The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-

to-One Tutoring
Author(s): Benjamin S. Bloom
Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 13, No. 6 (Jun. - Jul., 1984), pp. 4-16
Published by: American Educational Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1175554
Accessed: 21-06-2017 08:10 UTC

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 The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for
Methods of Group Instruction as
Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
BENJAMIN S. BLOOM
University of Chicago and Northwestern University

Two University of Chicago doc- The students were randomly

dents under conventional instruc-
toral students in education, Anania assigned the three learning condi-
tional conditions. (See Figure 1.)
(1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), com- tions, and their initial aptitude
There were corresponding
pleted dissertations in which they tests scores, previous achievement
changes in students' time on task in
compared student learning underin the subject, and initial attitudes
the classroom (65% under conven-
the following three conditions of and interests in the subject were
tional instruction, 75% under Mas-
instruction: similar. The amount of time for in-
tery Learning, and 90+ % under
1. Conventional. Students learn struction was the same in all three
tutoring) and students' attitudes
groups except for the correctiveand interests (least positive under
the subject matter in a class with
about 30 students per teacher. work in the mastery learning andconventional instruction and most
Tests are given periodically for tutoring groups. Burke (1984) and positive under tutoring). There
marking the students. Anania (1982, 1983) replicated the were great reductions in the rela-
2. Mastery Learning. Students study with four different samples oftions between prior measures (ap-
learn the subject matter in a class students at grades four, five, andtitude or achievement) and the sum-
with about 30 students per teacher. eight and with two different subject mative achievement measures.
The instruction is the same as in thematters, Probability and Cartog-Typically, the aptitude-achievement
conventional class (usually with the raphy. In each sub-study, the in- correlations changed from +.60
same teacher). Formative tests (the structional treatment was limited to under conventional to +.35 under
same tests used with the conven- 11 periods of instruction over a mastery learning and +.25 under
tional group) are given for feedback3-week block of time. tutoring. It is recognized that the
followed by corrective procedures Most striking were the differ-correlations for the mastery learn-
and parallel formative tests toences in final achievement mea- ing and tutoring groups were so low
determine the extent to which the sures under the three conditions. because of the restricted range of
students have mastered the subjectUsing the standard deviation scores under these learning condi-
matter. (sigma) of the control (conventional) tions. However, the most striking of
3. Tutoring. Students learn theclass, it was typically found that the the findings is that under the best
subject matter with a good tutor foraverage student under tutoring was learning conditions we can devise
each student (or for two or threeabout two standard deviations (tutoring), the average student is 2
students simultaneously). This above the average of the control
sigma above the average control
tutoring instruction is followed peri- class (the average tutored student student taught under conventional
odically by formative tests, feed- was above 98% of the students in group methods of instruction.
back-corrective procedures, and the control class).1 The average stu-The tutoring process demon-
parallel formative tests as in the dent under mastery learning was strates that most of the students do
mastery learning classes. It should about one standard deviation above have the potential to reach this high
be pointed out that the need for cor- the average of the control class (the
level of learning. I believe an impor-
rective work under tutoring is very average mastery learning studenttant task of research and instruc-
small. was above 84% of the students in tion is to seek ways of accomplish-
the control class). ing this under more practical and
The variation of the students' realistic conditions than the one-to-
achievement also changed under one tutoring, which is too costly for
Benjamin S. Bloom is Professor of
Education, University of Chicago and
most societies to bear on a large
these learning conditions such that
about 90% of the tutored students scale. This is the "2 sigma" prob-
Northwestern University, 5835 S.
Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, Illinois and 70% of the mastery learning lem. Can researchers and teachers
60637. His areas of specialization are students attained the level of sum- devise teaching-learning conditions
evaluation and the teaching-learning mative achievement reached by that will enable the majority of
process. only the highest 20% of the stu-students under group instruction to
4 Educational Researcher

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attain levels of achievement that effects on what the schools can and case, we contrasted these alterable
can at present be reached only
should do with the educational years variables with the more stable
under good tutoring conditions?each society requires of its young variables (e.g., personal character-
It has taken almost a decade and people. istics of teachers, intelligence
a half to develop the Mastery This paper is a brief presentation measures, achievement tests for
Learning (ML) strategy to a point of the work on solutions to the 2 sig- grading purposes, socioeconomic
where large numbers of teachers at ma problem. It is hoped that it will status of the family, etc.) and in-
every level of instruction and in interest both educational research- dicated some of the ways in which
many countries can use the feed- ers and teachers in further research the alterable variables influence
back-corrective procedures to get and application of these ideas. learning and the processes by which
the 1 sigma effect (the average ML these variables have been altered.
student is above 84% of the stu- But not all alterable variables are
The Search
dents under conventional instruc- likely to have equal effects on learn-
tion-even with the same teacher ing. Our research summaries were
In a number of articles, my gradu-
teaching both the ML and the con- ate students and I have attempted intended to emphasize the alterable
ventional classes). If the research to
on contrast alterable educational variables that have had the strong-
the 2 sigma problem yields practicalvariables with more stable or static est effects on school learning. With-
methods (methods that the average variables (Bloom, 1980). In our in the last 3 years, this search has
teacher or school faculty can learn treatment of this topic, we sum- been aided by the rapid growth of
in a brief period of time and use marized the literature on such alter- the meta-analysis literature. In this
with little more cost or time than able variables as the quality of literature, each writer has summar-
conventional instruction), it would teaching, the use of time by teachers ized the research literature on a
be an educational contribution of and students, cognitive and affective particular set of alterable variables
the greatest magnitude. It wouldentry characteristics of students, to indicate the effect size between
change popular notions about human formative testing, rate of learning, control and experimental groups of
potential and would have significantand the home environment. In each students. They have standardized

FIGURE 1. Achievement distribution for students under conventional, mastery learning, and tutorial
instruction.

