EARTH SCIENCE 2ND QUARTER
Plants and Animals- Biological
SOIL RESOURCES
 Land Use Planning
-Timber Management
-Industrialization & Urbanization
 Waste Disposal
 Natural Hazards Assessment
SOIL
 Associated with REGOLITH:
-loose unconsolidated mineral &
rock fragments on the surface of the
Earth
- “rhegos”=blanket, “lithos”=stone
 Portion of the regolith that supports
rooted plant life
 Where all Earth components meet
and interact
 SOIL SCIENTISTS: Earth mineral
that has undergone physical,
chemical and biological changes that
enables it to support plant growth
SOIL FORMATION & DEVELOPMENT
 WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Further development is caused by:
1. Parent Material – source of the
weathered mineral matter from
which soil develops
- underlying bedrock or a layer of
unconsolidated deposits
a.Bedrock = RESIDUAL SOIL
b.Developed on loose sediments =
TRANSPORTED SOIL
2. Time – soils are geologically young
a. Weakly developed soil- few
hundred to several thousand y/o
b. Moderately developed soil- more
than 10,000 y/o
c. Older, Well developed soil-
40,000 to several hundred
thousand y/o
3.
organisms contribute to the organic
matter to the soil
-decompose -> forming organic acids
-worms create holes for circulation
of air & water = better soil
4. Topography
a.Steep Slope = higher erosion rate
and low water content = poor soil
development
b.Flat to Undulating Upland =
optimum terrain to soil
development= good drainage of
water and infiltration of water as
well as minimum erosion
5. Climate- variations in temperature
and precipitation determine whether
chemical or mechanical weathering
SOIL HORIZONS
O – organic matter 100%
A – mineral matter (organic matter 30%)
E – “zone of eluviation and leaching”
- Eluviation- washing out of fine soil
components
- Leaching – depletion of soluble
materials from the upper soil
B – sand & clay particles, fine soil particles
- Hard Pan – very compact layer of
clay inhibiting/hinder water to pass
through (Aquitards)
C – “almost/similar to the parent material”
R – bedrock, unconsolidated loose
sediments, parent material
**pag kulang ng isang horizon =
weakly/moderately developed soil
SOIL TEXTURE
 Fine clay particles < 0.002 mm
 Silt- 0.002 to 0.05 mm
 Sand- 0.05 to 2 mm
*Grains coarser than sand are not
considered as soil particles but STONES
& GRAVELS
 FEEL METHOD- used to estimate
soil texture
LOAM SOIL
 20% clay, 40% silt, 40% sand
 Provide best condition for plant
growth
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF
SOIL
 Soils are easily removed or eroded
 Erosion rates depend on the energy
level of the erosional agent
 Finer particles easier to remove->
more gravel and coarser soil particles
left = lower capacity to retain water
and nutrients
 Soil erosion is considerably a natural
process
 SEDIMENTATION- soil particles
accumulate & are deposited to bodies
of water, tataas ang sea level
SOIL POLLUTION
 AGRICULTURE- contributes to soil
pollution through pesticide use and
excessive use of fertilizers
 IRRIGATION WATERS- may also
contaminate soil since it may contain
mineral salts that are incompatible
with minerals present in the soil
SOIL CONSERVATION
 COCONETS- from coconut husks
- Used in steep-sloped areas (erosion
prone)
- Lessens soil erosion
 WINDBREAKS- large trees in a
plane/ flat field
- Lessen the speed of the wind
 TERRACES- to flatten steep-slope
regions, infiltrate water& plant crops
 CONTOUR PLOUGHING- plant
crops to seep in the water & lessen
soil erosion
EXOGENIC PROCESSSES
 Geological phenomena and processes
that originate externally to the
Earth’s surfaces
 Processes of weathering, erosion,
transportation, deposition,
denudation etc.
 Exogenic factors and processes could
also have sources outside the Earth.
WEATHERING
 Breaking down or dissolving of
rocks and minerals on Earth’s
surface
AGENTS: water, ice, salt, Acids, plants,
animals, changes in temp
 Once the rock has been broken down
-> erosion transports the bits of rock
and minerals away
 No rock on Earth’s surface is hard
enough to resist weathering, lahat ng
rocks na expose sa environment,
magw-WEATHER!!
