CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Industrial applications of computed tomography

L. De Chiffre (1)a,*, S. Carmignato (2)b, J.-P. Kruth (1)c,
R. Schmitt (2)d, A. Weckenmann (1)e
a
Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Denmark
b
University of Padova, DTG, Department of Management and Engineering, Italy
c
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Division PMA, Belgium
d
RWTH Aachen University, WZL, Chair of Metrology and Quality Management, Germany
e
University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Chair Quality Management and Manufacturing Metrology (QFM), Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The number of industrial applications of Computed Tomography (CT) is large and rapidly increasing. After
Industrial application
a brief market overview, the paper gives a survey of state of the art and upcoming CT technologies,
Quality control
covering types of CT systems, scanning capabilities, and technological advances. The paper contains a
Dimensional metrology
X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) survey of application examples from the manufacturing industry as well as from other industries, e.g.,
electrical and electronic devices, inhomogeneous materials, and from the food industry. Challenges as
well as major national and international coordinated activities in the field of industrial CT are also
presented.
ß 2014 CIRP.

1. Introduction
This paper gives an overview of the large and increasing
number of industrial applications of X-ray Computed Tomography
(CT) in the manufacturing industry as well as in other industries.
The paper can be read as a natural continuation of the CIRP 2011
keynote paper describing the use of CT for dimensional quality
control purposes: i.e. for traceable measurement and tolerance
verification of dimensions on mechanical components [69]. X-ray
computed tomography, sometimes abbreviated to XCT or iCT (i for
industrial), is the method of using X-ray radiation to take a number
of two dimensional (2D) images of an object in many positions
around an axis of rotation. From these images, using software, a
three dimensional (3D) model of the object’s external as well as
internal structure is reconstructed and can be analyzed. Likewise in
[69], X-ray CT is called CT in this paper, the main focus still being on
dimensional metrology applications.
As reported in [69], the first CT scanner was built for medical
imaging by Nobel Prize winner Hounsfield in 1969. Since 1980, CT
became popular for material analysis and non-destructive testing
(NDT) and detecting material defects. More recently, in 2005, CT
technology entered the application field of dimensional metrology,
as alternative to tactile or optical 3D coordinate measuring
systems. CT is similar to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), but
where MRI uses non-ionizing radio frequency radiation to detect
the magnetic resonance of hydrogen molecules, CT uses ionizing
radiation and measures the absorption of X-rays. Consequently,
the two techniques have different areas of application. CT is a
* Corresponding author.
useful tool for examining materials with high atomic number
while MRI is extremely useful in examining soft biological tissues.
Other 3D imaging techniques, using neutron sources, are currently
being developed for soft materials, and a certain overlap in terms of
methodology and applications can be expected. MRI imaging
techniques are not considered and neutron source is only briefly
mentioned in this paper.
Typical areas of use for CT in industry are in the detection of
flaws such as voids and cracks, and particle analysis in materials. In
metrology, CT allows measurements of the external as well as the
internal geometry of complex parts. So far, CT metrology is the only
technology able to measure as well the inner as the outer geometry
of a component without need to cut it through and destroy it. As
such, it is the only technology for industrial quality control of
workpieces having non-accessible internal features (e.g. compo-
nents produced by additive manufacturing) or multi-material
components (e.g. two-component injection molded plastic parts or
plastic parts with metallic inserts). CT can be considered as a third
revolutionary development in coordinate metrology, following the
introduction of tactile 3D coordinate measuring machines (CMMs)
in the seventies and that of optical 3D scanners in the eighties.
The number of industrial applications of CT is large and rapidly
increasing. After a brief market overview, the paper gives a survey
of state of the art and upcoming CT technologies, covering various
types of CT systems, scanning capabilities, and technological
advances. The paper contains a survey of application examples
from the manufacturing industry as well as from other industries,
e.g. electrical and electronic devices, inhomogeneous materials,
and from the food industry. The paper aims at giving a detailed
overview of the numerous and different applications of CT
for industrial purposes in the light of industrial application

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2014.05.011
0007-8506/ß 2014 CIRP.
656 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
requirements. The paper also addresses limitations and problems
of state of the art CT. Challenges as well as major national and
international coordinated activities in the field of industrial CT are
also presented.
An overview of the advantages and disadvantages of using CT
for dimensional metrology is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Advantages and disadvantages of CT.
Adapted from [81].
2. CT market overview
After developing the first CT (called EMI scan) for human-
medical purposes in the early seventies of the last century by the
research branch of the British EMI (a British multinational music
company) the usage increased rapidly. The technology has
improved enormously and the number of implemented systems
increased vastly. Application in industry like NDT for the
inspection of technical objects for pores and inner defects were
opened and developed in the eighties, but brought only smaller
contributions to the number of implemented systems. Moreover
the disadvantage of the conventional 2D X-ray systems being film
based could be overcome by highly advanced digital systems with
2D X-ray detection pannels and computer evaluation. The use in
two-dimensional defects (flaws) testing and completeness check
in electronic production, i.e. printed circuit boards (PCBs) as well as
surface mount technology (SMT), was developed and has led to a
significant increase in application of CT systems. The application of
CT for three-dimensional measurements was investigated but
failed due to lack of accuracy. In the early years after the
millennium, the 3D-accuracy and traceability problem was
overcome with a keen solution applying a conventional 3D-
coordinate measurement system for calibration and traceability,
and a new method for performing and evaluating measurements
with good accuracy. The first coordinate measuring machine with
X-ray sensor facility, developed by Werth Messtechnik, was
presented to the market during the international fair ‘‘Control’’
(Stuttgart, Germany) in 2005 [140]. Fast and accurate (in the range
of microns) holistic measurements of the entire workpiece with
several hundreds of tolerances (even inside of hollow workpieces)
were now possible. That has incentivised several vendors of
metrology systems to develop new CT systems and led to new and
innovative investigations of research institutes, while the number
of implemented CTs for dimensional measurements blew up.
Nowadays the application of CT in industry covers quality control
dealing primarily with dimensional metrology and flaw detection.
Today digital X-ray systems are common in the medical applica-
tions, but industrial digital X-ray inspection systems are still a
nascent market [103]. The development of CTs in medicine can be
seen as precursor for X-ray systems in industrial market.
Nevertheless the needs and requirements in industry for CT
metrology are quite different to those in medical fields (mainly
accuracy and traceability). Fig. 2a shows that the market for
Fig. 2. Market data. (a) Trend in annual revenue for industrial X-ray inspection
systems market [34,79,87]; (b) global distribution of totally installed CT systems.
Based on [121] and referred to Frost & Sullivan 2011-03-24.
industrial digital X-ray inspection systems was estimated by Frost
and Sullivan [34] for 2009 to be 344.2 million US$, for 2011 US$
309.5 million [87]. The forecast for 2014 is 450.6 million US$ [34]
and for 2016 is US$ 509.4 million [87]. According to other sources
[34] the industrial X-ray inspection systems market is predicted for
2017 to be US$ 591.9 million. That is a Compound Annual Growth
Rate (CAGR) from 2009 to 2017 of about 7%, what is significantly
higher than the CAGR in general.
The global geographical distribution of installed systems in
2009 is shown in Fig. 2b. Most installations are in North America,
Europe and Japan. Future market development will be driven
mainly by India and China, not to forget Russia, Brazil and South
Africa (BRIC-states). The trends in the market for industrial CT can
be seen in two regards:
Applications in existing branches are expanding due to new
requirements in the technological leading areas like aerospace,
automotive and transport industry. The new drivers are product
safety and economics. In production the overall productivity and
efficiency of manufacturing processes are to be improved. Safety of
components must be increased as recent disasters caused by
failures in materials and parts are demonstrating. Economics of
production processes can be improved by replacing conventional
CMMs by CTs. New more comprehensive and more flexible
solutions will support increasing the market with such applica-
tions. In electronics and microelectronics we are faced with new
challenges in increasing economics and inspection comprehen-
siveness. Innovative systems will be able to check the complete-
ness of devices, of circuitries and – with suitable systems – also of
each soldering point, even of new devices with hidden soldering
points like ball grid arrays (BGAs). A considerably high number of
CT systems will be necessary to supply the demand of adaptable
solutions.
New markets can be identified. An emerging new large market
is the food industry. Integration of CT in packaging lines can check
the content of – vacuum – sealed packages, cans or preserving jars
just before delivery. Inclusions of contaminants like glass, metal,
stone and other can be detected. If tightly focused they can even be
eliminated. Moreover, in butcheries and meat processing factories,
each piece of meat can be tested for the content of hidden fat and
bones and the price can be calculated accordingly. Counting the
number of such companies or maybe even butcher shops
demonstrates the volume of a market referring to this. Another
emerging market will be in security related utilizations. Against the
background of the fear of terrorism attacks checking cargo, luggage
and even complete containers will get more importance. Detecting
explosives and other dangerous materials and devices will be
required not only for airports and ship terminals but also for
railway stations, public buildings like court houses, schools and
attractive touristic sightseeing sites as well as factories and
company sites. A wide upcoming market can be seen in the area
new materials like metal foam and CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced
plastic) and other composite materials, where CT will allow new
technical solutions. Testing procedures for those materials as
well as for testing components have to follow the technology
leading to a significant market share of industrial CTs.
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677 657

Altogether it can be forecasted that the CAGR of this technology

also in future will be increasing faster than average CAGR of
economics.

