity and
variation

Ecology deals - inter-
relationship of organisms with
each other and their environment

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 8

Questions and Tasks

1. Discuss the implications of science being the

systematized body of knowledge based on
observations.
2. Cite a scientific problem and design a simple
experiment to answer the problem considering
the necessary conditions of a good experiment.
3. Why do you consider yourself a living thing
based on the different characteristics of living
things mentioned above?
4. In a diagram, show the different levels of
hierarchy of organization of living things.
5. If you were given an unidentified object, how
would you prove that it is should be considered
a living thing?

Life Begins on Earth

Many scientists believe that the
earth developed form the condensation
of hot gases into molten matter during
the formation of the solar system. The
matter cooled and solidified into
rocks. Water accumulated in the rock
basins and formed the sea. The soils
were formed from the weathering action
of heat, cold and chemicals that broke
the rocks into smaller particles.
Glaciers transported some of them and
running water and deposited usually in
bodies of quiet waters as sediments,
layers of these sediments were
compressed by the overlying layers
above.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 9

 On the other hand, the most
acceptable theory of the origin of life
on earth is the HETEROTROPH HYPOTHESIS
by A. I Oparin. This hypothesis
considers that the original atmosphere
consisted of a mixtures of the gases
ammonia (NH4) methane (CH4) hydrogen and
water vapor with much higher
temperature and more solar energy than
today. In contrasts to the atmosphere
today which has 79% nitrogen 20% oxygen
and .4% carbon dioxide. With variable
amount of water vapor.

Water vapor condensed as the earth

cooled and the water vapor condensed to
fill the rock basin and form the
ancient seas. The rain that fell on the
land dissolved the mineral form the
rocks and carried them to the sea. The
electrical discharges from the solar
and radiant energy caused the gas
molecules to react and form organic
substances such as amino acids,
glucose, fatty acids, glycerol and
nucleotides. These complex molecules
together with rain formed an organic
soup of the ancient seas. The soup
became thicker as new organic compounds
such as proteins including enzymes;
nucleic acids and ATP were formed. This
part of the theory has been proven
possible in the laboratory by the work
of S. Miller in 1953.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 10

 Somehow, the complex organic
compounds interacted to form clusters
of molecules called “coacervates" or
“probionts”. The coacervates consist
both of organic and inorganic
compounds. Glucose. enzymes and some
energy from ATP were available to them
and they performed anaerobic
respiration. They were capable of
reproduction since they have DNA and
nucleotides. In effect, the coacervates
are the first heterotrophs; the
original form of life.

As the heterotrophs respired

anaerobically, they released carbon
dioxide to the seas and atmosphere.
These carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
screened high-energy radiation that
caused molecules to combine. Moreover,
the food supply of the primitive life
forms became scantier so that mutation
in DNA led to the development of new
enzymes and chlorophyll. In this
manner, the first autotrophs evolved
for some of the heterotrophs.

These new autotrophic organisms

not only provided food for themselves
but also for the heterotrophs. Oxygen
was released to the seas and the
atmosphere and as oxygen accumulated in
the atmosphere, the remaining methane
reacted with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water. The remaining
ammonia and other compounds reacted
with oxygen forming nitrogen carbon

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 11

dioxide and water which became part of
the lower atmosphere.

The presence of dissolved oxygen

in the seawater enabled aerobic
respiration to develop in aquatic
organisms. Aerobic respiration made
more energy available for the evolution
of larger and more active organisms.

Evolution of Organisms
Most organisms today have evolved
from simple forms that are now extinct
and the study of fossils indicate this
concept. Fossils are actual indicator
remains of prehistoric plants and
animals that had been naturally
preserve. They provide means for man to
understand the pattern of past changes.
Fossils are found preserved naturally
in ice, in hardened resin of extinct
trees called amber, in pool of thick
asphalt tar called tar pit and in coal.
Fossils maybe imprint casts showing the
external features of the organs. They
maybe petrified when a slow decay took
place and the organic matter was
replaced with minerals to make a stone

The fossil records show that many

species became extinct while others
remained unchanged and still others
gave rise to our modern species. The
major considerations for extinction of
species is change in the earth’s

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 12

surface, climate and destruction by
other organisms.

Some living organisms still

resemble their prehistoric ancestors
thus they are called living fossils.
Examples of which are the lungfishes,
the platypus, and the horseshoe crab
and Ginko tree.

The main idea in the theory of

evolutions is that species descended
form other species. This means that all
living things share common ancestors in
the distant past. Evolution is any
change in the gene pool from one
generation to the next.

Evolution is a two-stage process.

The first stage is the random
occurrence of inherited genetic
variations among individuals These
variations have adaptive values that
may more or less be useful to to
organism as measured by its survival
and reproduction. The second stage is
natural selection which is the process
of interactions between an organism and
its environment. As a result of this
interaction, some organisms leave more
offspring than others with other
inherited characteristics. Given
enormous amounts of time, evolution
leads to the accumulation of changes
that differentiate one group of
organisms from one another. The result

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 13

is that great diversity of living
things that now inhabit this planet.