 MECHANICAL WEATHEHRING-
breaking up of rocks by physical
 forces without changing their
composition
1. Frost Wedging – pores/cremises are
filled with water then temp goes
down -> water solidifies -> ice ->
water will expand-> breaking down
of rocks
- Talus- large piles of rock that
tumbled down from a bigger rock
2. Salt Crystal Growth- (beach)
- saltwater hahampas sa bato->
saltwater will go to the pores of the
rock -> hot temp -> water will
evaporate -> salt will remain and
weather the rock
3. Sheeting- layer/sheet tends to break
off of the rock -> due to pressure ->
mapupunta sa surface -> bato
magtutuklap-tuklap
- Exfoliation- process in which layers
or sheets of rock gradually break off,
sometimes called onion-skin
weathering
4. Biological Activity- activity of
organisms, including plants (roots),
burrowing animals, and human
5. Abrasion- (rivers, falls, dams)
- Wearing down by friction
- Rubbing pf pne pbject or surface
against other
- Running water
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING-
breakdown of rocks by chemical
reactions that change the rock’s
composition or internal structure of
minerals
1. Dissolution
- “Acid Rain” (best example)
- Too much carbon/sulfur + water
vapor
- Weather and changes composition
2. Oxidation
- Oxygen + iron = rust
- Change in composition
*weathering occurs at different rates*
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RATE OF
WEATHERING
 SURFACE AREA- the more a
rock’s surface is exposed to air and
water,faster the rock will break down
 ROCK COMPOSITION- different
kinds of rock break down at different
rates. E.g. feldspar vs. silica
 CLIMATE- e.g. frequency of freeze-
thaw cycles greatly affects the
amount of frost wedging
DIFFERENTIAL WEATHERING
 Variation in scale
 Creates beautiful landscapes
SOIL EROSION – natural process
 SHEET EROSION
- Soil is moved by thin sheets of water
- Upper layer is eroded
 RILLS
- Tiny channels
 GULLIES
- Deeper cuts in the soil which are
being created when rills enlarge
MASS WASTING
 gravity pulls material downward
 TRIGGERING EVENT: heavy rain,
over steepened slopes, removal of
vegetation & earthquakes
 Can occur suddenly or gradually
 Example: LANDSLIDE
TYPES OF MOTION
 FALL- free falling of detached
individual pieces of any size
  SLIDES- material remains fairly
coherent and moves along a well-
defined surface, by group
 FLOW- material moves downslope
as viscous fluid, with fluid
RAPID FORM OF MASS WASTING
 SLUMP- slide loose debris that
moves as a single unit, stair-like
- Occur along roads & highways
where construction made slopes
unstable
 ROCKFALL- individual blocks of
rock drop suddenly & fall freely
down a cliff or steep mountainside
 ROCKSLIDES-large mass of rock
slides as a unit down a slope,
triggered by earthquakes,upto100kph
 MUDFLOW- debris with a large
amount of water, after heavy rains in
mountain canyons and valleys
LAHAR- mudflows that occur on
active volcanoes, w/ volcanic ash
 EARTHFLOW- forms a tongue or
teardrop shaped mass that flows
downslope, most often on hillsides in
humid areas during times of heavy
precipitation or snowmelt
- Rich in clay and silt, small
proportions of sand & coarser
particles
SLOW FORMS OF MASS WASTING
 CREEP- slowest form of mass
movement of soil or debris, move
about 1 to 10 mm per year
- Evidences:old fences/telephone poles
 SOLIFLUCTION – “soil flow”,
when soil is saturated with water,
soggy mass may flow downslope
few mm or cm per year
- Common in regions with permafrost
(pagfreeze ng ilalim ng lupa)
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
 Geological phenomena that
originates internally (ilalim) to
the Earth’s surface
 Earthquake, tsunami, volcanic
eruptions
VOLCANISM
 Thermal or heat energy under the
surface
SOURCES OF THE INNER EARTH’S
HEAT
1. Heat that was left during the
formation of the Earth/ SS
2. Gravitational pressure on the core
caused by tidal forces of the sun,
moon, planets & rotation of Earth
3. Radioactive decay of elements in the
core
FORMATION OF MAGMA
 DECOMPRESSION MELTING
 Mantle rock rises above where
pressure is lower than areas of high
pressure
 HEAT TRANSFER(Always happen)
 when hot, liquid rock pushes itself to
the Earth’s cold crust
 FLUX MELTING