3. CT scanning technologies

CT scanning technologies were reviewed in [69], with details on

technical systems and components, including X-ray sources, X-ray
detectors, kinematic systems, and other hardware and software
technologies. In this section, an up-to-date overview is given, with
focus on: (i) types of CT systems, (ii) scanning capabilities and (iii)
technological advances.
Fig. 3. Multi-sensor CMM including tactile and CT sensors and stable granite base,
shown without its X-ray protection housing [140].
3.1. Types of CT systems

Many different types of CT systems are available today: from
small devices which can be attached inside a Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) to large machines used for CT scanning of tall
and heavy parts. The most relevant categories of CT systems are
listed in the following.
3.1.1. Clinical CT
In clinical CT scanners, the X-ray unit (which carries source and
detector) is continuously rotated around the object or patient
(which remains stationary or is slowly translated horizontally
along the axis of the rotating unit) to obtain tomographic images
representing slices of the scanned body. In over four decades of
medical applications, several generations of clinical CT scanners
have been developed, ensuring a continuous increase of perfor-
mances [51].
the flexibility and applicability [27]. Fig. 3 shows an example of a
multi-sensor CMM including CT sensor, tactile (touch-trigger)
probe and stable granite base. Fig. 4 shows an example of a
metrological CT system with liquid cooled micro-focus source and
thermally controlled cabinet. The thermal stability of the system
and the cooling of both source and detector may greatly reduce the
thermal effects on measurement accuracy [88,93,108,113]. CT
systems for dimensional metrology have to be tested according to
standard procedures and guidelines in order to ensure confor-
mance with metrological performance specifications. The German
guideline VDI/VDE 2617-13 is currently considered as the
fundamental document for specification and verification of CT
systems used for coordinate metrology and it forms the main basis
for future development of ISO standards [129].

3.1.2. Material analysis and industrial CT

CT systems for material analysis and other industrial applica-
tions such as non-destructive testing are fundamentally different
from clinical scanners. In these systems the object is rotated in the
X-ray beam, while the X-ray source and the detector remain
stationary. In addition, since the dose of radiation transpiercing the
object is normally not critical in industrial CT, greater radiation
intensities can typically be used than those applied in clinical CT.
Furthermore, because resolution and accuracy requirements are
different, scanning parameters usually differ significantly from
clinical CT [57,61]. Resolution and accuracy can also be adjusted by Fig. 4. Metrological CT system with liquid cooled micro-focus source and thermally
moving the axis of rotation supporting the object either closer to controlled cabinet [89].
the source (higher image magnification and pixel resolution, but
more blurring) or closer to the detector (sharper images, but less 3.1.4. Robot operated CT
resolution) [69]. This is normally not possible with clinical In order to automate loading and unloading of the workpiece to
scanners where the rotation axis is centered between source be scanned, CT systems can be integrated with robots. Fig. 5 shows
and detector. Unlike clinical scanners, most CT systems for an example of robot operated CT. Other solutions for reducing time
material analysis or industrial use apply cone beam geometry of workpiece handling are discussed in Section 3.3.1.
and flat panel detectors as it yields hundredsfold reduction in
scanning time (multiple slices measured in one rotation) and good
image quality [40]. However, systems with fan beam geometry and
linear detectors are also used, especially for reducing scatter effects
when large thicknesses need to be penetrated using high voltage
tubes.

3.1.3. Dimensional metrology CT

In conventional metrology (e.g. tactile coordinate measure-
ment) the measurement must be planned taking into account
every feature. CT introduces a paradigm shift toward holistic
measurements of workpieces. Since the dimensional measure-
ments are performed on a virtual model, the data acquisition (CT
scan) and evaluation can be done at different times and different
locations. In dimensional metrology applications, special attention Fig. 5. CT system integrated into the manufacturing line by means of automated
is paid to accuracy and traceability of measurement results [69]. In robotized loading [14].
order to enhance the accuracy of CT measurements, metrological
CT systems are designed involving principles and technologies for 3.1.5. SEM CT
CMMs. For example, metrological CT machines can be constructed Specific CT devices can be attached in a standard Scanning
using high precision mechanical guideways and thermally stable Electron Microscope (SEM), allowing 3D imaging of small samples
structures. CT can be utilized in multisensor CMMs, enlarging here with resolution down to 500 nm, without compromising the
658 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 6. CT device attached in a standard Scanning Electron Microscope [10].
regular imaging capability of the SEM [10]. These devices utilize
the X-ray radiation which is produced by a metal target hit by the
electron beam in the SEM. The X-ray radiation is then acquired by a
dedicated camera mounted on the side window of the SEM
specimen chamber (Fig. 6). The object is rotated within the X-ray
beam using a rotation stage installed in place of standard specimen
holders.
3.1.6. Large scale CT
The main restriction in CT scanning of large parts is connected
with the material attenuation coefficient, which limits the
maximum accumulated material thickness that can be penetrated,
as discussed in Section 3.2.3. In order to increase the maximum
penetrable thickness, X-ray tubes with high voltage are employed.
Commercial standard tubes are typically limited to 450 kV, but
special tubes up to 800 kV are also available today [118]. For higher
energies, linear accelerator X-ray sources are also used (Section
3.1.7). Another important issue to be taken into account when
scanning large parts is the need of large detectors. In alternative,
stitching of multiple X-ray projections or multiple CT reconstruc-
tions can be performed, using various procedures [76]. Other
methods for measuring large parts are for example digital
laminography and other techniques briefly discussed in Section
3.1.8.
3.1.7. Linear accelerators and synchrotron CT
Even though the most common X-ray sources are based on
electron guns [69], other possibilities exist to accelerate electrons
against a target to produce X-rays. Linear accelerators and
synchrotrons in particular, despite being very expensive sources,
offer specific advantages with respect to common electron guns.
Linear accelerators (LINAC) greatly increase the velocity of
electrons or other charged particles by subjecting them to a series
of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. Thanks to
their high energy, linear accelerators can be used for penetrating
very thick and/or high absorbing parts, up to meters of concrete or
metal. Fig. 7, for instance, shows a linear accelerator used for non-
destructive testing of large steel castings. X-rays can also be
generated by synchrotrons, which are special particle accelerators,
hosted in large facilities, as shown for example in Fig. 8.
Synchrotron CT devices are available at nearly all synchrotron
facilities. Their radiation has the following relevant properties:
monochromatic, high coherence, high collimation, high brightness
and intensity, low emittance, and wide tunability in energy/
wavelength [17,95].
Fig. 7. A 7000 kg steel casting (valve body) undergoing X-ray radiography using a
8.5 MeV linear accelerator [43].
Fig. 8. Aerial view of the Synchrotron ELETTRA in Trieste, Italy.
3.1.8. Digital laminography and other techniques
In CT the object have to be irradiated from all angular directions
(3608). This is not always possible, for example in case of limited
access to the component or in case of large flat objects, due to high
absorption of the object in at least one direction. In order to
overcome this problem, different techniques can be used, such as
laminography and tomosynthesis [60].
Digital laminography is a valid solution for scanning flat parts.
In this technique, images of planes above and below the plane of
interest are blurred out by reciprocal movement of the X-ray
source and detector, to show a specific layer more clearly. Source
and detector can be moved for example on circular orbits around
the same axis, so that only the points in one plane of the object, the
focal plane, project to the same position on the detector while the
points in all other planes are blurred. The result of the inspection is
the image of the focal plane, which represent a section of the
object, with superimposed burred images of the other planes. This
technique can be applied for example to the inspection of
multilayer printed circuit boards, welding seams on large parts
and aerospace components [42,70]. Motionless laminography is a
variant of digital laminography, where multiple detectors are used
to avoid the movement of source and detector. Fig. 9 shows an
example of motionless laminography applied to the inspection of
aircraft wings.
3.2. Scanning capabilities
The key capabilities of CT for industrial applications are briefly
discussed in the following.
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Fig. 9. Laminography system inspecting an aircraft wing [31].
3.2.1. Resolution
Many factors influence the spatial resolution of CT reconstruc-
tions, including: focal spot size of the X-ray source, performance of
the detector, magnification, number of projections, reconstruction
algorithms, and data post-processing. The focal spot size is
particularly important in determining the image quality. Systems
with focal spot size larger than 0.1 mm are typically referred to as
conventional CT or macro CT. Microfocus systems (mCT) have a
spot size down to one or few micrometers. Nanofocus systems
(nanoCT) may reach sub-micrometric spot size, currently down to
0.4 mm [48,60]. Synchrotron CT (sCT) can reach 0.2 mm resolution,
and by applying Kirkpatrick–Baez optics (sCT + KB) can currently
go down to 0.04 mm resolution [106]. Fig. 10 shows typical ranges
of spatial resolution for the tomographic systems considered
above.
Fig. 10. Typical spatial resolutions and object sizes (diameter) for macro CT, micro
CT, nano CT, synchrotron CT (sCT) and synchrotron CT with KB mirrors (sCT + KB).
Adapted from [60].
3.2.2. Scanning speed
Contrary to coordinate measuring machines, in CT systems the
scanning time is independent from the number of features to be
measured on the object (see Fig. 11). On the other hand, the
scanning time depends on a number of parameters, including:
exposure time, number of projections and performance of data
processing [69]. Typical scanning time for industrial CT systems
with cone beam currently ranges from few minutes to one or few
hours [26]. However, innovative techniques are available for faster
scanning, as discussed in Section 3.3.1.
3.2.3. Measuring range
As discussed in Section 3.1, very different types of CT systems
exist today: from desktop CT with reduced measuring volume to
large scale CT. The dimensions of the object that can be scanned in
659
Fig. 11. Scanning time versus number of features to be measured: schematic
comparison of (a) tactile CMM, (b) video CMM and (c) CT system.
these systems is limited by the measuring volume between source
and detector, and depends also on: applied magnification due to
the cone beam geometry, maximum penetrable material thick-
nesses (see Section 3.2.4) and the capability of the CT system to
apply advanced scanning procedures, such as region of interest
scanning (see Section 3.3.2), extended field of view scanning (see
Section 3.3.3) and helical scanning (see Section 3.3.4).
3.2.4. Maximum penetrable material thicknesses
The maximum accumulated material thickness that can be
penetrated by X-rays depends on the material attenuation
coefficient and the X-ray photon energy. Typical values for
common materials are given in Table 1; complete tables and
graphs are available in literature [22,90]. Before scanning, the
object should be oriented as to reduce the maximum penetrated
material thickness. Optimal part orientation should also minimize
the variation of penetration depth during object rotation, in order
to avoid pixels saturation or extinguishment in X-ray projections
[81,137].
Table 1
Typical maximum penetrable material thicknesses for common industrial
materials.
X-ray voltage 130 kV 150 kV 190 kV 225 kV 450 kV
Steel/ceramic 5 mm <8 mm <25 mm <40 mm <70 mm
Aluminum <30 mm <50 mm <90 mm <150 mm <250 mm
Plastic <90 mm <130 mm <200 mm <250 mm <450 mm
Source: [26].
Note: The values in this table are maximum thicknesses producing low signal-to-
noise ratios; with smaller thicknesses the transmitted intensity increases.
3.2.5. X-ray dose
While reducing the radiation dose per scan is particularly
relevant in clinical and biological CT, the effects of X-rays exposure
on the scanned object are often negligible in industrial CT.
However, in some cases the X-ray dose must be limited to avoid
degradation of materials, for example in the case of highly exposed
polymers [13], and to prevent specific effects, such as color
modifications in gem stones [102]. Safety of CT operators is
ensured through appropriate shielding of the X-ray system [85].
3.2.6. Multi-material scanning capabilities
The capability of analyzing multi-material objects is frequently
demanded in several industrial applications. CT is definitely
capable of providing interesting solutions to this demand, as
clearly demonstrated since the earliest clinical CT scans in the
1970s. However, CT scanning of multi-material objects presents
also significant difficulties, due to different X-ray attenuation by
different materials and to specific image artifacts [132]. CT
manufacturers offer different solutions to facilitate measurements
of multi-material objects through multi-spectra scans, including:
multi-material targets (e.g. different materials on an indexable
head), dual-source CT and energy-sensitive sandwich detectors
[36]. Further details on advanced solutions for multi-energy
scanning are given in Section 3.3.5. Another issue that needs
particular attention when performing CT measurements on
660 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677