Questions and Tasks

1. Why is the Heterotroph Hypothesis an acceptable theory
on the origin of life.
2. How are fossils formed? What do they tell us about the
past?

Diversity of Living Things

Organisms in this world maybe

numerous and diverse, but some of them
share similarities. The science of
Taxonomy or Systematics put order among
these organisms as this branch of
Biology studies the classification, the
ordering of organisms into a hierarchy
that reflects the essential
similarities and differences.

Every individual organism is a

member of a particular species, which
in turn, belongs to a larger group, a
genus (genera - plural.) so that when
naming both genus and species names are
included. This is the system of
binomial nomenclature. In writing
scientific names, only the first letter
of the genus is capitalized and the
rest in lower case. If possible they
are italized, if not underlined
separately. For example, the scientifie
name of man is Homo sapiens (Homo

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 14

sapiens), rice Oryza sativa and corn
Zea mays.

Moreover, in the modern system of

classification, related genera are
grouped into families, related families
into orders, related orders into
classes, related classes into phyla
(phylum –singular) or divisions and
related phyla or divisions into
kingdoms. Each of this level of
classification is called a taxon.
Criteria such as structural features,
details of biochemistry and patterns of
reproductions and development are
considered in classifying organisms.

At present, the Whittaker five-

kingdom scheme of classification of
organisms is widely accepted. The five
kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia.

Kingdom Monera is composed of

organisms with prokaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are those without
nuclear organization. Examples of these
are the bacteria and blue-green algae.
Bacteria are the oldest and the
most abundant group of organisms in the
world . They can live in conditions
that cannot support other organisms.
Thy have been found in the icy wastes
of Antarctica, in waters of natural hot
springs and in the ocean beds. When
conditions are unfavorable, some take
forms of hard, resistant spores which

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 15

may lie dormant for years until
conditions become more favorable for
growth

Most bacteria are heterotrophs and

obtain their energy form the tissue or
body fluid of other living organism
like the disease-causing bacteria.
Others live on dead organic matter
serving as decomposer of the biosphere.
Although there are some which can
produce their own food.

Blue green algae are capable of

photosynthesis. They grow mostly in
fresh water. They are sometimes found
as isolated cells, but more often form
clusters, threads and chains. Many
species are able to incorporate
atmospheric nitrogen into organic
compounds. They are found in the
surface of rice paddies and contributes
nitrogen to rice plants.

Protista is made up of the

protozoans and the algae. These are
eukaryotic organisms. The protozoans
are unicellular heterotrophs, including
the flagellates, amoeba-like organisms,
ciliates and sporozans. The algae are
autotrophic organisms and are
classified the Euglenaphytes ( Euglena
and related unicellular and mostly
freshwater algae), diatoms,
dinoflagellates and related algae,
green algae, brown algae, red algae
and slime olds.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 16

 Fungi are made up of organisms
unlike any other. Except for some once-
celled forms, such as the yeast, fungi
are basically composed of masses of
filamentous hyphae collectively known
as mycelia. All fungi are heterotophs.
They obtain food by absorbing
dissolved organic molecules, typically
a fungus secrete digestive enzymes into
food source and then absorb the smaller
molecules released. Fungi live in soil,
water, or in some other medium
containing organic substances. Growth
is their only form of mobility, except
for spores. Together, with bacteria
they are the decomposers of the world.

Plants are multicellular

photosynthetic organisms adapted for
life on land. The two plant types are
the bryophytes or the non-vascular
plants and the tracheophytes or the
vascular plants.

Bryophytes include mosses,

liverworts and hornworts. They do not
develop elaborate conducting systems.
They are comparatively simple in their
structure and relatively small.
Tracheophytes are vascular plants which
dominant the modern world. They are
characterized by their efficient system
for the transport of water and sugar.
Modern tracheophytes include club
mosses, horsetails, fens, gymnosperms,
and angiosperms.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 17

 Plants are the channels by which
simple inorganic substances vital to
life enter the biosphere. Carbon is
taken from carbon dioxide and
incorporated into organic compounds
during photosynthesis. Nitrogen and
sulfur are taken from the soil in the
form of simple inorganic compound
incorporated into proteins, vitamins
and other essential organic compounds.

Animals. Animals are many-celled

heterotrophs. They depend directly of
indirectly for their nourishment on
plants or algae. Their cells do not
have walls. Generally they move by
means of contractile cells.
Reproduction is usually sexual. The
more recent the animals are the
sponges, coelenterates, flatworms,
roundworms annelids, mollusks,
arthropods, echinoderms and the
chordates.

Concepts in Biology by C.C.Divina 18