TUTORIAL
1-1*

MASTERY LEARNING
1-30*

CONVENTIONAL

1-30*

Summative Achievement Scores

"*Teacher-student ratio

June/July 1984 5

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the results in terms of the difference or peer group; and (d) the teacher fects of separable variables may be
between the experimental and con- and the teaching process. best combined.
trol groups divided by the standard We have speculated that two vari- In our work so far we have
deviation of the control group.2 ables involving different objects of restricted the search to two or three
the change process may, in some in- variables, each of which is likely to
In each study, the reviewer also
stances, be additive, whereas two have a .5 sigma effect or greater.
analyzed the effect size under dif-
variables involving the same object We suspect that the research, as
ferent conditions, level of school,
of the change process are less like- well as the applications to school
sex of student, school subject, size
ly to be additive (unless they occur situations, would get too complex if
of sample, and so on. Such reviews
at different times in the teaching- more than three alterable variables
are very useful in selecting alterable
learning process). Our research is are used. In any case, our work has
variables that are most likely to con- intended to determine when these begun with variables in the top half
tribute significantly to the 2 sigma
solution.
rules are true and when they areof Table I. Perhaps as the research
not. Several of the studies done so moves on, it will be necessary to in-
Table I is adapted from a sum- far suggest that they may be true.clude some of the variables in the
mary of effect sizes of key variables Thus the ML process (which affectslower part of Table I.
by Walberg (1984) who, with other the learner most directly), when In our research with two
co-authors, has contributed greatly combined with changes in the variables, we have made use of
to this literature. In Table I he has teaching process (which affects the 2 x 2 randomized design with ML
teacher most directly), yield ad-and one other variable. So far we
listed the selected variables in order
of magnitude of effect size. (We ditive results. (See Tenenbaum, p. have not done research with three
have added other variables and indi- 13 of this article and Mevarech, p.variables. Where possible, we try to
cated the equivalent percentile for 14 of this article). Although we do replicate the study with at least two
each effect size.) Thus, in the first not believe these two rules are more subject fields, two levels of school-
entry, tutorial instruction, we have than suggestive at present, future ing, or some combination of subject
indicated the effect size (2 sigma) research on this problem will un- fields and levels of schooling. We
and indicated that under tutorial in- doubtedly yield a stronger set of hope that others will take up this 2
struction, the average student is generalizations about how the ef- sigma search and that some guide-
above 98% of the students under
the control teaching conditions. A
list of effect size studies appears in
the Appendix at the end of this TABLE I
article.
Effect of selected alterable variables on student achievement
In our own attempts to solve the
(see Appendix)
2 sigma problem we assume that
two or three alterable variables
Percentile
must be used that together con- Effect size equivalent
tribute more to the learning than
any one of them alone. Because of
Da Tutorial instruction 2.00 98
more than 15 years of experience
D Reinforcement 1.20
with ML at different levels of
education and in different coun- A Feedback-corrective (ML) 1.00 84
D Cues and explanations 1.00
tries, we have come to rely on ML (A)D Student classroom participation 1.00
as one of the possible variables to A Student time on task 1.00b
be combined with selected other A Improved readinglstudy skills 1.00
variables. ML (the feedback- C Cooperative learning .80 79
corrective process) under good con- D Homework (graded) .80
ditions yields approximately a 1 D Classroom morale .60 73
sigma effect size. We have system- A Initial cognitive prerequisites .60
C Home environment intervention .50b 69
atically tried other variables which,
in combination with ML, might ap- D Peer and cross-age remedial
tutoring .40 66
proach the 2 sigma effect size. So D Homework (assigned) .30 62
far, we have not found any two D Higher order questions .30
variable combination that has ex-
(D)B New science & math curricula .30b
ceeded the 2 sigma effect. Thus, D Teacher expectancy .30
some of our present research C Peer group influence .20 58
reaches the 2 sigma effect but does B Advance organizers .20
not go beyond it. Socio-economic status
(for contrast) .25 60
We have classified the variables
in Table I in terms of the direct ob- Note. This table was adapted from
ject of the change process: (a) the aObject of change process--A-Lear
learner; (b) the instructional vironment or peer group; D-Teacher
material; (c) the home environment bAveraged or estimated from corr

6 Educational Researcher

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lines for the research can be set up
cognitive entry prerequisites atathe2-week period of learning in the
to make the combined results morebeginning of the course. Working advanced course.
useful and to reduce the time andwith high school teachers in Alge- When one of the enhanced classes
costs for experimental and demon-bra 2 and French 2, they developed
was also provided with ML feed-
stration studies. an initial test of the prerequisites
back-corrective procedures over a
for each of these courses. The pro-
series of learning tasks, the final
cedure in developing the initial results
test after a 10- to 12-week period
Improving Student Processing ofwas to take the final examination in of instruction was that this experi-
Conventional Instruction the prior course (Algebra 1 or mental group was approximately
In this section of the paper we areFrench 1) and have a committee of 1.6 sigma above the control group
concerned with ways in whichfour to six teachers in the subject in- on the summative examination.
students can learn more effective- dependently check each test item (The average student in the ML plus
ly without basically changing the that they believed measured an idea enhanced initial prerequisites was
teaching. If students develop goodor skill that was a necessary prere- above 95% of the control students
study habits, devote more time toquisite for the next course in the on this examination.) There were
subject. There was very high agree-
the learning, improve their reading also attitudinal and other affective
skills, and so on, they will be better ment on most of the selected items, differences in students related to
able to learn from a particular and discussion among the teachers these achievement differences.
led to consensus about some of the
teacher and course-even though These included positive academic
neither the course nor the teacher remaining items. self-concept, greater interest in the
has undergone a change process. Two of the classes were helped to subject, and greater desire to learn
For example, the ML feedback- review and relearn the specific more in the subject field.
corrective approach is addressed prerequisites they lacked. This was In Leyton's (1983) study, he
primarily to providing students not done for the students in the found that the average effect of in-
with the cognitive and affective other two classes-they spent the itial enhancement of prerequisites
time on a more general and infor-
prerequisites for each new learning alone is about .6 sigma (see dif-
task. As we have noted before, mal review of the content taught ferences
in between conventional and
when the ML procedures are donethe previous course (Algebra 1 or conventional plus enhanced prere-
French 1). The method of enhanc-
systematically and well, the school quisites and between ML and ML
achievement of the average studenting the prerequisites was much likeplus enhanced prerequisites in
the ML feedback-corrective process
under ML is approximately 1 sigma Figure 2). That is, we have two pro-
(84 percentile) above the average where the teacher retaught thecesses - ML and initial enhance-
student in the control class, evenitems that the majority of students
ment of cognitive prerequisites -
had missed, small groups of stu-
when both classes are taught by the that have sizeable but separate ef-
same teacher with much the same dents helped each other over items
fects. When they are combined,
instruction and instructional that had been missed, and the stu- their separate effects tend to be ad-
material. As we view the ML dents pro- reviewed items they were not ditive. We believe these two
cess, we regard it as a method of sure
im-about by referring to the desig-
variables are additive because they
proving the students' learningnated from pages in the instructional occur at different times. The
the same teaching over a series material.
of The corrective process enhancement of the initial prere-
learning tasks. took about 3 to 4 hours during the quisites is completed during the
first week of the course. After the first week of the new course, while
The major changes under the ML
process are that more of the students completed the corrective the ML feedback-corrective process
students have the cognitive prere- process, they were given a parallel takes place every 2 or 3 weeks dur-
test. As a result of the corrective ing the course, after the initial
quisites for each new learning task,
they become more positive about process, most of the students enhancement.
their ability to learn the subject, and reached the mastery standard (80%) This solution to the 2 sigma prob-
they put in more active learning on the parallel test given at the end lem is likely to be applicable to se-
time than do the control students. of the first week of the course. In
quential courses in most school sub-
As we observe the students' learn- a few cases, students who didn't
jects. (In the United States, over
ing and the test results in the ML reach this standard were given fur-two-thirds of the academic courses
and the conventional class, we notether help. in elementary-secondary schools are
the improvements in the student More important was the im- sequential courses.) This solution, of
learning under ML and the lack ofproved performance of the en- course, applies most clearly to the
such improvement in conventionalhanced classes over the other two second courses in a sequence. It
classes.
classes on the first formative test in probably will not work as well with
One of our University of Chicago the advanced course (French 2 orthe third, fourth, or later courses in
doctoral students, Leyton (1983), Algebra 2). The two enhanced a sequence if there has been no
suggested that one approach to theclasses, which had been helped on earlier use of initial enhancement of
2 sigma problem would be to use the initial prerequisites, were ap- prerequisites or ML procedures.
ML during the advanced course inproximately .7 sigma higher than We hope these ideas will be further
a sequence, but in addition attemptthe other two classes on the first explored in the United States as
to enhance the students' initial formative test given at the end of well as in other countries. We