multi-material parts is the identification of adequate thresholds for

correct surface determination. This issue as well as further
considerations on multi-material scanning are discussed in Section
3.2.6, along with specific examples concerning multi-material
assemblies.

3.2.7. Accuracy
As for other coordinate measuring systems [21,141], the
measurement uncertainty of CT depends on the specific object
to be measured and the specific parameters chosen for the
measurement process. The factors that influence the measurement
accuracy are listed and discussed in [69]. Recently several new
studies have been conducted on uncertainty evaluation and
accuracy enhancement of CT dimensional measurements
[19,30,50,54,82,86,135].
The results of the first international inter-laboratory compar-
ison of CT systems used for dimensional metrology, which was
concluded in 2011 [15], show that sub-voxel accuracy is Fig. 13. Example of graphical result of a commercial software solution for CT data
analysis of fibers orientation in composite materials. Different colors correspond to
definitely possible for CT dimensional measurements on calibra-
different orientations of fibers.
tion artifacts. In particular, the comparison showed that Courtesy of Volume Graphics GmbH.
measurement errors in the order of 1/10 of the voxel size are
reachable for size measurements, while measurements of form Table 2
Comparison of measurements allowed by tactile CMM, optical CMM and CT.
are more affected by the influence of CT data noise [15,18]. The
Possible measurements are indicated by U.
achievable accuracy using CT on real industrial parts is
investigated in the CIA-CT international comparison described Tactile Optical CT
in Section 6 of this paper [4]. A general description of the accuracy Freeform geometry U U U
of CT in achieving traceable measurements is a complex issue that High aspect ratio U U
is still a matter of investigation [69,121] but a first indication can Soft material U U
Micrometric detail U See Fig. 10
be provided here based on specific investigations [4,15]. Fig. 12
Fast measurement U See Fig. 11
illustrates the expanded uncertainty of CT measurements Internal detail U
assessed from comparisons with reference measurements
obtained on CMMs.
3.3. Technological advances

Industrial CT is rapidly evolving, with continuous improve-

ments in both hardware and software components. Some of the
main technological advances are presented in the following.

3.3.1. Fast CT scanning

Thanks to recent advances in CT components and computing
power, several manufacturers of industrial CT systems have
recently proposed fast CT scanning solutions, capable of inspecting
industrial parts in few seconds [9,11,92]. Due to their scanning
speed, these systems can be used for in-line inspection of products.
For instance, Fig. 14 shows a fast in-line CT system for inspection of
castings, with typical scanning and inspection speed of 5–10 mm
cross-section per second, allowing a complete scan and analysis in
10 s for small automotive parts (e.g. small pistons or chassis

Fig. 12. Examples of measuring uncertainty on comparison items vs. dimension for
CT, compared to general CMM measuring capability.

3.2.8. Software capabilities

Data processing plays an important role in CT technology, with
increasing demands on high-performance computing. The general
capabilities of software for CT data reconstruction and analysis
were described in [69]. In specific industrial applications of CT,
specific software capabilities may be requested, especially for CT
data analysis.
To this end, several software solutions are now available on the
market, allowing task-specific analysis of CT data, including for
example: fiber composite material analysis (Fig. 13), wall thickness
evaluation, porosity and inclusion analysis, comparison to nominal
CAD geometry, coordinate metrology, etc.: see examples in [69]. As
a general conclusion concerning scanning capabilities Table 2
illustrates the possibility of performing measurements using CT Fig. 14. Example of fast in-line CT inspection system; workpieces are forwarded on a
compared to tactile and optical CMMs. conveyor belt through the rotating CT unit [11].
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
components) and in 80–90 s for larger engine components (e.g.
cylinder heads) [11].
Another advanced solution in fast CT scanning is the possibility
of scanning moving parts, obtaining three-dimensional CT
reconstructions that capture the movement over a period of time.
The result is a dynamic volumetric dataset (i.e. a CT volume model
that includes time and motion), called 4D CT scan that can be
reproduced like a movie (see Fig. 15). The University of Leuven
developed a rotating in situ compression unit that was integrated
in a CT scanner. It allows 3D visualization of the progressive
compression and collapse of e.g. scaffold or lattice structures
(beam-like 3D structures): see Section 4.2.3 [64].
Fig. 15. 4D CT reproducing the movement of a screw [91].
3.3.2. Region of interest scanning
When a specific detail of a larger object needs to be
reconstructed at a higher resolution, then region of interest
(ROI) CT scanning can be performed. ROI scanning comprises a
range of different methods that allow measuring specific regions
(volume portions) without reconstructing the whole object
[60,73,76]. Fig. 16 shows an example of a particular ROI scanning,
where the object is first scanned entirely at a lower magnification
(coarse resolution) and then the region of interest is scanned at a
higher magnification (fine resolution), so that the higher magnifi-
cation region is reconstructed taking into account also the voxel
information from the coarse voxel volume [26].
Fig. 16. Example of ROI scanning on electric razor blades: (a) CT acquisition of the
whole object, (b) CT acquisition of a portion with better resolution (higher
magnification), (c) CT result for the whole object, (d) CT result for the high
resolution region [26].
3.3.3. Extended field of view scanning
Several methods are available for extending the CT scan field of
view [52,76]. They may be needed when a portion of the scanned
object is positioned outside the scan field-of-view (SFOV) and
hence the line integrals corresponding to those regions are not
projected into the detector. If the object is larger than the SFOV,
methods are available for extending the SFOV by combining
multiple projection images taken at different positions of the
object, which is translated laterally [76]. If the object is longer than
661
the SFOV in the direction of the rotary axis, the extended
reconstruction may be obtained by stitching several CT volume
reconstructions [26]. Extended field of view scanning is useful also
for enhancing the obtained resolution.
3.3.4. Helical scanning
Helical scanning (also improperly called ‘‘spiral scanning’’)
involves simultaneous rotation and translation of the object along
the rotation axis, so that the relative movement of the X-ray source
and detector to the object describes a helix. This procedure has
several advantages such as elimination of Feldkamp artifacts [69]
and increase of resolution along the axis of rotation. It can also be
used for scanning elongated objects that cannot fit into a single
exposure [76].
3.3.5. Multi-energy scanning and color CT
In multi-energy CT, the analyzed materials can be differentiated
by using several advanced scanning methods, which basically can
be classified in two main approaches: (i) exposing the object to
different X-ray spectra and (ii) employing energy-resolved
detectors. The first approach may be implemented in several
ways: different spectra can be obtained for example by varying the
scanning parameters (e.g. the source voltage, or the power, or even
just the current – which actually does not affect the spectrum but
can help to achieve better signal-to-noise ratios [67]), or different
target materials (e.g. using multi-target heads), or different sources
(e.g. using dual-sources CT systems, with two different tubes) [36].
For the second approach, energy-sensitive photon-counting
detectors are needed. Their ability to resolve energies allows
energy-selective imaging with a single X-ray exposure [136]. CT
systems equipped with such detectors are often referred to as
‘‘Spectral CT’’ or ‘‘Color CT’’ [1].
3.3.6. Phase contrast and dark field imaging
Phase contrast and dark field imaging can be used to visualize
small details and increase image contrast within structures that
otherwise would appear uniform. Phase contrast imaging differ-
entiates between structures under analysis by exploiting differ-
ences in the refractive index of materials and highlighting small
details of differing refractive index [99]. Dark field imaging uses
scattering from sub-micron structures in the sample, offering a
powerful contrast mechanism to reveal subtle structural features
of an object [98]. The main advantage of these methods compared
to normal absorption-contrast X-ray imaging is enhanced contrast
that makes it possible to see smaller details and improved soft
tissue contrast [119], see Fig. 17.
Fig. 17. Conventional X-ray radiograph of a spectacle case (top) compared with
dark-field X-ray radiograph [126].
Other 3D imaging techniques, using neutron sources, are
currently being developed for soft materials, as illustrated in
Fig. 18. Other 3D imaging techniques require the use of large-scale
facilities such as neutron sources or synchrotron sources which
provides opportunities beyond those achievable from laboratory
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Fig. 18. Conventional X-ray radiograph of a camera (left) compared with radiograph
using neutrons [96].