 Solid rock melts into magma through
the addiction of water or other
volatiles, such as carbon dioxide
causing rocks to melt at lower temp
*Volcanic Activity & consequent eruptions
have been one of the evidences that the
Earth is changing or moving*
MOST COMMON ERUPTION STYLES
 HAWAIIAN – quiet & slow motion
- Frequency: daily
 STROMBOLIAN- short-lived
eruption (secs)
 VULCANIAN- sustained eruption
(mins), more volcanic ash,
- Frequency: weekly/yearly/every10yr
 PLINIANS- column volcanic ash,
sobrang lakas (Mt. Pinatubo)
- Frequency: 10/100-10,000 yrs
 PHREATOMAGMATIC
/SURTSEYAN- fountain-like
eruption, explosive because of the
interaction of magma and ice
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
 SHIELD VOLCANO- made from
multiple sequences of low viscosity
lava piled up on top of each other
- Steep slope ex. Moana Loa
 CINDER CONES- mostly made up
of pyroclastic fragments which
sustains steep slopes & doesn’t
spread out as much lava
- Ex. Taal Volcano
 STRATOVOLCANO- mixture of
lava & pyroclastic materials
- Magnificent figure not too much
wide & steep
- Ex. Mayon Volcano
EVENTS BEFORE ERUPTION
 Ground tremors/ earthquakes
 Heightened activity if steam
discharge
 Ground swelling
 Drying up of small bodies of water->
death of plants
 Landslides and other mass wasting
events
 Unusual behavior of animals
SOME BENEFITS
 Volcanoes are the primary land
producers of the planet
 Igneous processes generate ore
deposits we’ve been mining
thousands of yrs
 Farmers grow food from mineral-
rich soil around volcanoes
DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST
 Changes in volume and/or shape of a
rock body
 CAUSE: Stress
 RESULT: Strain
STRESS
 Amount of force acting on a rock
unit to change its shape and/or
volume
 CONFINING PRESSURE –
pressure applied uniformly in all
directions
 DIRECTED PRESSURE/
DIFFERENTIAL STRESS- non-
uniformly in different directions\
a. COMPRESSION-towards each other
b. TENSION- against each other
c. SHEAR- towards each other in
different position upper/lower
STRAIN
 Change in the shape and/or volume
of a rock unit caused by stress
FACTORS THAT AFFECT BEHAVIOR
OF ROCKS SUBJECTED TO STRESS
1. ENVIRONMENT
 Close to the surface, temp & pressure
is relatively low= ROCKS BREAK
 Deeper in to the crust, temp &
pressure is high= ROCKS FLOW
(BEND)
2. MINERAL COMPOSITION
 Rocks composed of strong bonds =
BREAK ex. rock gypsum, rock salt
 Rocks composed of weaker bonds=
BEND
3. TIME
 Forces applied over extended period
= deform rocks PRACTICALLY
 Stress applied quickly= rocks will
fracture EASILY
FOLDS
 Series of wave-like undulations in
rock
 More folds are products of
compressional stresses
PARTS
 Limbs/Flanks- two sides of a fold
 Fold Axis- line drawn along the
points of maximum curvature
 Plunge- angle between the fold axis
and the horizontal
 Axial Plane- imaginary surface that
divides a fold as symmetrically as
possible
TYPES OF FOLDS
1. MONOCLINE- broad fold that has
one limb gently dipping beds
modified by simple step-like bends
2. ANTICLINE- fold that is convex
upward with the limbs of the fold
dipping away from the crest
- Dome-shaped center
3. SYNCLINE- downfold with limbs
dipping toward center
- basin shaped
4. PLUNGING FOLD – fold with axis
included from the horizontal
FRACTURES
 Rupture, break, or crack in rocks
 Type of deformation caused by a
momentary loss of cohesion or of
resistance to differential stress &
release of stored elastic energy
JOINT
 Fractures along which no appreciable
displacement or slippage has taken
place, di gagalaw
 Some joints have random
orientations, others in roughly
parallel groups
FAULTS
 Fracture in the crust which
appreciable or slippage once
connected blocks of rocks among
fault plane has occurred
ALONG ACTIVE FAULTS
 Fault Gouge- rocks are often broken
and pulverized because of the
cohesion of 2 rocks
 Slickensides- rocks along the fault
surface become highly polished,
striated or grooved as the blocks
slide past another
TYPES OF FAULT:
1. DIP-SLIP FAULT- movement is
primarily parallel to the dip of the
fault surface, vertical
a. Normal
b. Reverse
2. STRIKE SLIP FAULT- faults in
which the dominant displacement is
horizontal and parallel to the strike
