Guru Nanak Dev

Engineering College

ASSIGNMENT OF MMM

Submitted To: Rupinder Singh Dhillon

SUBMITTED BY: RANBIR SINGH
Roll no:1707145
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Metrology

Metrology is the science of measurement. It establishes a common

understanding of units, crucial in linking human activities. Modern metrology
has its roots in the French Revolution's political motivation to standardise units
in France, when a length standard taken from a natural source was proposed.
This led to the creation of the decimal-based metric system in 1795,
establishing a set of standards for other types of measurements. Several other
countries adopted the metric system between 1795 and 1875; to ensure
conformity between the countries, the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures (BIPM) was established by the Metre Convention. This has evolved
into the International System of Units (SI) as a result of a resolution at the
11th Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) in 1960.

Metrology is divided into three basic overlapping activities.[6][7] The first being
the definition of units of measurement, second the realisation of these units of
measurement in practice, and last traceability, which is linking measurements
made in practice to the reference standards. These overlapping activities are
used in varying degrees by the three basic sub-fields of Metrology. The sub-
fields are scientific or fundamental metrology, which is concerned with the
establishment of units of measurement, Applied, technical or industrial
2

metrology, the application of measurement to manufacturing and other

processes in society, and Legal metrology, which covers the regulation and
statutory requirements for measuring instruments and the methods of
measurement.

In each country, a national measurement system (NMS) exists as a network of

laboratories, calibration facilities and accreditation bodies which implement
and maintain its metrology infrastructure. The NMS affects how measurements
are made in a country and their recognition by the international community,
which has a wide-ranging impact in its society (including economics, energy,
environment, health, manufacturing, industry and consumer confidence).The
effects of metrology on trade and economy are some of the easiest-observed
societal impacts. To facilitate fair trade, there must be an agreed-upon system
of measurement.

 Fields of Metrology
Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM) as "the science of measurement, embracing both
experimental and theoretical determinations at any level of
uncertainty in any field of science and technology". It establishes a
common understanding of units, crucial to human activity.Metrology
is a wide reaching field, but can be summarized through three basic
activities: the definition of internationally accepted units of
measurement, the realisation of these units of measurement in
practice, and the application of chains of traceability (linking
measurements to reference standards). These concepts apply in
different degrees to metrology's three main fields: scientific
metrology; applied, technical or industrial metrology, and legal
metrology.
3

 Scientific metrology

Scientific metrology is concerned with the establishment of units of

measurement, the development of new measurement methods, the realisation
of measurement standards, and the transfer of traceability from these
standards to users in a society. This type of metrology is considered the top
level of metrology which strives for the highest degree of accuracy.[2] BIPM
maintains a database of the metrological calibration and measurement
capabilities of institutes around the world. These institutes, whose activities
are peer-reviewed, provide the fundamental reference points for metrological
traceability. In the area of measurement, BIPM has identified nine metrology
areas, which are acoustics, electricity and magnetism, length, mass and
related quantities, photometry and radiometry, ionizing radiation, time and
frequency, thermometry, and chemistry.
There is a proposed redefinition of the SI base units that will be formally voted
on in November 2018, and will come into effect in May 2019 if the vote
passes. The motivation in the change of the base units is to make the entire
system derivable from physical constants, which requires the removal of the
prototype kilogram as it is the last artefact the unit definitions depend
on. Scientific metrology plays an important role in this redefinition of the units
as precise measurements of the physical constants is required to have
accurate definitions of the base units. To redefine the value of a kilogram
without an artefact the value of the Planck constant must be known to twenty
parts per billion. Scientific metrology, through the development of the Kibble
balance and the Avogadro project, has produced a value of Planck constant
with low enough uncertainty to allow for a redefinition of the kilogram .
4