X-ray sources. Neutron imaging provides unique, and compli-

mentary opportunities compared to X-ray imaging and are
especially well suited for biological materials, or when very high
penetration power is required (i.e. for imaging of engine blocks)
[58,59]. When it comes to synchrotron X-ray sources, the high
intensity of such X-ray beams allow e.g. for ultrafast x-ray imaging
[8,109], Fig. 19, and multi-modal imaging of polycrystalline
materials [72]. In order to facilitate industry access to such
Fig. 20. Fields of application for CT.
advanced imaging facilities, dedicated imaging centers linking
industry with major facilities are starting to emerge. Examples are
e.g. the Manchester X-ray Imaging Facility [127] and the DTU
Imaging Industry Portal [123]. Fig. 20 presents an overview of different fields of application for
the CT technology in the industrial domain. CT measurements can
be evaluated voxel based or surface based. Voxel based, qualitative
evaluation can be classified in visualization and non-destructive
testing (NDT). Quantitative, surface based evaluation comprises
digitization and dimensional metrology. The need for traceability
increases with the complexity of the task. Simple visualizations do
not require absolute measures. For metrology applications
traceability is crucial. Fig. 21 shows a flow chart of a typical
dimensional CT measurement process while Fig. 22 depicts use of
the substitution method to achieve traceability of CT measure-
ments [53,69].

Fig. 19. Historical development of fast X-ray tomography. Open symbols denote
synchrotron sources, while filled ones represent laboratory sources, red squares
denote white beam and black circles monochromatic beam scanners.
Adapted from [77].

4. Industrial application fields and requirements

4.1. Introduction

Nowadays, the manufacturing industry is facing the challenge

of shorter product life cycles and growing product varieties. This
demands highly cost and time efficient product development and Fig. 21. Flow chart of a typical dimensional CT measurement process [81].

production processes. Improvements in production technologies

(e.g. injection molding) allow the manufacturing of complex parts
with freeform surfaces and a huge amount of different features,
which have to be inspected. On the one hand advanced materials,
such as fiber reinforced plastics, enable new product develop-
ments, but on the other hand require new measurement and
testing methods. Testing the conformity of the product character-
istics in every production stage with accurate and time efficient
measurement technologies can contribute to reduce waste and
costs during the manufacturing. In this context industrial X-Ray
Computed Tomography (CT) offers a large variety of applications in
the entire development and production chain. CT delivers a holistic
volumetric model of the workpiece that can be used for versatile
inspection tasks and dimensional measurements as well as for
reverse engineering applications. The CT has the capability to
non-destructively determine the inner and outer geometry of
workpieces. Fig. 22. Establishment of traceability of CT measurements using ISO 15530-3 [53].
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Visualization refers to the function testing of assembled
workpieces. It is a qualitative, visual conformity inspection of
the interplay or the existence of components. It allows the analysis
of function or even malfunction under real working conditions.
Non-destructive testing is a qualitative testing method. It
encompasses the issues of defect analysis and material characteri-
zation. Defect analysis focuses on the visual inspection of
manufactured workpieces in terms of pores/blisters, voids,
inclusions and cracks. Defect analysis is widely applied in casting
and forming industry and injection molding industry to assure the
quality of workpieces. Weak spots (e.g. regions of high pore
density) can be identified easily. Material characterization focuses
on the determination of intended material properties. Typical
applications are the analysis of fiber orientation, alignment and
density in compound materials and pore size and pore density in
foams (here pores are a defined material characteristic). In both
cases the results can be used for instance to improve the
manufacturing processes concerning molding die geometry and
molding process parameters or to distinguish between good and
bad parts (see Section 4.2.5, Fig. 42). Digitization describes the
capability to generate and evaluate virtual models of workpieces
from CT measurements. It can be structured in simulation and
reverse engineering. Simulation is a widely used and powerful
technique to predict or investigate workpiece properties and
behaviors. The object of interest needs to be modeled to perform
the simulation. Instead of using a simplified model (e.g. CAD data),
the CT provides detailed models of real workpieces. For example
finite element simulations (FEM) can be used to investigate heat
transport or mechanical stress. In reverse engineering applications
surfaces of the virtual model are extracted and reconstructed for
CAD applications. Reverse engineering enables to recover lost
drawings, capture prototypes or to build spare parts. The CT opens
up new possibilities in the product development. Metrology
comprises any dimensional measurement on CT data. According to
the German guideline VDI/VDE 2630 Part 1.2 [130] the dimen-
sional metrology aspect is differentiated in nominal/actual
comparison, tolerance analysis and wall thickness analysis.
Nominal/actual comparison is an analysis and color coded
deviations visualization of the geometric deviations between a
CAD model or a reference workpiece (nominal data) and a
measured workpiece (actual data). It allows a holistic, non-feature
based evaluation. Tolerance analysis comprises dimensional,
shape, form and position tolerances, determination of compensat-
ing elements, regular geometry and sculptured surfaces. In
contrast to conventional coordinate measurement, the measure-
ments are performed on the virtual model. Wall thickness analysis
determines a characteristic number in the volumetric model.
Dimensional CT measurements can be used for quality control
throughout the whole product development and manufacturing
cycle.
4.2. Manufacturing industry
Since about 2005 the manufacturing industry started showing
great interest in CT technology for quality control purposes:
 The rising complexity of components and products, with high
function integration, has led to components with more complex,
often internal, features that cannot be controlled on dimensions
and tolerances in a non-destructive way with tactile or optical
CMMs. Control of complex assembled products also call for CT:
one need to look inside the assembled product to detect
mismatches (e.g. undesired gaps or collisions between individual
components of the assembly, possibly due to unwanted
deformations of those components enforced by the assembly).
Measuring the components of an assembly separately (even if
within specs) does not guarantee proper functioning of the
assembled system.
 Techniques like plastic injection molding with metallic inserts,
two-component injection molding or other production methods
663
yielding multi-material components also requires CT for non-
destructive quality inspections (geometry, dimensions, fitting,
porosity).
 New production methods, in particular additive techniques, have
favored designing and producing components with internal
cavities that cannot be produced with traditional methods and
cannot be measured on tactile or optical coordinate measuring
machines.
 Not to the least, people start recognizing that CT has the unique
possibility to apply for a double quality check in one step and one
measurement task: e.g. checking dimensional quality (precision)
and checking material quality (e.g. porosity, weld quality, etc.)
can be done using the same CT measuring data.
The latter is illustrated in Fig. 23 [69] showing three quality
checks done with the same CT data: (i) control of form and
geometrical deviations, (ii) thickness verification and (iii) control
of material density/porosity. This and other examples (e.g. thermo-
forming, folding and welding of plastic honeycomb panel) were
already given in [69].
Fig. 23. Reconstructed CT model (a), control of geometry (b), wall thickness analysis
(c), and porosity inspection (d) of car inlet fan.
4.2.1. Casting and forming industry
The aforementioned benefits of CT quality control are of
particular importance to the foundry or metal forming industry
where checking for material flaws (pores, inclusions, etc.) is at least
as important as checking for dimensional quality.
Castings often depict internal cavities (produced with cores)
that also call for dimensional CT measurements: see Fig. 24.
Forming of hollow components is also coming up as a way to
reduce mass and weight in the transportation industry: e.g. hydro-
formed hollow camshafts or hollow constructed crankshafts [120].
An example of an aluminum casting measured with CT was given
in the CIRP keynote paper of 2011 [69]. That casting had been split
into several segments, provided with reference spheres, as to be
suited as a reference object for accuracy verification of dimensional
CT measurements on castings [7]. Fig. 25 shows a CT quality
control process for turbine blades. The blades were measured on a
Nikon Metrology 450 kV scanner equipped with a linear X-ray
detector. Individual dimensions are checked within several
sections and are used to provide a global Fail/Pass evaluation of
the blades.
CT measurements of a 3-cylinder head of a combustion engine
are shown in Fig. 26 (notice the steel bushings inserted in the
aluminum cylinder head). The CT measurements were aimed for
reverse engineering and redesigning the cylinder head in order to
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Fig. 24. Casted iron duct (bottom left) measured on a CT scanner with a 450 kV
source (top) and compared to the nominal CAD model (bottom right).
Fig. 25. Quality control of turbine blades: voxel model (left); dimensional check of
sections (right, green/red = within/out of tolerance).
Fig. 26. Cylinder head showing aluminum block, steel bushings and cooling
channels/jacket (top-left); extracted STL/FEM mesh of water jacket shown top-
right; bottom shows single slices for re-design.
Courtesy of Materialize NV, Belgium.
solve a problem of overheating and cracking of the head. It
involved following steps:
 Scanning of cylinder head on 10 MeV CT scanner and 2D
reconstruction (BRP-Rotax GmbH & Co).
 3D reconstruction and STL meshing (Materialize Mimics1
software).
 Segmentation of different materials and internal structure
(Materialize Mimics1 software).
 Re-meshing for FEM and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
(Materialize Mimics1 software).
 CFD calculation (Star-CD1).
 (Re)design using STL-based CAD systems (Materialize 3-matic1
CAD software).
4.2.2. Machining (subtractive manufacturing)
Machined parts call for CT for dimensional check of internal
features: for such parts, material quality control is less of an issue,
while external features or cavities that are fully visible externally
can better be measured using traditional CMMs equipped with
tactile or optical probes (e.g. laser stripe scanners in case multiple
measuring points are desirable as in CT measurements). Internal
features of machined parts calling for CT inspection mostly
involves small/long internal channels (drilled, bored, tapped, laser
machined, etc.) or small re-entrant cavities (milled, EDMed, etc.)
whose dimensions cannot be measured with traditional means:
see Figs. 27 and 28. In quite some cases the purpose is not only to
check for geometry, form and dimension of the cavities, but also to
check for undesired burrs at intersecting holes: see Fig. 29. Fig. 30
gives examples of micro parts that cannot be measured with
classical CMM.
Fig. 27. Aluminum component (120 mm  120 mm  220 mm) measured with CT.
Courtesy of KU Leuven.
Fig. 28. CT CAD-comparison of hydraulic manifold of race car: scanned part (a),
comparison with nominal CAD outer (b) and inner (c) geometry.
Courtesy of Nikon Metrology/X-Tek, Belgium/UK.
Material removal machining processes, being still the most
precise manufacturing processes, are also the most demanding in
terms of accurate dimensional measurement. The accuracy and
uncertainty of dimensional CT measurements is however counter-
acted by typical phenomena as X-ray beam hardening, gray-value
edge thresholding, etc. This is illustrated in Fig. 31, where a
precision pin (Ø4 mm) inserted in a hollow stainless steel stepped
cylinder (see dimensions Fig. 31a) was measured on a 225 kV CT
device (Nikon Metrology MCT225). The hollow stepped cylinder
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677 665