of the fault surface
a. Right-Lateral (Dextral)
b. Left-Lateral (Sinistral)
 Transform Fault- special variety of
strike-slip fault that cut between
lithosphere and crustal fragments
- Ex. San Andreas Fault
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 Gradual movement of the continents
across the earth’s surface through
geological time
 Himalayan Mountains= Eurasia +
India
ALFRED WEGENER
 Pioneer of the theory of Continental
Drift
 “Father of Continental Drift”
 German meteorologist, astronomer,
geophysicist, amateur balloonist
 First to make an exhaustive
investigation of the idea and devoted
life to its development
1912- he presented a lecture on his
continental displacement idea to Frankfurt’s
Geological Association
1915- published his book The Origin of the
Continents and the Oceans
1930- last expedition to Greenland
*di pinaniwalaan kasi sabi ni Wegener based
lang sa forces of moon*
HAROLD JEFFREYS

Alexander L. du Toit (South African)
“Our Wandering Continents”
 Pangaea made up of 2:
 Laurasia- combination of Laurentia
and Asia
 Gondwana- composed of South
America, Antartica, Africa,
Madagascar, India, Australasia
 Paleo-Tethys Ocean= separated the 2
continents
 Panthalasia “all sea”- surrounded
Pangaea
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT
A. PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
1. Fossils of gymnosperms Glossopteris
& Gangamopteris
- Found in Permian rocks in S.
America, S. Africa, Australia, India
& Antartica
2. Early Permian Mesosaurus
- Somewhat a lizard & alligator
- Found solely in S. Africa, Eastern S.
America
3. Plant- eating, stout Therapsid
(mammal-like) Lystosaurus
(“shovel-lizard”)
- Abundant in S. Africa, S. America,
Asia & Antartica during early
Triassic
4. Lower Triassic Therapsid,
Cynognathus (“dog jaw”)
- Like wolf
- Found in S. Africa & S. America

B. STRUCTURAL& LITHOLOGICAL
1. Geologic features in one continent
should closely match those in
another continent:
a. Continuity of mountain belts across
assembled Pangaea
b. Patterns of the __________

C. PALEOCLIMATE EVIDENCE
1. Ancient glacial deposits covered
extensive areas of Southern
Hemisphere
2. Coal deposits in Antartica =
abundant plant life before
PLATE TECTONICS
TECTONIC PLATE
 Large, mobile irregularly shaped slab
of rock, made entirely of the oceanic
crust, continental crust or both
MAJOR PLATES
*North American, South American, Pacific,
Eurasian, Australian, Antartic
INTERMEDIATE-SIZED PLATES
*Carribean, Nazca, Philippine Sea, Arabian,
Cocos, Scotia
* African and Sound American composed of
BOTH continental & oceanic
*Average plate separation varies from less
than 2.5 cm/yr (Arctic ridge) to more than
15 cm/yr (East Pacific Rise)
PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
 Two plates moving away from each
other
 Resulting to upwelling of material
from the mantle to create new sea
floor
 Magma solidifies-> formation of
new crust
A. OCEANIC DIVERGENCE
 Two oceanic plates are moving apart
 mid-oceanic ridge and basaltic
volcanoes
 Mid Atlantic Ridge
- Formed from the divergence of
TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES
Eurasian & North American plates &
the African & South American plates
B. CONTINENTAL DIVERGENCE
 Causing rifts
 East African Rift - largest
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
 Two plates move towards each other
 Causing one of the sabs of the
lithosphere to be consumed into the
mantle as it descends as an
overriding plate
 SUBDUCTION- denser will go
down -> sea floor is destroyed
A. OCEANIC-OCEANIC
CONVERGENCE
Features:
 Formation of volcanoes & island arcs
 Subduction complex
 Zones of earthquakes
B. OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL
CONVERGENCE
Features:
 Subduction complex
 Volcanic or magmatic arc within the
continental crust
 Edges of the continent become
deformed into young mountain range
C. CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL
CONVERGENCE
Features:
 Suture zones(old sites of subduction)
 Majestically high mountain ranges in
the interior of a new larger continent
(Himalayan Mountains)
 Broad belt of shallow focus
earthquakes along numerous faults
 Zones of shearing where plates slide
past each other with no creation or