June/July 1984 7

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 believe this solution is relevant at all cedures that work well in enhanc- student academic self-concept, and
levels of education, including ing these prerequisites in one schoolstudent attitudes and interest in the
elementary-secondary, college, and should work equally well in other learning.
even the graduate and professional schools. Further research is need- Our graduate students have writ-
school level. ed to establish the sequential ten papers on several other ap-
We also regard this approach ascourses in which this approach is proaches for improving student pro-
widely applicable within a countrymost effective. cessing of conventional instruction:
because the prerequisites for a par- Finally, the time cost of the initial 1. Help students develop a stu-
ticular sequential subject or courseenhancement procedures is limited dent support system in which
are likely to be very similar even to the class hours of the course dur- groups of two or three students
though different textbooks anding the first week of the sequential study together, help each other
teachers may be involved. Thus, a course, while the time or other costs when they encounter difficulties in
well made test of the initial prere- of the ML procedures have usually the course, help each other review
quisites for a particular sequential been very small. We hope that this in advance of taking tests, and
course-Arithmetic 2, French 2, approach to the 2 sigma problem review their learning periodically. A
Reading 2, and so on-may with will be found to be a widely ap- student support system that pro-
only minor changes apply to other plicable as well as economical solu- vides support, encouragement and
versions of the same course within tion available to most teachers who even help when needed can do much
a particular country. Also, the pro- wish to improve student learning, to raise the level of learning of the

FIGURE 2. Average summative achievement scores under different learning conditions. Comparison of
tutoring studies, mastery learning, and enhanced prerequisites.

100 - 2 SIGMA98
100 ------------------------ 98%
95% 2. O
908 11 .6cr

80 Oc- I 11.0cr
76
. ?
70 .7 C

-60-

? F1 r.
>50% CV Q::50%
50 W P-4
cvl

W 40
C.4 WI I--I H r.

230 + .
PLI U)