 Applied, technical or industrial

metrology

Applied, technical or industrial metrology is concerned with the

application of measurement to manufacturing and other processes
and their use in society, ensuring the suitability of measurement
instruments, their calibration and quality control. Producing good
measurements is important in industry as it has an impact on the
value and quality of the end product, and a 10-15% impact on
production costs.[6] Although the emphasis in this area of metrology
is on the measurements themselves, traceability of the measuring-
device calibration is necessary to ensure confidence in the
measurement. Recognition of the metrological competence in
industry can be achieved through mutual recognition agreements,
accreditation, or peer review.[6] Industrial metrology is important to a
country's economic and industrial development, and the condition of
a country's industrial-metrology program can indicate its economic
status.[20]

 Legal metrology
5

Legal metrology "concerns activities which result from statutory requirements and concern
measurement, units of measurement, measuring instruments and methods of measurement
and which are performed by competent bodies". [21] Such statutory requirements may arise
from the need for protection of health, public safety, the environment, enabling taxation,
protection of consumers and fair trade. The International Organization for Legal Metrology
(OIML) was established to assist in harmonising regulations across national boundaries to
ensure that legal requirements do not inhibit trade. [22] This harmonisation ensures that
certification of measuring devices in one country is compatible with another countries
certification process, allowing the trade of the measuring devices and the products that rely
on them. WELMEC was established in 1990 to promote cooperation in the field of legal
metrology in the European Union and among European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
member states.[23] In the United States legal metrology is under the authority of the Office
of Weights and Measures of National Institute of Standards and
Technology(NIST), enforced by the individual states.

ADVANCES IN
METROLOGY
6

 Abstract:
Precision mechatronics are essential for the future manufacturing of nano devices
and systems. Without accurate means to pattern, assemble, image and measure
nano structures, we will be unable to meet the challenges of the next decade. In this
paper we discuss the current state-of-theart in metrology used for motion control
systems and make suggestions regarding possible future technologies that might
improve the situation. What is required is a method to reduce the errors in stage
position measurement which is currently interferometric on most production
machines. The limitations of this technology are discussed as well as an alternative of
using nano gratings to replace the interferometry.
Keywords: heterodyne, interferometry, lithography, nano grids, nanotechnology

 INTRODUCTION
Due, in a large part, to the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the U.S., there are a
number of new and interesting results in nano scale science and engineering. We
should note, however, that the government’s primary interest in nanotechnology is
the creation of jobs and other economic benefits, not new scientific results. It is our
opinion that many of these results are unlikely to reach the factory floor unless there
are advances in metrology and instrumentation for nanomanufacturing. One of us
(Hocken) recently cochaired a study effort that has led to a major publication on the
needs and requirements for metrology and instrumentation in nanotechnology [1].
Of course, the nanotechnology era is really already upon us. Biological systems,
catalysts, carbon nano tubes, etc., have been in the nanometer domain for decades.
What has actually changed is our ability to engineer, image, and manipulate systems
on the nano scale. There are really two approaches that are rapidly converging. The
convergence is coming from the top and from the bottom simultaneously. As we
learn to manipulate these atomic structures the semiconductor and optoelectronic
and information technology-related industries are relentlessly shrinking devices. It is
expected that this push will terminate near the 10 nm level in several decades. At the
other end of the scale our ability to image, manipulate, and assemble individual
atoms, molecules, and nano particles is moving from the old scales of organic and
inorganic chemistry to scales in the 10- to 100-nm regime. There is really a large
number of new initiatives in industry, government, and academia around the world,
7

and researchers are reporting many potentially useful devices and systems. For
example, see Likharev [2]. Those of us who have been involved in manufacturing
recognize that in order to successfully move these discoveries to the factory,
manufacturing and metrological infrastructure needs to be developed. We argue that
a metrology infrastructure underpins all industrial revolutions and that
nanotechnology is no exception [3]. For example, the industrial revolution, which
began in the 19th century and led to our modern mechanized society, required an
easy to use system of accurate, interchangeable dimensional measurements. This
primarily was provided by the gage block coupled with the micrometer and the
verniercaliper [4]. Similarly, microelectronics, which began in the 1950s and is based
around precision lithography, would not have been possible without a much more
accurate length scale. This new length scale was based on a polarizationencoded,
heterodyne laser interferometer system that allowed the transfer accuracy from
masks to substrates to approach today’s limits [5]. In several papers it has been
pointed out that nanotechnology will require us to go well beyond the limits of
current optical metrology. One of the earliest ones was by Teague [6] who pointed
out the dimensional metrology in the picometer range would be essential for
nanotechnology. This was also pointed out by Hocken [7]. Further, as will be
discussed more later, in a paper entitled, “State-of-the-art and Ultimate Physical
Limitations of Dimensional Metrology,” Kunzmann [8] addressed the issues of
dimensional metrology as they apply to manufacturing.