destruction of the lithosphere
EVIDENCE FOR PLATE
TECTONICS
1. Thickness and Age of Sediments on
the seafloor
 Youngest yung closest sa ridge
 Seafloor spreading-> upwelling of
magma -> solidifies ->new crust
2. Mantle Plumes & Hotspots
 Mantle plumes- dinadaanan ng
magma
 Hotspots- stationary
 Ex. Hawaiian Islands
3. PALEOMAGNETISM
 Concerned with studies of ancient
magnetism that is retained in rocks
 Pioneered by Stanley Keith Runcorn
(1922-1995)
A .APPARENT POLAR WANDERING
2 Schools of thought to explain PW
1. That the poles had really moved &
the continents remained stationary
2. That the continents had moved & the
poles remained stationary
GEOLOGIC TIME
JAMES HUTTON
 Scottish Physician & noble farmer
 Recognized the immensity of Earth
history & the importance of time as a
component in all geologic processes
CATASTROPHISM
 The Earth’s varied landscapes had
been fashioned primarily by great
catastrophes
UNIFORMITARIANISM
 Physical, chemical & biological laws
that operate today have also operated
in the geologic past
“the present is the key to the past”
MEASURING GEOLOGIC TIME
 RELATIVE DATING- which puts
the rock units or events in their
proper sequence of formation
1. Principle of Superposition
 Pioneered by Nicolas Steno
 An undeformed sequence of
sedimentary rocks, each bed is older
than the one above and younger than
the one below
2. Principle of Original Horizontality
 Nicolas Steno
 Layers of sediments are generally
deposited in a horizontal position
 Tilted rocks- flat before- became
tilted because of stress & pressure
3. Principle of Lateral Continuity
 Sedimentary beds originate as
continuous layers that extend in all
directions until they eventually grade
into a different type of sediment or
until they thin out at the edge of the
basin of deposition
4. Principle of Cross-cutting
Relationships
 geologic features that cut across
rocks must form after the rocks they
cut through
5. Principle of Inclusions
 INCLUSION= fragments of one rock
unit that have been enclosed within
one another
 Rock fragments trapped within a
layer of rock must be older than the
rock they are in
 6. Unconformities
 Conformable- layers of rock that
have been deposited essentially w/o
interruption
 Unconformity- represents a long
period during which deposition
ceased, erosion removed previously
formed rocks then deposition
resumed
 Carbonization & Impression
- Carbonization- organic matter
becomes a thin residue of carbon
- Impression- replica of the fossil’s
surface preserved in fine-grained
sediment
 Amber- hardened resin of ancient
trees

 Angular Unconformity- consists of  ABSOLUTE DATING- provides

tilted or folded sedimentary rocks specific dates for rock units or events
that are overlain by younger more expressed in years
flat lying strata
1. Radiometric Dating
 Technique used to date materials
 Disconformity- gap in the rock such as rocks by observing the
record that represents a period during abundance of naturally occurring
which erosion rather than deposition radioactive isotope and its decay
occurred products
 ISOTOPE – 2 or more atoms w/ the
 Non Conformity- younger same no. of protons but diff. no. of
sedimentary strata overlie older neutrons
metamorphic/intrusive igneous rocks  HALFLIFE- time required for one
half of the nuclei in a sample decay
7. Principle of Faunal or Fossil *when the parent isotope
Succession nababawasan, nadaragdagan ang
 FOSSILS- remains or traces daughter isotope*
prehistoric life  CARBON ISOTOPES- nagiging half
after 5700 years
Types of Fossils:
*parents= daughters
 Permineralization- when mineral-
rich groundwater permeates porous Radioactive Daughter Half-life
tissue, minerals precipitate out of Parent Product Value
solution and fill pores & empty Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion
spaces years
 Molds & Casts
- Molds- shell or another structure is Uranium-235 Lead-207 704 billion
years
buried in sediment & then dissolved
Thorium-232 Lead-208 14.1 billion
by underground water
years
- Casts- if these hollow spaces are
Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 47 billion
subsequently filed with mineral years
matter Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion
years