o 0r 0-o
10 c c-1 i c I-

..E-

Cz
SoUZf U)1
C 0oZ
0 0

LEYTON (1983) TUTORING STUDIES

ANANIA (1981) BURKE (1983)
8 Educational Researcher

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participants. There is evidence that be provided in the form of objec- or 3 weeks during the course. We
these and other cooperative learn- tives, some ideas about what will believe
be that each of these processes
ing efforts are almost as effective is somewhat independent of the
learned in the unit, or a brief discus-
as ML procedures. (Cooperative sion of the relation between what other processes.
Learning - Effect size .80 (79 per- has already been learned and what Other suggestions for the im-
centile) Slavin, 1980.) will be learned in the unit. Such ad- provement of instructional materials
2. There is evidence that vanced organizers (Luiten, Ames, & and educational technology include
students who take special programs
Ackerson, 1980) appear to have an the following:
to improve their readingaverage
and/or effect size on achievement 1. Some of our students have
of about .2 sigma. (Incidentally,
their study and learning methods used computer learning courses,
tend to learn more effectively.
such advance organizers have about such as the Plato system, which ap-
Ideally, such special programs
a .4 sigma effect on retention of the pear to work very well for highly
learning.) Although this effect is motivated students. We believe that
should be available at the beginning
of each new school level, rather
that consistent,
is, by itself it is not it should be possible to determine
junior high school, high school, to contribute significantly to whether particular computer
enough and
so on. One would hope that the 2the
sigma effect. It is likely that courses enable sizeable proportions
special programs would be aclosely
combination of advance of students to attain the 2 sigma
related to the academic courses the
organizers at the beginning of a effect. The effec-
achievement
student is currently taking. (Im- new topic, further organizational
tiveness of the computer courses
proved reading/study skills-Effect aids during the chapter orcanunit,
be determined
as in terms of the
size 1.00 (84 percentile) (Pflaum, well as appropriate questions,
time sum-
required, completion rates,
Walberg, Karegianes, & Rasher, maries, or other organizational
studentaids
performance on achieve-
1980). at the end of the unit, maymenthave a student retention of
tests, and
substantial effect on the student's the learned material. It is hoped
Improve Instructional Materials learning of that chapter. that the more effective computer
and Educational Technology courses will also have positive ef-
In Process fects on such affective characteris-
The textbook in the United
tics as academic self-concept, in-
One of our students, Carlos
States, as well as in most advanced terest in the subject, and desire to
countries in the world, is an almost
Avalos, is working on a study of the learn further with computer learn-
universal part of school instruction.
effect of organizational aids in the ing methods.
There has been much work on the instructional material combined
2. Although the average effect
improvement of the textbooks for with the initial enhancement size of for new science and math cur-
reading and, to some extent, arith- cognitive prerequisites and the ML
ricula in the United States is only
metic, mathematics, and science feedback-corrective procedures.
.3 sigma, some of the new curricula
subjects. Most of these are in rela- Avalos is planning a research
(or textbooks) in these and other
tion to special curricular improve- design that will enable him to deter- subjects may be much more effec-
ments, which include improvements mine the separate effects of each of tive than others. We propose a
in the sequential nature of the the three processes, the effect of careful search of the new curricula
topics, the attempt to find impor- any two of the processes, and the and textbooks to determine which
tant ideas or schema that help to in- combined effect of all three pro- ones are more effective and to
terrelate the different parts of the cesses. At the least, it is anticipated determine what characteristics
subject, and improvements in the il- that the combination of any two of make them more effective than the
lustrations and exercises in the the processes will be greater than others.
books. However, as far as we can the effects of any one of the same
find, these improvements have not processes. It is hoped that the effect
Home Environment
had very significant effects on stu- of any two will be above 1.3 sigma
dent achievement unless the teach- (90 percentile). If this is found, it and the Peer Group
ers were provided with much in- will provide several new solutions to In this section, we are primarily
service education for the new cur- the 2 sigma problem-some of concerned with the out-of-school
riculum or the new textbook. which can be done with very little support that the student receives
My graduate students and I have cost or effort by the teachers or the from the home or the peer group.
been intrigued by the possibility school system. We are interested in the ways in
that the organization of a particular Avalos expects the results noted which the student's achievement,
section (or chapter) of the textbook above because the organizational academic aspirations and goals, and
might be better integrated or the aids can be built into new textbooks progress in learning are influenced
parts of the section more closely and can be used by the students by these types of support. We know
related to each other. Pre- with a minimum of emphasis by the that the home environment does
teachers. The initial enhancement
organizers or advanced organizers have great influence on the pupil's
(Ausubel, 1960), have been school learning and that this in-
of the prerequisites is completed
moderately effective when provid- fluence is especially effective at the
before the students begin the study
ed in the textbook or provided byof the new course subject matter,elementary school level or earlier.
whereas the ML feedback-correc-
the teacher at the beginning of the The peer group's influence is likely
new unit of the course. These maytive procedures take place every 2to be strongest (both positively or