 CURRENT METROLOGY
LIMITATIONS
Modern ultra-precision manufacturing machines, such as lithography and metrology
equipment, scanning electron microscopes, atomic force microscopes, nano imprint
machines, CMMs, etc., depend on laser interferometers for measuring and
controlling the relative motion of the stage supporting the sample or workpiece with
respect to the probe or the image (see Fig. 1). For nanotechnology to succeed, these
mechatronics tools will need significantly increased accuracy.
The best documented case is in the semiconductor manufacturing industry. Their
transistor gate structures are well under 50 nm today and are predicted to shrink to 7
nm by 2018 [9]. Also, many other types of nano devices, such as quantum dots, etc.,
have even more stringent tolerance than the CMOS devices of the semiconductor
8

industry. What is shown in Fig. 1 is an idealization of a two-axis, interferometrically-

controlled positioning stage. Several current measuring machines also have three-
axis stages of a similar design [10,11]. In most cases the interferometers themselves
are operating in air and are of the type mentioned earlier, that is, polarization-
encoded heterodyne systems. For these types of interferometers, the largest source
of error is the atmosphere. Turbulence and fluctuations in the air temperature,
pressure, and humidity cause errors. Even when the environment is well controlled,
the absolute uncertainty of these measurements is approximately 5 parts in 108 , as
was pointed out in the 1980s [12]. The situation has not improved since then. If,
however, measurements are made in a vacuum, considerably higher accuracies have
been claimed [13]; however, intercomparisons at this level have never, to our
knowledge, been performed. In addition, commercial interferometers suffer from
position-dependent geometric errors and a variety of optical and electronic non-
linearities. The most common of these is called, “beam mixing.” What this means is
that some of the reference beam of the interferometer traverses the measurement
path and some of the measurement beam traverses the measurement path. This
leads to errors at the laser wavelength and sub-multiples thereof. A good example is
given in the literature of an eight-pass heterodyne interferometer system used on
the Sub-Atomic Measuring Machine [14]. This interferometer is shown in Fig. 2.
When run at constant velocity the Fourier transform of the measurement signal,
which should only have a single peak at the fringe-passing frequency, shows multiple
error terms [15]. This spectrum is shown in Fig. 3. Note that the peaks representing
the higher-order errors yield position dependent errors of approximately 1 nm. This
fact, of course, has been noted by the manufacturers of these interferometers and
methods for correcting them are being developed [16,17]. It is unlikely that such
efforts will lead to picometer accuracy. Of course it is possible to build a heterodyne
system without beam mixing. This is a peculiar property of the polarizationencoded
systems which have dominated the commercial market. One of us (Hocken) built
such a system in the early 1970s as part of his Ph.D. thesis. In such systems the
frequency-shifted beams are often separated in space rather than by polarization. A
new design was recently demonstrated at NIST where they developed a quadruple
heterodyne Michelson interferometer [18]. This is not a commercial instrument and
works in vacuum. Figure 2. The Eight-pass interferometer which demonstrates the
beam mixing shown in Fig. 3. 0 dBV rms -100 Mag (dB) 12 kHz kHz24.8 Pwr Spec 1
X:14.112 kHz Y:-79.753 dBV Figure 3. The Fourier transform of the interferometer
signals running at constant velocity. Without beam mixing there should be a single
peak. Perhaps more fundamentally the problem of using HeNe lasers for length
9