Fig. 29. CT check for undesired burrs at intersecting holes: (a) object front view,
(b) object top view, (c) 3D CT model showing burrs.

Fig. 30. CT measured of micro milling cutter Ø0.4 mm (left) and of micro holes
Ø4.00 mm down to 0.25 mm (right).

was produced on a precision lathe (Mori Seiki NL2000Y/500) and

calibrated on a Mitutoyo FN904 CMM. The pin was a calibrated pin
(tolerance 1 mm) [125]. Fig. 31b demonstrates that optimizing the
beam hardening (BH) correction reduced the non-systematic
dimensional errors on the inner pin diameter (i.e. error neglecting
the systematic offset of about 3 mm) from 7 mm to 2 mm. Similarly,
Fig. 31c demonstrates a reduction of the average outer cylinder edge
offset by around 3 mm (typically from 5 mm to 2 mm) and of the
inner hole diameter by 8 mm (from 13 mm to 5 mm): see arrows.
Proper BH correction reduced the overall dimensional errors (both
systematic and non-systematic) to within 5 mm.

Fig. 31. CT measurements of calibrated steel pin inserted in stainless steel step
4.2.3. Additive manufacturing
cylinder.
Additive manufacturing (AM) offers unique possibilities for
producing parts with internal cavities or lattice structures that are
impossible to produce with other manufacturing techniques.
Hence, many AM parts feature such internal geometries that allow
optimizing the component’s, weight, shape and strength: Fig. 32.
AM definitely calls for CT quality control as it is the only method to
perform non-destructive dimensional measurement of inner
features and non-destructive density/porosity verification, which
is a critical issue in AM.
An example of an AM nozzle with conformal helix cooling Fig. 32. Examples of AM parts with internal features and lattice structures.
channel is given in Fig. 33.
Fig. 34 gives an example of a component made from to parts compressed, and to reconstruct 3D CT images of the collapsing
produced by selective laser sintering of nylon powder (white scaffold, while recording compression force versus deformation
components) and assembled by gluing (black glue). Blue ink was and calculating local stresses. Fig. 36 depicts the compression unit
poured inside the glued components. It demonstrates that the and some CT images and visual picture of a collapsing scaffold.
parts are leaking (see blue area on left picture). CT scanning
revealed that this is due to interlayer porosity (see right picture). 4.2.4. Injection molding
To check the performance of AM in producing thin lattice CT is particularly suitable to investigate injection molded
structures for lightweight aerospace components or porous polymer parts, thanks to the good X-ray penetrability of these
medical scaffolds for bone regeneration, several such lattice materials. Scan tasks typically encompass run-in and trouble
structures were manufactured by selective laser melting and shooting by part geometry comparison with CAD model (Fig. 37),
tested with a CT scanner: Fig. 35 [128]. In order to analyze the identification of QC measurements, and defect analysis. Check of a
stiffness, strength and collapsing mode (break, bucking, shear, etc.) molded part geometry is relevant with respect to the CAD model,
of the scaffolds, a rotating compression unit has been designed and between single cavities, among different molders, between
integrated in a CT scanner (Philips HOMX 161) [64]. The rotation different materials, and after exposure to heat treatment and
allows taking 3608 X-ray pictures of the scaffolds being gradually wear [2]. Challenges are often encountered in terms of: results
666 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 33. Injection nozzle (30 mm height).
Fig. 34. SLS components glued together; the right picture is a section thru the CT
model, showing the nylon parts (gray color), interlayer porosity (dark spots), small
particle inclusions (white spots) and the glue (white area).
Fig. 35. CT measurements of scaffolds with frequency plot of strut diameter and
pore size.
depending on fitting method, datum system interpretation, flash
and mold lines, rough surfaces, rounded corners, and large
variations in wall thickness. As an example, a flash easily observed
under the microscope can be invisible to CT, Fig. 38.
Often, mold approval, or mold validation, is a major production
issue. Typically, validation of injection tools in connection with
Fig. 36. Rotating compression unit integrated in CT scanner and used for
compression testing of titanium bone scaffolds. Left: scaffolds. Center: test unit.
Right: pictures of scaffold detail (top) and load unit (bottom).
Fig. 37. Comparison with CAD model of an injection molded cartridge holder [2].
Fig. 38. Injection molded part with a flash clearly visible under a microscope (left)
but invisible to CT (right) [116].
process run-in is carried out verifying critical features on parts
from the different cavities using tactile CMMs, but companies are
investigating the possibility of validating molds from CT measure-
ments. Currently, 90% of the use of CT within the Prefilled Device
Quality Control Department at Novo Nordisk A/S (DK) is related to
mold approval, while 10% are special tasks, such as, e.g., scanning
of a subassembly in order to check if click springs are assembled
correctly [116]. A similar example is found at LEGO A/S (DK) where
the verification department is responsible for measuring and
testing of LEGO elements from new production molds [29]. The test
results are used as a basis for approval and release of new elements
– therefore of molds – and are an important contribution in the
value chain of mold manufacturing. The LEGO elements are
measured either by the use of Coordinate Measuring Machines or
manual measuring equipment. The idea is to measure as many
elements as possible using measuring machines, but today around
75% of the features are still measured manually. However, many
elements feature complex geometries and require CT scanning:
these elements feature high aspect ratios and hidden positions,
where measurements by common means are not possible. The
verification department has recently invested in a CT scanner,
which will further support quality control of the molds.
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677 667

Fig. 40. CT scan of a metal injection molded part. (a–c) Section views. (d)
Reconstructed 3D volume [65].

Fig. 39. Set-up with several parts ready for CNC measurements on a tactile CMM Fig. 41. CT image of watch assembly.
(top) and multiple part holder for use in a CT scanner (bottom) molds [29]. Courtesy of Nikon Metrology/X-Tek, Belgium/UK.

The difference in measuring many parts can be appreciated

considering Fig. 39 which compares a set-up with several items
ready for CNC measurements on a tactile CMM with a multiple part
holder for use in a CT scanner. An important application area
concerns insert molding (where plastic is injected around an insert,
usually metal), outsert molding: (similar to insert molding but here
a metal sheet surrounds some plastic elements), and overmolding,
(where another plastic is injected around a plastic product or
around a part of the plastic product). In the case of different similar
materials (e.g. two plastics) or dissimilar materials (metal and
plastic), CT is usually challenging, as addressed later in Section
4.2.5.
CT can be used also for dimensional verification of micro
components produced by micro injection molding [94]. Specific
calibration artifacts can be used in connection with CT scanning of
micro components [17,78].
Other plastic components that can be measured effectively by
CT are polymeric prosthetic joint components, where CT is
particularly useful for measuring the geometry of worn bearing
surfaces and quantifying wear volumes, with reduced uncertainty
in comparison to CMM measurements [16,19,20,117].
Injection molding is not limited to polymers but can also
involve metal [104]. Metal injection molding (MIM) is, e.g.,
practiced at Grundfos (DK), where CT is used to detect
manufacturing defects, Fig. 40 [65].
Fig. 42. Example of plastic actuator (top left) and insert (top right) to fit together,
4.2.5. Assemblies and example of fit analysis (bottom), where the insert is colored purple, the actuator
X-ray CT is a unique tool for inspection of assemblies (Figs. 41– is colored gray and the region of overlap is colored green (overlap 0.04–0.07 mm).
43). It allows visualizing the various components of the assembly
in the assembled state. This is essential as separate inspection of An example of fit assembly analysis is given in Fig. 42. The aim
the individual components of an assembly (even if they all are was to investigate a number of plastic actuators and inserts that
within specification) does not guarantee proper functioning of the should fit together and to detect why some pairs of actuator-insert
assembly. did not fit while others did. Another example is given in Fig. 44.
668 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677

Fig. 43. Example of a complex multi-material assembly: drug delivery device

(insulin pen) including components of different polymeric materials.
Courtesy of Novo Nordisk A/S [116].