June/July 1984 9

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 separately by a parent educator
twice a month for 6 months. A third
experimental approach was that
newsletters about the same topics
were sent to the home twice a
Although it is difficult to influence the student's choice month for 6 months.
offriends and peer groups, the availability in the school The parents of all four groups
of a variety of extracurricular activities and clubs... were observed and interviewed at
should enable students to be more selective in their peer the beginning and end of the
6-month period using the Dave
choices within the school setting. (1963) interview and observational
methods. Although the three ex-
perimental approaches show signi-
ficantly greater changes in the par-
ents' home environment index than
the control group, the most effec-
tive method was the series of meet-
ings between groups of parents and
negatively) at the secondary school for the child's school achievement, the parent educator. The changes in
level. and their interests in and the home environment of this group
knowledge of the child's were
school
highly significant when com-
Home Environment Processes
experiences. pared with the changes in the other
There have been a large number These studies of the home en-
three groups of parents.
of studies of the home environment vironment processes began with the The fourth grade children of all
processes that affect the students'work of Dave (1963) and Wolf these parents were given a national
school learning. These studies in-(1964, 1966), and since then have standardized test on reading and
volve interviews and observations been replicated in other studies mother tongue as well as arithmetic
directed at determining the rele- done in the United States and other at the beginning and end of the
vant interactions between parents countries (Marjoribanks, 1974; 6-month period. It was found that
and their children. The studies find Kalinowski & Sloane, 1981). the children of the meeting group of
correlations of +.70 to +.803 be- These previous studies of the rela- parents had changed by 1 sigma in
tween an index of the home environ-
tionship between the home and the achievement, as contrasted with the
ment processes and the children'schildren's school achievement sug- change in the control group of chil-
school achievement. Some of the gest a strong effect of the home en- dren. In comparison, the parent
home environment processes that vironment on the school learning of educators' visit to each of the homes
appear to have high relationshipsthe children, but they do not pro- every other week had only a .5 sig-
with school achievement include the vide evidence on the extent to which ma effect on the children's school
following: the home environment can be achievement.
1. Work habits of the family-the altered and the effect of such altera- Other methods of changing the
degree of routine in the home man- tion on changes in the children's home environment have been re-
agement, the emphasis on regulari- school achievement. ported by Dolan (1980), Bronfen-
ty in the use of space and time, and A recent study done in Thailandbrenner (1974), and Kalinowski and
the priority given to schoolwork by Janhom (1983) involved a controlSloane (1981). Again, the most ef-
over other more pleasurable group and three experimentalfective approaches to changing the
activities. groups of parents (and their home environment processes result
2. Academic guidance and sup- children). In this study, the most ef- in changes in the children's school
port-the availability and quality of fective treatment of the parents achievement. (Home Environment
the help and encouragement was for the group of parents to - Effect size .50 (69 percentile),
meet with a parent educator for Iverson & Walberg, 1982.)
parents give the child for his or her
schoolwork and the conditions they about 2 hours twice a month for 6 The methods of changing the
provide to support the child's months. In these meetings, the home environments are relatively
schoolwork. parents discussed ways in which costly in terms of parent educators
3. Stimulation in the home-the they could support their children's meeting with groups of parents
opportunity provided by the home learning in the school. There was over a series of semi-monthly meet-
to explore ideas, events, and theusually an initial presentation made ings, but the payoff of this approach
larger environment. by the parent educator on one of the is likely to be very great. If parents
4. Language development-op- home environment processes and continue to encourage and support
portunities in the home for the then the parents discussed what each of their children to learn well
development of correct and effec-they did as well as what they hoped in school throughout the elementary
tive language usage. to do to support their children's school years, this should greatly
5. Academic aspirations and ex-school learning. help the children during the years
pectations-the parents' aspirations Another experimental approach they will attend schools and
for the child, the standards they set included visits to each home colleges.
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 Although such research has not
been done as yet, we hope that
others will explore an approach to
the 2 sigma problem of providing ef-
fective parent education combined Teachers are frequently unaware of the fact that they
with the mastery learning method.
are providing more favorable conditions of learningfor
Because parent support takes place
in the home and ML takes place in some students than they are for other students. General-
the school, we expect that these two ly, they are under the impression that all students in
effects will be additive. The result
their classes are given equality of opportunity for
should be close to a 2 sigma im-
provement in student learning.
learning.
Ideally, if both methods began
with first or second grade children,
one might hope that the combina-
tion would result in consistently
good learning, at least through the
elementary school years, with less
and less need for effort expended by der tutoring. We have pondered the feedback on the clarity of his or
the parents or by the use of ML pro- these facts and believe that this in her explanations, the effect of the
cedures in the school.
part results from the unequal treat- reinforcements, and the degree of
ment of students within most class- active involvement in the learning
Peer Group rooms.
from a small number of high achiev-
During the adolescent years, it is Observations of teacher interac- ing students in the typical class of
likely that the peer group will have tion with students in the classroom 30 students.
considerable influence on the stu- reveal that teachers frequently Teachers are frequently unaware
dent's activities, behavior, at- direct their teaching and explana- of the fact that they are providing
titudes, and academic expectations. tions to some students and ignore more favorable conditions of learn-
The peer group(s) to which the in- others. They give much positive ing for some students than they are
dividual "belongs" also has some ef- reinforcement and encouragement for other students. Generally, they
fect on the student's high school to some students but not to others, are under the impression that all
achievement level as well as further and they encourage active par- students in their classes are given
academic aspirations. These effects ticipation in the classroom from equality of opportunity for learning.
appear to be greatest in urban set- some students and discourage it One basic assumption of our work
tings. Although it is difficult to in- from others. The studies find that on teaching is the belief that when
fluence the student's choice of typically teachers give students in teachers are helped to secure a
friends and peer groups, the avail- the top third of the class the more accurate picture of their own
ability in the school of a variety of attention and students in
greatest teaching methods and styles of in-
extracurricular activities and clubs the bottom third of the class receive teraction with their students, they
(e.g., athletics, music, science, the least attention and support. will increasingly be able to provide
mathematics, social, etc.) should en- These differences in the interaction more favorable learning conditions
able students to be more selective between teachers and students pro- for more of their students, rather
in their peer choices within thevide some students with much than just for the top fraction of the
school setting. (Peer Group Influ- greater opportunity and encourage- class.
ence-Effect size .20 (58 percentile)ment for learning than is provided In some of our research on the 2
(Ide, Haertel, Parkerson, & Wal- for other students in the same class- sigma problem, we have viewed the
berg, 1981). room (Brophy & Good, 1970.) task of teaching as providing for
more equal treatment of students.
It is very different in a one-to-one
Improvement of Teaching tutoring situation where thereWe is have
a been trying to give teach-
When we compare student learn- constant feedback and corrective ers feedback on their differential
ing under conventional instruction process between the tutor and the treatment of students. We attempt
and tutoring we note that approxi- tutee. If the explanation is notto provide teachers with a mirror of
mately 20% of the students under understood by the tutee, the tutor what they are now doing and have
conventional instruction do about as soon becomes aware of it and ex- them develop techniques for
well as the tutored students. (See plains it further. There is much rein-
equalizing their interactions with
Figure 1). That is, tutoring probably forcement and encouragement in the students. These include such
would not enable these top students the tutoring situation, and the tuteetechniques as: (a)attempt to find
to do any better than they already must be actively participating in thesomething positive and encouraging
do under conventional instruction. learning if the tutoring process is toin each student's response, (b) find
In contrast, about 80% of the stu- continue. In contrast, there is less ways of involving more of the
dents do relatively poorly under feedback from each student in the students in active engagement in
group situation to the teacher-andthe learning process, (c) secure
conventional instruction as com-
pared with what they might do un- feedback from a small random sam-
frequently the teacher gets most of

June/July 1984 11

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ple of students to determine when ing the frequency with which the time for the students in the en-
they comprehend the explanations experimental teachers were using hanced cue + participation classes.
and illustrations, and (d) find ways these ideas well or poorly. Similar- In terms of final achievement, the
of supplying additional clarification ly, he had students note the fre- average student in the enhanced
and illustrations as needed. The ma- quency with which they were ac- cue and participation group was 1.5
jor emphasis in this work was not tively participating in the learning sigma higher than the average stu-
to change the teachers' methods of and any problems they had with un- dent in the control classes. (The
instruction, but to have the teacher derstanding the ideas or explana- average student in the enhanced
become more aware of the ways in tions. group was above 93% of the stu-
which he or she could more directly In this research he compared stu- dents in the control classes.) (See
teach to a cross section of the stu- dent learning under conventional Figure 3.) Nordin (1979, 1980) also
dents at each class section. instruction and under enhanced
made use of the ML procedures in
cues (explanations) and participa-
The first of our studies on improv- other classes and found that they
ing instruction was done by Nordin tion conditions. During the experi- worked even better than the en-
(1979, 1980), who found ways of im-ment, observers noted that the stu- hanced cue + participation proce-
proving the cues and explanations dent participation and the explana- dures. Unfortunately, he did not use
for students as well as increasing the ML in combination with the en-
tions and directions were positive in
about 57% of the observations in
the active participation of students. hanced cue + participation
He found it helpful to meet fre- the control class as compared with methods.
about 67% in the enhanced cue +
quently with the teachers to explain In any case, Nordin (1979, 1980)
these ideas as well as to observe the did demonstrate that teachers could
participation classes. Students in
teachers and help them determine the control classes noted that the be taught ways to be more respon-
when they still needed to improve cues and participation were positivesive to most of the students in the
these qualities of the instruction. He for them about 50% of the time as class, secure increased participation
also had independent observers not- compared with about 80% of the of the students, and insure that

FIGURE 3. Average summative achievement scores under different learning conditions. Comparison of
tutoring studies, mastery learning, and enhanced instructional methods.