standards is related to the size of the periodicity which can be used for counting
purposes, namely, the wavelength of visible red light which is around 633 nm. For
realizing the high accuracy that will be required for the devices of the future, that is,
say 0.1 nm or smaller, this involves, in conventional interferometric configurations,
splitting a fringe into many thousand parts. Such interpolation is error prone and
often requires averaging, taking considerable time. What is really desired for the new
length scales is some well-defined scale whose basic periodicity is many times smaller
than that of visible light. Teague mentions two alternatives (see Ref. [6]), both of
which have been explored for some years. The first is the x-ray interferometer (or
diffractometer) originally proposed and demonstrated by Bonse and Hart [19]. Such
instruments use the silicon lattice to provide a grating spacing and have periodicities
near 0.2 nm. They have been used successfully in many experiments to determine
crystal lattice spacings in terms of the optical wavelength and also to put the x-ray
wavelength scale on the optical scale [20,21]. X-ray interferometers, however, are
still very short range, though they have been used successfully to provide the length
scale for scanning tunneling microscopes [22,23]. The second alternative suggested
by Teague was a frequencytracking Fabry-Pérot. Such instruments have been used
for years for measuring the stability of materials (for example, see Patterson [24]). In
recent years advances have been made at NIST in Fabry-Pérot interferometry. There
a Fabry-Pérot interferometer for displacements up to 50 mm was developed [25]. In
this instrument two adjacent modes of a Fabry-Pérot are used. The absolute optical
frequencies of these modes and their difference are used to determine
displacements as the cavity length is changed. This instrument, however, is also far
from being commercialized and works in a vacuum. This may not be a problem for
lithography in the extreme ultraviolet, where the working components of the
lithography machine are in vacuum. Such a machine has been built by ASML and was
described at a recent meeting of euspen [26]. It is difficult, however, for the authors
to envision large numbers of machines working in vacuum because of the many
problems such construction engenders.

 GRATING DIMENSIONAL
METROLOGY
10

Gratings of various sorts have long been rivals of laser interferometers for measurements of
displacement on many types of precision inspection and manufacturing instruments.
Although various manufacturers’ scales work on slightly different physical principles, they
have some features in common. Most grating-based measurement systems, also called
optical encoders, consist of three parts: one, a finepitched grating or grid; two, a read-out
sensor; and three, electronics. Such a system is schematicized in Fig. 4. The resolution of an
encoder is dependent on the pitch of the grating and the interpolation provided by the
sensor and electronics. While read-out electronics can easily achieve sub-nanometer
resolution, accuracy is naturally quite different. High-frequency jitter and line position, noisy
electronics, and just grating inaccuracy and distortion can degrade accuracy.
The main benefit of using gratings over lasers is that these systems can eliminate the effects
of the atmosphere and other errors due to diffraction and optical non-linearity. Imagine, if
you will, that gratings could be used on a modern lithography scanner, scanners that
typically have between six and 12 interferometers to provide metrology. Converting such a
tool to a grating-based encoder could eliminate the errors due to the atmosphere and laser
frequency stability. It would also have the additional benefit of allowing the removal of the
heavy stage mirrors. The encoder gratings would be stationary and attach to the “metrology
frame”

 CONCLUSIONS
Taking nanotechnology to the factory floor will require that we advance the displacement measuring
capability of mechatronic systems considerably over what is currently commercially available. Major
efforts are being made to improve interferometry and, at the same time, other researchers are
attempting to improve measurements based upon grating scales. Considering the breadth of the
nanotechnology advances, we expect that applications will be found for systems where both types will
be used either concurrently or separately. In any event, the research in these areas is definitely
advancing the state-of-the-art in modern dimensional metrology.
11

Advances in
Optical Metrology

 Abstract
This article reviews selected topics representative of advancements in the optical
measurement of shape, texture, geometric dimensions, and position of objects, with
applicationsranging fromstage metrology to surface texture analysis.The unifying
theme of this update is the confluence of two technology trends –
(1) rapidly advancing component technology, enabling high performance and new
techniques and
(2) expanding investment in advanced metrology for high value-added products from
consumer electronics to precision-engineered components.
Keywords:Fiber sensor; Optical encoder; Deflectometry; Focus sensing; Confocal;
OCT; Super resolution;Instantaneous interferometry.