Fig. 46. Example of the typical workflow of multi-energy image stack fusion [67].

A connector with encapsulated metal parts is scanned using

Fig. 44. Assembly of two threaded components: (a) real parts, (b) CT measurement,
(c) reconstructed CT model, (d) cross section thru right part of CT model showing
invisible contact planes.
Courtesy of Nikon Metrology/X-Tek, Belgium/UK.
It concerns the assembly of two bolds made of the same material.
As it can be seen from the cross section thru the reconstructed
model (Fig. 44d), the CT measurements does not allow to identify
the horizontal fitting plane between the two bolts as they fit quite
well together. This might be a problem when measuring an
assembled system.
4.2.5.1. Multi-material assemblies. Assemblies consisting of differ-
ent materials are often encountered in measurement tasks using X-
ray CT. Multi-material assemblies are inherently problematic for
X-ray CT:
different X-ray energies. In the last step, X-ray projection images
acquired with different X-ray energies are combined. Fig. 46
demonstrates a working pipeline using multi-energy image stack
fusion in CT dimensional metrology [67].
 Surface determination is undoubtedly another main difficulty for
industrial CT when dealing with multi-material assemblies. The
global thresholding technique (defining material surface using a
single gray value: iso-surface) does not work, because using such
method for multi-material surface determination would create
‘‘imaginary’’ layer of less attenuating materials around the edge
of more attenuating materials. As demonstrated in Fig. 47, an
‘‘imaginary’’ layer of aluminum is created between steel and air
at the bottom [46].

 It is often a dilemma when setting up the scanning parameters if

multi-material assemblies consist of both light plastic and dense
metal parts. Low energy X-ray beams are essential for detecting
small details and creating sufficient contrast especially for the
lower density material; High energy X-ray beams are necessary
for penetrating and revealing internal structures of denser parts.
Dual energy CT (DECT) is often applied for solving this problem:
it utilizes different X-ray spectrum in order to optimally
characterize multi-material components [49]. It is facilitated
in two different ways: dual detector and dual exposure/source
techniques [105]. The dual detector technique is capable of
creating two datasets in one scan by using a multi-layer detector; Fig. 47. Voxel model containing three materials (steel, aluminum and air) and gray
each layer is sensitive to a different energy band. The dual value profile along the arrow. Due to the limitation of iso-surface technique, an
exposure/source method consists of two separate CT scans, one ‘‘imaginary’’ layer of aluminum is created at the bottom interface between steel and
with high energy X-ray and one with low energy X-ray. An air [46].
example is shown in Fig. 45.
In order to get more accurate material edges, local adaptive
thresholding is necessary. As described in Fig. 48, this technique
starts from a rough global contour assessment (defined by single
gray value) and searches for the steepest gray value change in its
neighborhood: the final material edge is then defined locally at the
highest gradient. This method accounts for local gray value
variations caused by e.g. beam hardening artifacts and scattering
noise.
Fig. 45. Example of dual energy CT. Connector with encapsulated metal parts (left)
However, the local adaptive thresholding method also has its
and its 2D X-ray projection images acquired using high (middle) and low (right) limitation, as shown in Fig. 49, where a set of steel and ZrO2 end
X-ray energies [67]. gauges has been fitted together. Because the X-ray attenuations of
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 48. Working principle of the local thresholding method demonstrated on a
reconstructed slice [124].
Fig. 49. Problems in segmenting multi-material assemblies which consists of
materials with similar X-ray attenuation.
both materials are similar, their peaks in the gray value histogram
merge with each other (see Fig. 49b). Fig. 49c depicts the 3D model
generated by local adaptive (left) and global (right) thresholding.
Neither of these two methods could make clear distinction
between steel and zirconia. Moreover, a lot of noise is observed
around the ZrO2 part when the local thresholding method is
applied. In this case, local adaptive thresholding is more easily
affected by noise (low S/N ratio). Despite of the difficulties in
selecting scan settings and in material surface determination,
industrial CT has already proven its power in both qualitative (e.g.
void detection, porosity or density observation) and quantitative
(e.g. CAD comparison, dimensional measurements) assessments
for multi-material assemblies. An example of void detection and
defect analysis for a lamp assembly is given in Fig. 50. The aim was
to check for voids in the sealing layer and to find out the reason for
air leakage. Another example on inspection a multi-material car
headlamp assembly using industrial CT is given in Fig. 51. The lamp
filament is inspected using region of interest scanning (ROI, see
Section 3.3.2).
Fig. 50. (a) Lamp assembly with glass welded feet plate, (b) 2D X-ray projection
image, (c) reconstructed CT slice, (d) 3D CT image.
669
Fig. 51. Example of CT inspection of car headlamp assembly: complete assembly
(top left), selected components (top right), lamp component (bottom left), and ROI
CT of lamp filament (bottom right).
Courtesy of Werth Messtechnik.
4.2.5.2. Example of mechanism analysis. Besides static assemblies,
CT is an excellent tool to analyze mechanisms and to check why
mechanisms may fail (Fig. 52). Here again, analysis of the
individual components of mechanisms may not reveal problems.
CT allows visualizing the mechanism in 3D and visualizes e.g. why
it blocked: e.g. where an unwanted collision between components
occurred.
Fig. 52. Analysis of watch mechanism.
Courtesy of Nikon Metrology/X-Tek, Belgium/UK.
4.2.5.3. Examples of complex assemblies. Fig. 53 shows a complex
electro-mechanical assembly. It consists of a plastic injected
component with many metallic inserts (4 cylindrical aluminum
screw holders and 27 copper connector pins) and in which 12
induction coils are mounted. The part was measured on the CT
scanners of KU Leuven, with and without the coils. In the latter
case, appropriate thresholding allowed a clear segmentation of
geometrical of the plastic, aluminum and copper components.
Comparison of individual dimensions and full model comparison
(CAD compared) was made between measurements done with a
670 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 53. Electro-mechanical device. (a) Top of assembled component showing coils
and rubber sealing; (b) CT with coils and sealing; (c) bottom of component; (d) CT
view of top without coils; (e) X-ray image; (f) segmentation of alumina inserts; (g)
segmentation of copper pins.
CMM, a 225 kV CT scanner, a 450 kV CT scanner and a fringe
projection system.
Fig. 54 shows a complex camera assembly reconstructed for CT
measurements. External and internal views of the reconstructed
model clearly show the various components: plastic casing, metal
springs, electric wires, electronic components, etc.
Fig. 54. 3D CT view of camera assembly (left) and internal detail (right).
Courtesy of Nikon Metrology/X-Tek, Belgium/UK.
4.3. Other industries
4.3.1. Electrical and electronic devices
The wide range of applications for the CT in the electronic
industry can be subdivided into the areas of components
(packaging), connecting processes and complex structures. Elec-
tronic devices contain electronic components and printed circuit
boards (PCB). In electronic component manufacturing, for instance,
semi-conductors or inductors are encased in supporting cases to
prevent physical damage and corrosion. Since CT enables to
visualize inner structures in assembled state which are not
accessible for conventional measurement technologies, it can be
used for failure analysis and quality assurance. Due to the size of
components, CT machines with nano or micro focus tubes are
generally used to reach sufficient resolution. Typical tasks on
semiconductors are detection of broken bonds or inspection of ball
bonds. The detection of void size and void distribution in IC’s or
void detection on solder surfaces of power transistors is done. As
an example a surface-mount device (SMD) inductor type 0805
Fig. 55. SMD inductor: 2D X-ray image (left), 3D CT model (right, front cap was
removed for better visibility of the coil).
Courtesy of phoenixjX-ray.
(2.0 mm  1.2 mm) is shown in Fig. 55. The left image shows a 2D
X-ray projection of the conductor. The different layers overlap. The
right image shows the 3D CT model [107,108]. The front cap is
partially removed and the coil is clearly visible.
Multilayer PCB’s consist of various layers with circuit paths. A
multilayer PCB fitted with SMD components is shown in Fig. 56.
The carrier material was removed in the CT image to allow the
detection of short circuits that can be caused by etching defects,
broken circuit paths in the different layers, defective plating of
through holes or measurement of layer offsets and annular ring
width. Also the analysis of laser drilled bore holes can be
performed (wall thickness and bore quality). The electronic
industry uses a variety of connecting processes. The most common
process for PCB assembly is soldering. During the solder process
defects like missing solder filets, solder bridges or non-wetting
defects can occur. CT allows NDT for hidden defects, for example
the void detection on mounted ball grid arrays (BGA). Fig. 57 shows
solder balls of a BGA. Pores in the solder balls are colored in red.
Some thin bond wires are also visible [84]. Voids and blisters on the
contact zone of components and PCB can be analyzed.
Fig. 56. Multilayer PCB. The carrier material in the CT image was removed.
Courtesy of QFM Erlangen [138].
Fig. 57. Ball grid array. Pores in the solder balls are marked in red [84].
Another widely used connecting process is wire crimping.
Fig. 58 shows the 3D model of a crimp connection. In this case the
task is to determine the number of ingoing and outgoing strands.
One can easily count 19 ingoing and 17 outgoing strands in the
three slices on the right side. Due to overlaps, this would not be
visible on 2D X-ray projections. The density in the crimp zone can
also be analyzed [108].
CT is the ideal tool for inspections of complex structures in the
electronic industry. Fig. 59 shows a slice of an epilator which can be
equipped with different heads. It shows an optional head on the
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677 671