100 2 S I G M A 98%
96%-
2 0-
90 1 .54% 1 .784%

80 -1.Cr- 1. cr

70

crJ

z4 60

>z
? H0
5 50 0 o

40
H oH

20H
30 HC)
0 0
H [- H

20

10 "

NORDIN (1979) TENENBAUM (1982) TUTORING STUDIES

ANANIA (1981) BURKE (1983)

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most of the students understood the securing overt as well as covert par- In these countries, subjects are
explanations and illustrations that ticipation of the students in the taught as methods of inquiry into
the teacher provided. The observers learning, seems to us to be an ex- the nature of science, mathematics,
noted that the students in the cellent approach. This may be in the the arts, and the social studies. The
enhanced participation and form
cue of an observer's notes on what subjects are taught as much for the
classes were actively engagedthe
in teacher and students did, stu- ways of thinking they represent as
learning (time on task) about 75% dent observations of their own in- for their traditional content. Much
of the classroom time, whereas teractions
the with the teaching of this learning makes use of obser-
control students were actively (preferably anonymous, but coded vations, reflections on these obser-
learning only about 57% of the time. as to whether the students are in vations, experimentation with phe-
In a later study, Tenenbaum the top third, middle third, or thenomena, and the use of first hand
(1982) compared control groups, bottom third of the class in achieve- data and daily experiences, as well
ML groups, and Enhanced Cues, ment), such as their understandingas the use of primary printed
Participation, and Reinforcement in of the cues and explanations, the ex- sources. All of this is reflected in the
combination with ML (CPR + ML). tent of their overt & covert par-materials of instruction, the learn-
Tenenbaum studied these three ticipation, and the amount of rein-ing and teaching processes used,
methods of teaching with random- forcement they are getting. Per-and the questions and problems
ly assigned students in two differ- haps a video-tape or audio tape re-used in the quizzes and formative
ent courses-sixth grade science cording of the class could serve thetesting, as well as on the final sum-
and ninth grade algebra. same purpose if the teacher is given mative examinations.
Tenenbaum also used student ob- brief training on ways of summar- In sharp contrast with some of
servation of their own classroom izing the classroom interaction be-these other countries, teachers in
processes on cues, participation,tween the teacher and the students the United States typically make
and reinforcement. He found that in the class. use of textbooks that rarely pose
under the CPR + ML, students It is our hope that when teachers real problems. These textbooks em-
responded positively about their are helped to secure a more ac- phasize specific content to be
own participation about 87% of the remembered and give students lit-
curate picture of their own teaching
time as contrasted with 68% in the methods and styles of interaction tle opportunity to discover underly-
control classes. with their students, they will be bet- ing concepts and principles and
The results of this study demon-ter able to provide favorable learn- even less opportunity to attack real
strated large differences betweening conditions for most of their stu- problems in the environments in
the three methods of instruction dents. which they live. The teacher-made
with the final achievement scores of tests (and standardized tests) are
the CPR + ML group about 1.7 Improvement of Teaching of largely tests of remembered infor-
the Higher Mental Processes mation. After the sale of over one
sigmas above the control students
(the average student in this group Although there is much of rote million copies of the Taxonomy of
was above 96% of the students in learning in schools through the
Educational Objectives-Cognitive
the control group.) The average stu-world, in some of the national cur- Domain (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst,
dent in the ML groups was the riculum centers in different coun- Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) and over
usual 1 sigma above the control stu-tries (e.g., Israel, Malaysia, South a quarter of a century of use of this
dents. (See Figure 3). Korea) I find great emphasis on domain in preservice and in-service
We believe that this research problem-solving, application of prin- teacher training, it is estimated that
makes it clear that teachers in bothciples, analytical skills, and creativi- over 90% of test questions that U.S.
the Nordin and Tenenbaum studies ty. Such higher mental processes public school students are now ex-
could (at least temporarily) change are emphasized because these cen- pected to answer deal with little
their teaching methods to provide ters believe that they enable the stu- more than information. Our instruc-
more equal treatment of the stu- dent to relate his or her learning to tional material, our classroom
dents in their classes. When this the many problems he or she teaching methods, and our testing
more equal treatment is providedencounters in day-to-day living. methods rarely rise above the low-
and supplemented with the ML These abilities are also stressed est category of the Taxonomy-
feedback and corrective procedures,because they are retained and used knowledge.
the average student approaches thelong after the individual has forgot- In the tutoring studies reported
at the beginning of this paper, it
level of learning found under tutor- ten the detailed specifics of the sub-
ing methods of instruction. ject matter taught in the schools. was found that the tutored stu-
We believe there are a variety ofThese abilities are regarded as one dents' Higher Mental Process
methods of giving feedback to set of essential characteristics need- (HMP) achievement was 2.0 sigma
teachers on the extent to which theyed to continue learning and to cope above the control students. (See
are providing equality of interaction with a rapidly changing world. Figure 4.) (The average tutored stu-
with their students. The tactic of Some curriculum centers believe dent was above 98% of the control
providing a "mirror" to the teacher students on the HMP part of the
that these higher mental processes
of the ways in which he or she is are important because they make summative examination.) It should
providing cues and explanations, learning exciting and constantly
be noted that in these studies higher
appropriate reinforcement, and new and playful. mental processes as well as lower

June/July 1984 13

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 100- 98_% 2 SI MA
2 96%
1.7 a

90 90% 88%
1 .3130
8A%7 1.2o-
80 79%
73% .8"

- 60

70
> 50% 50% 50% 50%

E- rE - 7 E-4
30 + + +
H-4HH H H-
co oo oE o4
2 ..0 ,0
SZ UBU) F (198 ?)