 Distance and Displacement Measurements

12

Fiber Sensor for Ultraprecision Positioning Many fiber optic sensing systems use the
fiber itself as a transducerOPTICAL METROLOGY, the section titled “Optical Fiber
Sensors,” in FIBER OPTICS, and in the section titled “FiberInterferometers,”in
INTERFEROMETRY in The Optics Encyclopedia), but there are also benefits to
distribution and light collection systems that measure distances in free space. There
is a long history of measurements of distance or change of distance (displacement)
using fiber optics in partial or complete replacement of conventional bulk optics such
as lenses, prisms, and mirrors . Advantages include ease of setup and alignment, and,
frequently, the ability tomultiplex sensing technologies to multiple sensing areas.
Sensing methods vary from coherent interferometry to intensity-modulated laser
radar. High-accuracy, interferometric fiberbased distance sensors represent a new
generation of devices that combine compact size with installation
flexibility.Thesenew sensors enable high-precision (pm)stage motion and object
position overmacroscopic ranges (mm) with unprecedentedperformance
requirements.Advanced photolithography systems, forexample, require position
monitoringof projection optics and other criticalsubsystems with subnanometer drift
overseveral hours, zero heat dissipation inthe sensing elements, and
extraordinaryreliability over many years to preventsystem down time. Flexibility in
sensorlocation is essential, as is compact sensorsize and insensitivity to
electromagneticinterference.

 Heterodyne Optical Encoders

13

One of the most demanding applications of optical metrology is for stage positioning
in photolithography systems. Historically, this application has been well served by
free-space, plane mirror displacement interferometers (see the section titled
“Multiaxis Laser Heterodyne Stage Metrology,” in ADVANCES OPTICAL METROLOGY
in The Optics Encyclopedia).The increasing demands of ever-shrinking features on
semiconductor wafers have exceeded the ability of these free-space systems to
accommodate the inevitable disturbances caused by air flow and environmental
sources of uncertainty (see the section titled “Environmental Compensation,” in
ADVANCES IN OPTICAL METROLOGY in The Optics Encyclopedia). Approaches to
overcome these issues using dispersion interferometry or other techniques have
been superseded by a transition to optical encoder technology, specifically, to
heterodyne interferometric methods that rely on an exceptionally precise 2D grating
structures integral to the moving parts of the lithography system.

 Surface Form and Optical Testing

Form of Metrology in Challenging Environments

The problem of turbulent airflow and unexpected mechanical motions
during data acquisition has long been a limitation of surface-measuring
laser Fizeau interferometry (see the section titled “OpticalFlat and Laser
Fizeau Interferometers,”in ADVANCES IN OPTICAL METROLOGY inThe
Optics Encyclopedia). Over thepast decade, there have been
14

significantadvances in single camera frame instantaneousinterferometry,

tocomplementthe multiframe data acquisition characteristicof traditional
phase-shiftinginterferometry(PSI, see the section titled“Phase Estimation
for Surface Profiling,”in ADVANCES IN OPTICALMETROLOGY in TheOptics
Encyclopedia). These techniquesrely on the introduction of phase
shiftsspatially rather than over time, which in turn requires that we
encode the reference and measurement beams of the interferometer so
as to be able to manipulate their relative phase [13]. This method provides
environmental insensitivity, and with high-speed camera shuttering, the
possibility of capturing dynamically changing events.

 Super Resolution Imaging

Although it relates more to imaging than optical dimensional metrology, it
is difficult to ignore in this chapter the advances in optical resolution of
subwavelength features in life science microscopy. Optical imaging and
metrology instruments traditionally have been limited by conventional
diffraction limits, quantified by the Rayleigh or Sparrow criteria to about
half a wavelength under the best of conditions. However, several new
technologies have been developed recently that bypass this limit. These
new super-resolution technologies are either based on tailored
illumination, nonlinear fluorophore responses, or the precise localization
of single molecules. Overall, these new approaches have created
unprecedented new possibilities to investigate the structure and function
of cells.