Fig. 61. Glass fiber composite. On the left side the resin was removed virtually.
Fig. 58. Crimp connector. The right side shows three slices.
Courtesy of phoenixjX-ray [108].
Courtesy of phoenixjX-ray.

recovery could be improved by 6–10% [71]. A CT scan can reveal the

location of internal log defects like branch knots, rot or decay,
insect damage and cracks. Density, moisture distribution and ring
width are other quality characteristics of wood that can be
determined with CT [45]. Also the identification of heartwood/
sapwood boundary or anomaly detection at glue line interfaces in
engineered wood products is applications for the CT. As an
example Fig. 62 shows a slice view of a subalpine fir log with
several defects like branch knots.

Fig. 59. 2D Slice of an epilator with 2 different heads. The locking mechanism on the
left side does not catch.
Courtesy of Braun GmbH, Procter & Gamble.

left and the standard head on the right side. The marked region
shows the lock mechanism. The standard head fits well. The CT
image reveals that the lock mechanism on the optional head does
not catch due to dimensional deviations.
Fig. 60 shows a charger for an electric tooth brush. The marked
region shows the position of the fuse. On the left side the charger is
assembled completely. On the right side the fuse is missing.

Fig. 62. 2D Slice of a subalpine fir log [71].

CT is also used on fiber based natural materials. This category

comprises wooden products like MDF, OSB, flake boards and paper
products e.g. laminates. To improve or develop new materials, one
has to understand the characteristics and the micro structure. CT
Fig. 60. Tooth brush charger. The fuse on the right image is missing. enables to visualize complex structures of fibers, splints and strand
Courtesy of Braun GmbH, Procter & Gamble.
orientation. Correlation of density and pore distribution was
analyzed by Standfest et al. [112]. Glatt et al. used CT measure-
ments for the calculation of material properties and the modeling
4.3.2. Inhomogeneous materials of material geometry. Their work focuses on meshes, fabrics and
Fiber reinforced plastics are widely used in lightweight felts [39].
construction. The mechanical properties depend significantly on Fig. 63 shows a rolled up sample of wet knit ware. The water
the fiber orientation and the fiber/matrix composition. The CT is a film can be clearly distinguished from the knit wear in the slice
perfect tool to determine fiber orientation and distribution (see view on the left side. The right side shows the 3D view [115].
Fig. 13), detection of agglomerations of filler, voids and blisters in
resin [62,80,97]. Fig. 61 shows a sample of a glass fiber compound
material [108]. On the right side of the image the fiber mats and the
resin filler are shown. Voids and blisters in the resin are clearly
visible. On the left side of the image the resin is faded out. All
eleven layers can be inspected separately. Compared to other
measurement methods (e.g. 2D X-ray images) defects can be
exactly located in the workpiece. This is a big advantage of CT
especially for layer wise built material.
The CT technology offers a high potential for quality control and
optimization in the wood industry. The knowledge about defects
can be used to optimize the cutting process. The lumber value Fig. 63. CT images of wet knit ware [115].
672 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Another example of this type of product is shown in Fig. 64. On
this sample of paper pore size, pore distribution and delamination
were inspected. CT even offers a new possibility to examine the
micro structure of paper and enables to design new materials
[114].
Fig. 64. 3D view of a paper sample to inspect pores and delamination [114].
Steel fiber reinforced concrete is widely used in civil engineer-
ing applications. Steel fibers improve the energy absorption ability
of concrete. A substantial quality criterion is the uniformly
distribution and orientation of fibers. CT and associated post
processing enables to explore the fibers with respect to their main
orientation, to classify and to statistically evaluate them [101].
4.3.3. Food industry
The food industry is also characterized by large volume
production. As an example, the Danish Meat Research Institute
(DMRI) which is a division of the Danish Technological Institute in
Denmark supports with cutting edge technologies a yearly national
production of over 20 million pigs and 15 million poultry. During the
last years, the need for advanced measuring technology for flexible,
automated production has increased in Denmark and other high cost
countries. At the same time, the necessary technological develop-
ment has become available with CT. Similarly to research institutes
in Germany and other European countries [12,32,35,55,56,100,
107,111,122], DMRI has been using CT for a number of years
developing an on-line X-ray system for measuring meat-fat-
distribution in pig carcasses or pieces [24,25,133]. By measuring
the distribution of meat, fat and bones in pork middles, it is possible
to adapt the cutting according to current market prices. The weight
Lean Meat Content (LMC) assessment is performed with the use of
results from CT according to the formula:
weight ¼ V fat  bfat þ V meat  bmeat þ V bone  bbone
where V indicates the volume and b the density of fat, meat, and
bone, respectively. Preliminary studies have demonstrated poten-
tials and realistic solutions, but have also clarified the extent and
complexity of the challenges and risks. Fig. 65 shows a new CT
Fig. 65. DMRI’s Scannerborg [24].
scanner truck for online use in production and makes a decisive
break with the normal understanding of CT technology, its use,
speed and limitations.
The CT scanner enhances the existing facilities allowing
optimizing and adjusting the cutting of each individual carcass
according to current prices, quality demands and orders. Measure-
ments result in the spatial distribution of meat, fat and bones and
deliver an optimal recipe for automatic cutting of pork middles
resulting in a return of investment for the slaughterhouse of less
than 12 month. The CT scanners self-diagnostic and reporting
capability generate a detailed operational status including function
control. The on-line CT-scanner is characterized by:
 High capacity i.e. ability to measure 700 pork middles/hour.
 Cost effectiveness corresponding to 12 month return on
investment for the slaughterhouse.
 A flexible platform for a broad range of applications.
A complete system coined ‘‘PigClassWeb’’, for handling the
large amounts of CT-scans acquired by the DMRI in R&D projects
has been developed and implemented. Through advanced image
analysis PigClassWeb enables DMRI and the slaughterhouses to
perform virtual cuts in a reference pig. These cuts are automatically
propagated to the whole population of pigs that are scanned, in
such a way that the virtual cuts are anatomically similar for each
carcass, irrespectively of size, weight and proportions.
The ability to very accurately estimate the weight of arbitrary
cuts enables to report the yields of the cuts on the population as a
whole, as well as on each scanned carcass. The user can access the
application through a simple web-browser and adjust the settings
of a specific cut through a view of the scanned reference carcass.
For the simpler type of cuts the results are ready within seconds,
when applying the cut on the whole population. PigClassWeb is
scalable in the sense that future scans automatically are processed
and included in the ‘‘Population of Virtual Pigs’’. New types of cuts
are currently in the pipeline to be included in PigClassWeb keeping
it up-to-date and making it a very flexible tool for DMRI in R&D
and for the slaughterhouses in the planning of their production.
Fig. 66 shows the principle of an automated cutting line for pig
carcasses, Fig. 67 shows an automated middle cutting line, and
Fig. 68 illustrates the concept of virtual cutting of pig carcasses
[25,33,47,133,134].
Fig. 66. Example of an automated cutting line of pig carcasses. From left to right: The
pig carcass is scanned, analysis of data with optimal cutting calculation, and robot
performs automated cutting of the pig carcass [41].
Besides the pork and poultry meat production, also the fish
industry and, more recently, other food industries are providing CT
applications. Here, new imaging techniques for on-line inspection
of food products as well as application of X-ray CT in high-
resolution studies of food products for developing high quality
food are of interest. One of the promising aspects is to use new X-
ray imaging modalities for detection of hard-to-find foreign bodies
in food products. Refraction- and scattering-based contrast
principles can be used to detect pieces of paper or insects in food
as complementary to conventional absorption contrast which is
used already today for detection of glass, metal or stones. Another
example is determination of the distribution of ingredients in the
product. These can be for instance nuts or berries in chocolate bars
or holes in cheese, which are important quality parameters for the
consumers, Fig. 69. The idea is to apply X-ray imaging using several
modalities to obtain a quantitative measure for the distribution.
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 67. Automated middle cutting in the meat industry.
Courtesy of DMRI.
Fig. 68. Screenshot of the PigClassWeb application for applying virtual cuts and
computing yields on a population of scanned pig carcasses [24].
Fig. 69. Radiograms of a ‘‘Toms’ turtle’’ chocolate with filling using absorption-
(upper left), refraction- (upper right) and scattering-based contrast. The contrast
between filling and chocolate is largest using the scattering contrast.
Courtesy of Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen University.
These two kinds of inspections are performed using radiography
yielding 2D images but efforts concern also CT studies using
synchrotron radiation facilities for inspecting food products at high
resolution.
5. Challenges
Future demands and requirements in general metrology
concern mainly:
- Faster cycle time for a measurement according to the cycle time
of manufacturing.
- Better economy of the measurements process.
- Improved operability by workers.
- Enlargement of applicability range.
When considering the special technology of ‘‘CT dimensional
measurement’’ its individual characteristics must be regarded:
673
- The accuracy must be significantly improved [15]. At the time
being for normal standard applications one achieves an
uncertainty in the range of a micrometer. But particularly for
measurements of features with dimensions in micro- and
nanometer range an uncertainty in the range of less than a
tenth of a micron are necessary. That’s also a requirement if we
compare this technology with optical or tactile coordinate
measurement results.
- Larger workpieces as well as parts of higher density (e.g. machine
parts, gear boxes, crank cases, engine blocks, even ship engines)
must be possible to be inspected [139].
- Also other objects like trucks, containers for ocean freight, must
be possible to be checked [139].
- More efficient X-Ray detectors must be developed with an
improved signal-to-noise ratio in order to allow a smaller
exposure integration time and faster measurement.
- X-Ray tubes with more energy (higher current) and with smaller
focal spots will contribute to the measurement possibility of
larger objects and/or to more precise results at lower integration
time [44].
- Improved reconstruction algorithms (maybe with selectable
options specific to the measurement task) may need fewer
projections for accurate volume reconstruction: e.g. algebraic
reconstruction, iterative reconstruction, use of prior knowledge
about the object (e.g. from the product specification in the CAD-
model or from the manufacturing process itself) may lead to more
accurate results and/or to shorter reconstruction time [63,73,74].
- Task-specific measurement setups: selected combination of
X-ray tube and detector, special trajectories for movement of
detector and tube during data acquisition (robot CT, etc.) [37,110]
and special correction techniques for industrial CT [6] will lead to
improvements in economy and application bandwidth of CT in
industry.
- Objects consisting of different materials (material mix CT) being
measurable by use of different spectra, special imaging and
reconstruction techniques [23,67,75].
- User assistance for reducing setup time and reducing measure-
ment uncertainty [38,137].
- Determination of measurement uncertainty [66,68,69,131].
In a nutshell: CT in industrial applications will have to meet the
measurement challenges of the future. Those are:
- Better resolution and accuracy e.g. by smaller focus spot. The
resolution should be in the range of 10 nm and the measurement
uncertainty for normal standard tasks in the range of 0.1 mm.
- Larger applicability range, particularly the possibility of measur-
ing multi-component-parts, e.g. assembled electric and electron-
ic components.
- Possibility of measuring parts of material mix like electronic
components and assembled mechanical components.
- Larger measurement ranges for larger objects like freight, railway
wagons, containers, diesel engines for ships, etc.
- For in-line measurements in the production line the shielding
must be solved by labyrinths or other solutions.
- Better economy of CT measurements by less expensive instru-
ments and by better workman friendly operation of the instru-
ments. An unskilled worker should be able to make measurements
after a one-day-course. The software must guide the operator and
eliminate the risk of malfunction and maloperation.
- Characterizing the measurement uncertainty for the results in
graphical representation (as false color or as hedgehog repre-
sentation) will lead to an improved understanding of the results
and a faster interpretation of the results.
6. Major coordinated activities in the field of industrial CT
The vast interest by academics and industrialists is reflected in a
number of major coordinated activities in the field of industrial CT.
674 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677