of tutorin

FIGU
FIGURE RE
4. Average higher mental process 4
achievement under di
of tutoring studies, mastery learning, and higher mental proce

learning were
mental process questions experiences
in-in which the Teaching + ML) was 1.3 sigma
cluded in the formative tests used students applied principles in a above the control group (L.M.P.
in the feedback-corrective processes variety of different problem situa-Teaching) taught primarily by
for both the ML and tutored groups. tions. On the summative examina- learning algorithms-a set of rules
Again, the point is that students can tions, the students were very high and procedures for solving par-
learn the higher mental processes if on the knowledge of principles and ticular math problems (the average
they become more central in the facts and in their ability to apply the student in this experimental group
teaching-learning process. principles in new problem situa-was above 90% of the control stu-
Several studies have been made in tions. These experimental students dents).
which the researcher was seeking to were compared with a control group In all of these studies, attempts to
improve the higher mental pro- that was only taught the principlesimprove higher mental processes in-
cesses. (but not their application). On the cluded group instruction emphasiz-
We have already referred higher the processes, the ex-ing higher mental processes and
tomental
perimental
Tenenbaum (1982) study, which em- group was 2 sigma feedback-corrective processes,
above the control students (the which also emphasized higher men-
phasized changing teacher-student
interaction. In this study, average
theexperimental
Cue- student was tal processes. In addition, the tutor-
Participation-Reinforcement above 98% of +the control students)ing studies included an instructional
Mastery Learning student group
in the ability to apply the principles emphasis on both higher and lower
was 1.7 sigma higher than to new
the problem
con- situations. mental processes, as well as the
trol students on the higher A third study by Mevarech (1980) feedback-corrective processes,
mental
process part of the summative was directed ex-at improving the which included both higher and
amination. (The average CPR + higher mental processes by em-lower mental processes. It was evi-
ML student was above 96% of the phasizing heuristic problem solvingdent in all of these studies that in
control students on the higher men- and including higher and lower the formative feedback and correc-
tal processes.) (See Figure 4.) mental process questions in the for-tive processes the students needed
Another study done by Levin mative testing and in the feedback-and received more corrective help
(1979) was directed to improvingcorrective processes. On the higher on the higher mental processes
the higher mental processes by em-mental process part of the sum-questions and problems than they
phasizing the mastery of the lowermative tests, the group using the did on the lower mental process
mental processes and providing heuristic methods + ML (HMP questions.