 Conclusion
In these selected examples of advances inoptical metrology, we see the two trendsidentified in the
introduction: improvementin enabling technologies and theincreased demand for high precision.

For fiber-based displacement sensors and encoders, the major advance has been in the demand for
precision, largely driven by the photolithography industry. In the case of encoders, the technology
became an essential solution to the contribution of air turbulence to stage positioning uncertainty,
which was previously, but is no longer, tolerable, given the requirements of modern semiconductor
manufacturing.
15
16

Dynamometer

 Defination
A Dynamometer is a device used to measure the
torque being exerted along a rotating shaft so as
to determine the shaft power input or output of
power generating,transmitting and absorbing
machinery.
In addition to being used to determine the torque or power characteristics of a machine
under test, dynamometers are employed in a number of other roles. In standard emissions
testing cycles such as those defined by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, dynamometers are used to provide simulated road loading of either the engine
(using an engine dynamometer) or full powertrain (using a chassis dynamometer). In fact,
beyond simple power and torque measurements, dynamometers can be used as part of a
testbed for a variety of engine development activities, such as the calibration of engine
management controllers, detailed investigations into combustion behavior, and tribology.
In the medical terminology, hand-held dynamometers are used for routine screening of grip
and hand strength, and the initial and ongoing evaluation of patients with hand trauma or
dysfunction. They are also used to measure grip strength in patients where compromise of
the cervical nerve roots or peripheral nerves is suspected.
17

In the rehabilitation, kinesiology, and ergonomics realms, force dynamometers are used for
measuring the back, grip, arm, and/or leg strength of athletes, patients, and workers to
evaluate physical status, performance, and task demands. Typically the force applied to a
lever or through a cable is measured and then converted to a moment of force by
multiplying by the perpendicular distance from the force to the axis of the level.
18

 Types of dynamometers
In addition to classification as absorption, motoring, or universal, as described above, dynamometers can
also be classified in other ways.
A dyno that is coupled directly to an engine is known as an engine dyno.
A dyno that can measure torque and power delivered by the power train of a vehicle directly from the
drive wheel or wheels (without removing the engine from the frame of the vehicle), is known as a chassis
dyno.
Dynamometers can also be classified by the type of absorption unit or absorber/driver that they use.
Some units that are capable of absorption only can be combined with a motor to construct an
absorber/driver or "universal" dynamometer.

Types of absorption units

 Eddy current (absorption only)
 Magnetic powder brake (absorption only)
 Hysteresis brake (absorption only)
 Electric motor/generator (absorb or drive)
 Fan brake (absorption only)
 Hydraulic brake (absorption only)
 Force lubricated, oil shear friction brake (absorption only)
 Water brake (absorption only)
 Compound dyno (usually an absorption dyno in tandem with an electric/motoring dyno)
Eddy current type absorber
Eddy current (EC) dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis
dynos. The EC absorbers provide a quick load change rate for rapid load settling. Most are air cooled,
but some are designed to require external water cooling systems.
Eddy current dynamometers require an electrically conductive core, shaft, or disc moving across a
magnetic field to produce resistance to movement. Iron is a common material, but copper, aluminum,
and other conductive materials are also usable.
In current (2009) applications, most EC brakes use cast iron discs similar to vehicle disc brake rotors,
and use variable electromagnets to change the magnetic field strength to control the amount of braking.
The electromagnet voltage is usually controlled by a computer, using changes in the magnetic field to
match the power output being applied.
Sophisticated EC systems allow steady state and controlled acceleration rate operation.

Powder dynamometer
A powder dynamometer is similar to an eddy current dynamometer, but a fine magnetic powder is placed
in the air gap between the rotor and the coil. The resulting flux lines create "chains" of metal particulate
that are constantly built and broken apart during rotation, creating great torque. Powder dynamometers
are typically limited to lower RPM due to heat dissipation problems.