The ‘‘Center for Industrial Application of CT scanning – CIA CT’’ is an

innovation consortium co-financed by the Danish Ministry of
Science, Technology and Innovation that has run over the period
2009–2013, focusing on the industrial application of CT scanning
for advanced 3D measurement, quality assurance and product
development: see Fig. 70. The consortium has acted as a national
competence center for industrial CT scanning through a number of
research activities and initiatives, aiming to help the participating
companies and Danish industry with the introduction of CT
scanning as measuring technology along with research at
international level. Project web site: www.cia-ct.mek.dtu.dk.
Another framework research project called ‘‘New X-ray Imaging
Modalities for Safe and High Quality Food (NEXIM)’’ involving
universities and several companies from the food industry is
running in Denmark over the period 2012–2015 with a total
budget of 4 Ms and involving 4 PhD and 6 postdoc projects [83].
Fig. 71. The four CT Audit items enclosed in their cylindrical sealed boxes: (a) CT
tetrahedron, (b) pan flute gauge, (c) PTB Calotte cube, (d) QFM cylinder [15].
participants from 8 countries. Instead of using reference artifacts
for calibration and verification of CT scanners, this comparison has
involved two real industrial parts commonly measured in industry,
in terms of materials, dimensions and geometrical properties, as
shown in Fig. 72: a plastic Lego brick and a metallic part of a
medical device. Parallel circulation of 27 sets with the two items
took place in spring 2013 and the final report was available in
September 2013 [4]. An example of results is shown in Fig. 73. The
comparison has shown that CT measurements on the small
industrial parts that have been used can be divided in two groups.
Group A with average measurement uncertainties in the range 6–
15 mm, and Group B with average uncertainties in the range 14–
53 mm, and maximum values up to 158 mm, compared to average
uncertainties in the range 1.5–5.5 mm using CMMs. Fig. 74
illustrates the expanded uncertainty of CT measurements for
different measurands on the two comparison items compared with
reference measurements obtained on CMMs.

Fig. 70. The vast field of industrial application of CT as illustrated by a CIA-CT

cartoon: pig meat, mobile phone, hearing aid, insulin pen, Lego bricks [28].

The European Marie Curie Initial Training Network ‘‘INTERAQCT

– International Network for the Training of Early stage Researchers
on Advanced Quality control by Computed Tomography’’ involves
13 PhD and 2 postdoc projects over the period 2013–2017. The
Fig. 72. The two items used in the CIA-CT interlaboratory comparison of industrial
INTERAQCT project has been conceived as a pan-European
CT scanners: plastic Lego brick and metal part from a medical device [4].
industrial-academic initiative that will provide the unique and
encompassing training environment required, by bringing togeth-
er expertise from industry and academia in each of these domains
(CT-equipment, CT-software, NDT, dimensional metrology, addi-
tive manufacturing, micro-manufacturing, composite manufactur-
ing). The research will develop procedures for fast and accurate CT
model acquisition, with special emphasis on multi-material parts.
Furthermore, INTERAQCT targets quantification and improvement
of the reliability of CT measurement results, by determining the
probability of detection of material defects as well as by achieving
metrological traceability. In addition, CT based quality improve-
ment loops will be targeted for key emerging manufacturing
technologies.
A number of conferences are devoted to the field of CT in
Europe. Four annual CIA-CT conferences with international
attendance have been held so far in Denmark. Since 2008, an
international Conference on Industrial Computed Tomography is
held in Wels, Austria www.3dct.at. Fig. 73. Example of comparison of measurement results using CT with reference
CMM data. Diameter of knob number 4 on Lego brick [4].
The first international interlaboratory comparison of CT
systems used for dimensional measurements, called ‘CT Audit’,
was carried out in the period from March 2010 to March 2011, The CIA-CT audit – Inter laboratory comparison of medical CT
involving 15 CT systems in Europe, America and Asia, operated by scanners for industrial applications in the slaughterhouses was
expert users. The project was organized and coordinated by the organized by DTU Mechanical Engineering in 2011–2012. Two
Laboratory of Industrial and Geometrical Metrology, University of synthetic phantoms were used instead of real pig carcasses. Each
Padova, Italy. Four calibrated samples were chosen for circulation, phantom consists of several polymer components made out of
representing a variety of dimensions, geometries and materials. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), Polyethylene (PE) and Polyvi-
The samples are shown in Fig. 71. nyl chloride (PVC). A comparison was made of volume measure-
The ‘‘CIA-CT comparison – Inter laboratory comparison on ment performance of different medical CT scanners in Europe. The
industrial Computed Tomography’’, organized by DTU Mechanical phantoms circulated among four participants and a total of six
Engineering, Denmark, and carried out in 2013, has involved 27 medical CT scanners. Volume estimations were compared to
 L. De Chiffre et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 655–677
Fig. 74. Expanded uncertainty (k = 2) of measurements on the two industrial items
shown in Fig. 72. D, R and L refer to different diameter, roundness and length
measurands. Group A refers to results in agreement with reference values; Group B
indicates those measurements for which a plausible uncertainty was recalculated [5].
volumes determined by water displacement performed before the
circulation and used as reference values [3].
7. Conclusions
The number of industrial applications of CT is large and rapidly
increasing, as shown by the numerous and different application
examples given in this paper from the manufacturing industry as
well as from other industries, e.g. electrical and electronic devices,
inhomogeneous materials, and from the food industry. The paper
has also identified limitations and problems of state of the art CT in
solving some of the industrial challenges. A number of major
national and international coordinated activities in the field of
industrial CT underline the strong industrial and academic interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend thanks to the colleagues of CIRP STC-P for
their continuous support during preparation of the paper. Special
thanks are due to colleagues and researchers who have directly
contributed to the paper: Wim Dewulf, Harald Bosse, Richard
Leach, José Yagüe-Fabra, Ye Tan, Frank Welkenhuyzen, Sebastian
Pollmanns, Christopher Isenberg, Lars Bager Christensen, Jan
Lasson Andreasen, Pavel Müller, Thomas Kjærgaard, Erik Mejdal
Lauridsen, Carsten Gundlach, Jais Angel, and Alessandro Stolfi. The
authors also want to thank a number of companies for their
support: Materialize, Nikon Metrology, Werth, and Zeiss. Thanks
are also extended to the Danish Ministry of Science Technology and
Innovation for funding CT activities through the CIA-CT project.
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