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 Summary
The Anania (1982, 1983) and
Burke (1984) studies comparing stu-
dent learning under one-to-one
tutoring, ML, and conventional
group instruction began in 1980. As
the results of these separate studies
at different grade levels and in dif-
ferent school subjects began to
emerge, we were astonished at the
consistency of the findings as well
as the great differences in student
cognitive achievement, attitudes,
and academic self-concept under
tutoring as compared with the
group methods of instruction.
During the past 4 years, the grad-
uate students in my seminars at the
University of Chicago and North-
western University considered vari-
ous approaches to the search for
group methods of instruction that
might be as effective as one-to-one
tutoring. This paper reports on the
research studies these students
have completed, the studies that are
still in process, and some of the Home Work (graded) and Home Work (assigned)
Paschal, R., Weinstein, T., & Walberg, H.J. (in press). Effects of homework:
other ideas we explored in these A quantitative synthesis. Journal of Educational Research.
seminars.
Although all of us at first thought
it was an impossible task, we did
agree that if we succeeded in find-
ing one solution, there would soon
be a great many solutions. In this
paper, I report on six solutions to
the 2 sigma problem. In spite of the
difficulties, our graduate students
found the problem to be very in-
triguing because the goal was so
clear and specific-find methods of
group instruction as effective as one-
to-one tutoring.
Early in the work, it became evi-
dent that more than group instruc-
tion in the school had to be consid-
ered. We also needed to find ways
of improving the students' learning
processes, the curriculum and in-
structional materials, as well as the
home environmental support of the
students' school learning. This
paper is only a preliminary report
on what has been accomplished to
date, but it should be evident that
much can now be done to improve
student learning in the schools.
However, the search is far from
complete. We look for additional
solutions to the 2 sigma problem to
be reported in the next few years.
I hope some of the readers of this
article will also find this problem
challenging.
June/July
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APPENDIX
Effect Size References
Tutorial Instruction*
Anania, J. (1982). The effects of quality of instruction on the cognitive and
affective learning of students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago,
1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 4269A.
Burke, A.J. (1984). Students' potential for learning contrasted under tutorial
and group approaches to instruction (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Chicago, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 2025A.
Reinforcement
Lysakowski, R.S., & Walberg, H.J. (1981). Classroom reinforcement: A quan-
titative synthesis. Journal of Educational Research, 75, 69-77.
Feedback-Corrective, Cues & Explanations, and Student Classroom
Participation
Lysakowski, R.S., & Walberg, H.J. (1982). Instructional effects of cues, par-
ticipation, and corrective feedback: A quantitative synthesis. American
Educational Research Journal, 19, 559-578.
Student Time on Task (in the classroom)
Frederick, W.C., & Walberg, H.J. (1980). Learning as a function of time.
Journal of Educational Research, 73, 183-194.
Improved Reading/Study Skills
Pflaum, S.W., Walberg, H.J., Karegianes, M.L., & Rasher, S. (1980).
Reading instruction: A quantitative synthesis. Educational Researcher,
9, 12-18.
Cooperative Learning
Slavin, R.E. (1980). Cooperative learning. Review of Educational Research,
50, 315-342.
Classroom Morale
Haertel, G.D., Walberg, H.J., & Haertel, E.H. (1981). Social-psychological
environments and learning: A quantitative synthesis. British Educational
Research Journal, 7, 27-36.
Initial Cognitive Prerequisites*
Leyton, F.S. (1983). The extent to which group instruction supplemented
by mastery of the initial cognitive prerequisites approximates the learn-
ing effectiveness of one-to-one tutorial instruction (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Chicago, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International, 44,
974A.
Home Environment Intervention (parental educational program)
Iverson, B.K., & Walberg, H.J. (1982). Home environment and learning:
A quantitative synthesis. Journal ofExperimental Education, 50, 144-151.
Peer & Cross-Age Remedial Tutoring
Cohen, P.A., Kulik, J.A., & Kulik, C.C. (1982). Educational outcomes of
tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research
Journal, 19, 237-248.
Higher Order Questions
Redfield, D.L., & Rousseau, E.W. (1981). Meta-analysis of experimental
research on teacher questioning behavior. Review of Educational Research,
51, 235-245.
New Science & Math Curricula and Teacher Expectancy
Walberg, H.J. (1984). Improving the productivity of America's schools.
Educational Leadership, 41, 8, 19-27.
Peer Group Influence
Ide, J., Haertel, G.D., Parkerson, J.A., & Walberg, H.J. (1981). Peer-group
influences on learning: A quantitative synthesis. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 73, 472-484.
Advance Organizers
Luiten, J., Ames, W., & Ackerson, G. (1980). A meta-analysis of the effects
of advance organizers on learning and retention. American Educational
Research Journal, 17, 211-218.
"*not effect size studies
1984 15
 Notes Dave, R.H. (1963). The identificationNordin, A.B. (1980). Improving learn-
and measurement of environment ing: An experiment in rural primary
1In giving the percentile equivalent process variables that are related to
we make use of the normal curve dis- schools in Malaysia. Evaluation in
tribution. The control class distributions educational achievement. (Unpub- Education: An International Review
lished doctoral dissertation, Univer-Series, 4, 2, 143-263.
were approximately normal, although
sity of Chicago).
the mastery learning and tutoring Pflaum, S.W., Walberg, H.J., Kare-
groups were highly skewed. Dolan, L.J. (1980). The affective cor- gianes, M.L., & Rasher, S. (1980).
2Mean experimental-Mean control relates of home concern and support, Reading instruction: A quantitative
standard deviation of the control instructional quality, and achieve-synthesis. Educational Researcher, 9,
12-18.
ment. (Unpublished doctoral disserta-
Mex-Mc tion, University of Chicago). Slavin, R.E. (1980). Cooperative Learn-
sigma of control - effect size. ing. Review ofEducational Research,
Ide, J., Haertel, G.D., Parkerson, J.A.,
50, 315-342.
3When questionnaires rather than in-& Walberg, H.J. (1981). Peer group
terviews and observations have been influences on learning: A quantitative
Tenenbaum, G. (1982). A method of
used, the correlations are somewhat synthesis. Journal of Educational group instruction which is as effective
lower, with the average being between Psychology, 73, 472-484. as one-to-one tutorial instruction.
+.45 and +.55. (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Iverson, B.K., & Walberg, H.J. (1982). Chicago, 1982). Dissertation Ab-
Home environment and learning: A stracts International, 43, 1822A.
quantitative synthesis. Journal ofEx-
perimental Education, 50, 144-151. Walberg, H.J. (1984). Improving the
References productivity of America's schools.
Janhom, S. (1983). Educating parents Educational Leadership, 41, 8, 19-27.
Anania, J. (1982). The effects of quali- to educate their children. (Unpub-
ty of instruction on the cognitive and
Wolf, R.M. (1964). The identification
lished doctoral dissertation, Univer-
sity of Chicago). and measurement of home environ-
affective learning of students. (Doc-
toral dissertation, University of Chi- mental process variables that are
cago, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts Kalinowski, A., & Sloane, K. (1981). Therelated to intelligence. (Unpublished
home environment and school doctoral dissertation, University of
International, 42, 4269A.
achievement. Studies in Educational Chicago).
Anania, J. (1983). "The influence of in- Evaluation, 7, 85-96.
structional conditions on student Wolf, R.M. (1966). The Measurement of
learning and achievement." Evalua- Levin, T. (1979). Instruction which en- Environments. In A. Anastasi (Ed.),
tion in Education: An International ables students to develop higher men- Testing Problems in Perspective.
Review Series, 7, 1, 1-92. tal processes. Evaluation in Educa- Washington D.C.: American Council
on Education.
tion: An International Review Series,
Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advanced 3, 3, 173-220.
organizers in the learning and reten-
tion of meaningful verbal material.Leyton, F.S. (1983). The extent to
Journal of Educational Psychology, which group instruction supplement-
51, 267-272.
CARING
ed by mastery of the initial cognitive A Feminine Approach to
Bloom, B.S. (1980). The new direction prerequisites approximates the learn- Ethics and Moral
in educational research: alterable vari- ing effectiveness of one-to-one tu-
Education
ables. Phi Delta Kappan, 61, 6, torial methods. (Doctoral dissertation,
382-385. University of Chicago, 1983). Disser- by Nel Noddings
tation Abstracts International, 44, "Noddings is chiefly concerned
Bloom, B.S., Engelhart, M.D., Furst,974A. with reintroducing moral educa-
E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl, D.R. tion into our schools. To this end,
(1956). Taxonomy ofEducational Ob- Luiten, J., Ames, W., & Ackerson, G. she would both alter structures
jectives: Handbook I, Cognitive Do-(1980). A meta-analysis of the effects and encourage dialogue, prac-
main. New York: Longman. of advance organizers on learning and tice, and confirmation in service
retention. American Educational of the ethical ideal.... A timely,
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Is Early In-Research Journal, 17, 211-218. accessible elaboration of a
tervention Effective? In H.J. Leich- female ethic, with ramifications
ter, (Ed.), The Family as Educator. Marjoribanks, K. (1974). Environments both personal and political."
"-Kirkus Reviews
New York: Teachers College Press. for Learning. London: National Foun-
"An excellent example of the
dation for Educational Research. new humanistic-feminist scholar-
Brophy, J.E., & Good, T.L. (1970).
Teachers' communication of differen- ship. Of interest to all who are
Mevarech, Z.R. (1980). The role of concerned with humane
tial expectations for children's class- teaching-learning strategies and feed-
behavior."--Library Journal
room performance: Some behavioral back-corrective procedures in devel- $15.95 at bookstores
data. Journal of Educational oping higher cognitive achievement.
Psychology, 61, 365-374. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Chicago). University of
Burke, A.J. (1984). Students' potential
for learning contrasted under tutorialNordin, A.B. (1979). The effects of dif- California
and group approaches to instruction. ferent qualities of instruction on Press
(Doctoral dissertation, University of selected cognitive, affective, and time
Chicago, 1983). Dissertation Ab- variables. (Unpublished doctoral dis- Berkeley 94720
stracts International, 44, 2025A. sertation, University of Chicago).

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