Hysteresis dynamometers
Hysteresis dynamometers use a magnetic rotor, sometimes of AlNiCo alloy, that is moved through flux
lines generated between magnetic pole pieces. The magnetisation of the rotor is thus cycled around its
B-H characteristic, dissipating energy proportional to the area between the lines of that graph as it does
so.
19

Unlike eddy current brakes, which develop no torque at standstill, the hysteresis brake develops largely
constant torque, proportional to its magnetising current (or magnet strength in the case of permanent
magnet units) over its entire speed range[2]. Units often incorporate ventilation slots, though some have
provision for forced air cooling from an external supply.
Hysteresis and Eddy Current dynamometers are two of the most useful technologies in small (200 hp
(150 kW) and less) dynamometers.

Electric motor/generator dynamometer

Electric motor/generator dynamometers are a specialized type of adjustable-speed drive. The
absorption/driver unit can be either an alternating current (AC) motor or a direct current (DC) motor.
Either an AC motor or a DC motor can operate as a generator that is driven by the unit under test or a
motor that drives the unit under test. When equipped with appropriate control units, electric
motor/generator dynamometers can be configured as universal dynamometers. The control unit for an
AC motor is a variable-frequency drive, while the control unit for a DC motor is a DC drive. In both cases,
regenerative control units can transfer power from the unit under test to the electric utility. Where
permitted, the operator of the dynamometer can receive payment (or credit) from the utility for the
returned power via net metering.
In engine testing, universal dynamometers can not only absorb the power of the engine, but can also
drive the engine for measuring friction, pumping losses, and other factors.
Electric motor/generator dynamometers are generally more costly and complex than other types of
dynamometers.

Hydraulic brake
The hydraulic brake system consists of a hydraulic pump (usually a gear-type pump), a fluid reservoir,
and piping between the two parts. Inserted in the piping is an adjustable valve, and between the pump
and the valve is a gauge or other means of measuring hydraulic pressure. In simplest terms, the engine
is brought up to the desired RPM and the valve is incrementally closed. As the pumps outlet is restricted,
the load increases and the throttle is simply opened until at the desired throttle opening. Unlike most
other systems, power is calculated by factoring flow volume (calculated from pump design
specifications), hydraulic pressure, and RPM. Brake HP, whether figured with pressure, volume, and
RPM, or with a different load cell-type brake dyno, should produce essentially identical power figures.
Hydraulic dynos are renowned for having the quickest load change ability, just slightly surpassing eddy
current absorbers. The downside is that they require large quantities of hot oil under high pressure and
an oil reservoir.

 Classification of absorption dynamometers

 Prony brake dynamometer:

It is the simplest form of absorption type dynamometer. It has two wooden blocks
that are placed on a pulley which is fixed on the shaft of the engine whose power is
to be measured. The wooden blocks are clamped together with two sets of bolts and
nuts. To control the speed of pulley, the pressure is adjusted over a pulley with the
help of a helical spring present between the nut and the upper block.
20

 Construction:
A long lever is attached to the upper block which carries weight on its outer end. This
weight placed on the lever balances the brake when unloaded. When the brake is to be
applied, the suitable weight is loaded on the outer end of the lever and nuts are tightened till
shaft of the engine runs at a constant speed. The movement because of the weight loaded
on the outer end of lever balances the movement of frictional resistance between the pulley
and wooden block. The power absorbed during friction is converted into heat which is why
this dynamometer needs to be cooled down often.

The brake power formula is given by-

Brake power (bp) = 2π NT, where T = Weight applied (W) × distance (l)

 Working:
When the brake is to be operated,the long end of lever is
loaded with suitable weights W and nuts are tightened until
the engine shaft runs at the constant speed and the lever is in
horizontal position. Under these conditions, the moment due
to the weight W must balance the moment of frictional
resistance between the blocks and the pulley.
21

 Rope brake dynamometer:

 Construction:
This device also measures the brake power and
consists of some turns of rope that is wound around the
rotating drum fixed on the output shaft. One end of the
rope is connected to the loading device and another end
to the spring balance. The power is absorbed when
friction is produced between rope and drum. This type of
dynamometer is cheap and can be made quickly.
However, braking power is not accurately measured due
to change in the friction coefficient of the rope with the
change in temperature.

Brake power is given by:

Brake power (bp) = π DN (W − S)

22

 Working:
for the operation of the brake ,the engine is made to run at a
constant speed. The frictional torque, due to rope,must be equal
to the torque being transmitted by the engine.
Let, W= weight at the end of the rope,N,
S= Spring balance reading,N,
N= engine speed,r.p.m
D= Diameter of the brake wheel,m,
d= diameter of the rope,m,
(D+d)= effective diameter of the brake wheel.
Then, work/revolution= torque × angle turned per
revolution
=(W-S)×(D+d/2)×2π
Work done/min.=(W-S)π(D-d)N
Work done/sec.=(W-S)π(D+d)N/60
B.P=(W-S)π(D+d)N/60×1000kW
=(W-S)πDN/60×1000kW
=(T×2πN/60×1000kW)
Since the energy produced by the engine is absorbed by the
frictional resistance of the brake and is converted into
heat,therefore,it is necessary to keep the brake wheel cool with
soapy water.
23

 Eddy current dynamometer:

It comprises of a stator with some electromagnets and a

rotor disc coupled with engine’s output shaft made of steel or
copper. When the rotor is rotated, an eddy current is
produced because of a magnetic flux set up by field current
in the electromagnet. This eddy current is dissipated in
generating heat, therefore it needs some cooling
arrangements. The torque is measured with the help of a
moment arm just like in other types of absorption
dynamometer.
24

 Hydraulic dynamometer:
It works on the principle of dissipating heat in the fluid friction
rather than dry friction. Its construction is similar to that of the
fluid wheel and it consists of an impeller coupled to the
output shaft of the engine. The impeller rotates inside a
casing filled with fluid. Due to the centrifugal force which
develops in the outer casing, it tends to rotate along with the
impeller but its rotation is restricted by the torque arm that
supports weight balance.

The spring balance system measures the friction generated between

the impeller and fluid. The continuous flow of working fluid carries
the heat dissipated in the hydraulic dynamometer. Moreover, to
control the output power in this type of dynamometer, sluice gates
can be moved in or out to partially or wholly obstruct the flowing
water between impeller and casing.
25

Load cell

A load cell is a transducer that is used to create

an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured. The
various load cell types include hydraulic,
pneumatic, and strain gauge.

 Hydraulic load cell

26

The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder

arrangement with the piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm.
The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell.
Mechanical stops are placed to prevent over strain of the
diaphragm when the loads exceed certain limit. The load cell is
completely filled with oil. When the load is applied on the
piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm results in
an increase of oil pressure. This pressure is then transmitted to
a hydraulic pressure gauge via a high pressure hose. [8] The
gauge's Bourdon tube senses the pressure and registers it on
the dial. Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is
ideal for use in hazardous areas.[9] Typical hydraulic load cell
applications include tank, bin, and hopper weighing.[10] By
example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages
(lightning) so these type of load cells might be a more effective
device in outdoor environments. This technology is more
expensive than other types of load cells. It is a more costly
technology and thus cannot effectively compete on a cost of
purchase basis.
27

 The Proving Ring:

The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists
of an elastic ring of known diameter with a measuring device
located in the center of the ring.

Proving rings come in a variety of sizes.They are made of a

steel alloy. Manufacturing consists of rough machining from
annealed forgings, heat treatment, and precision grinding to
final size and finish.
Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension
forces. Some are designed to measure both. The basic operation of the
proving ring in tension is the same as in compression. However, tension
rings are provided with threaded bosses and supplied with pulling rods
which are screwed onto the bosses.
The proving ring consists of two main elements, the ring itself and the
diameter-measuring system, shown on the right in the exploded view of a
proving ring. Forces are applied to the ring through the external bosses.
The resulting change in diameter, referred to as the deflection of the ring, is
measured with a micrometer screw and the vibrating reed mounted
diametrically within the ring.