SPE

Society of Petroleum Engineef'S

SPE 18178

Techniques for Measuring the Electrical Properties

of Sandstone Cores
by M.G. Lewis, Standard Alaska Production Co., and M.M. Sharma, H.F. Dunlap,
and M.H. Dorfman, U. of Texas
SPE Members

Copyright 1988, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 63rd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
Houston, TX, October 2-5, 1988.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the
author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the
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ABSTRACT Also, saturation gradients caused by capillary boundary effects

Methods currently being used to measure the electrical
conductivity of fluid saturated porous media are highly sensitive
to various capillary and electrical effects. If these effects are not
taken. into account when making electrical measurements on
cores, large errors in the computed values of the resistivity index
(I) and the Archie saturation exponent (n) can occur.
Resistivity was monitored at 1 inch [25 .4 mm] and 2 inch .
[50.8 mm] intervals along 6 inch [152.4 mm] Berea cores in
order to observe electrical and capillary end effects.
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT Scan) was utilized to
examine fluid distributions within the sandstone cores under
water-wet primary drainage conditions. When the CAT Scan
·data was combined with electrical resistivity data, the magnitude
of electrical contact resistances between the current electrodes
and the core can be estimated as well as the saturation variation
due to the capillary end effect. It was found that the contact
resistances are substantial at low water saturations and in oil-wet
cores.
INTRODUCTION
Researchers have been measuring the electrical properties
of fluid saturated rocks for many years. Numerous techniques
have been devised for measuring the electrical resistivity of
rocks under varying conditions of stress, temperature and
wettability. Methods for measuring electrical resistivity can be
separated into two general categories, which are: Two-electrode
and four-electrode measurements.
Previous worksl,2 have shown that two-electrode and
four-electrode electrical measurements produce differing values
of resistivity in rocks which have been saturated with both
conductive and non-conductive phases. Dunlap3 indicated that
contact resistances which develop between the current/voltage
electrodes and the core could lead to resistivity measurement
errors with two-electrode systems. He advocated using a four-
electrode system with a very high internal impedance voltmeter,
where voltage electrodes which are separate from the ctirrent
electrodes are used for measuring voltage drops along the core.
References and illustrations at end of paper.
697
can lead to uncertain water saturations between the electrodes
used to make the voltage drop measurements. This uncertain
water saturation between the electrodes can lead to erroneous
calculations of the saturation exponent (n).
Not all two-electrode data is unreliable. When water-wet
cores with a high water saturation are used, particularly with
electrodes with large smface areas (platinum black, etc.) two and
four-electrode data are often quite similar. However~ with low
water saturations, and especially with oil-wet cores, the
differences can be substantial.
In order to better understand the effects of electrical contact
resistances, electrical resistivity measurements were made on
Berea sandstone cores which were saturated with petroleum
naptha and a sodium chloride brine. The cores varied from
strongly water-wet to oil-wet. Both two and four-electrode
resistivity measurements were made to determine the differences
between the two electrical systems. Water saturation profiles
along water-wet cores under drainage were determined using
data obtained from Computerized Axial Tomography. Using the
CAT Scan data, four-electrode resistivities could be combined
with corrected water saturations to calculate the saturation
exponent.
The significance of electrical measurements on cores is a
function of how the measurements are made. Much of the
·previous work in the area of electrical conductivity of porous
media has been subject to various electrical and capillary effects
which have not been taken into consideration when the results of
the experiments were analyzed. Large errors can be made when
applying petrophysical parameters obtained under less than ideal
conditions. Since many reservoir models use the electrical data
derived from core analysis, it is critical that the information
obtained from electrical studies be both accurate and consistent.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Berea sandstone was used for all of the electrical
measurements in this work. The Berea was a relatively
homogeneous, arkosic sandstone with a small fraction of clay,
primarily kaolinite and chlorite. Depositional layering was
barely visible within the cores, but was very apparent with CAT
2 TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SANDSTONE CORES
Scan data. Core porosities ranged from 14.8% to 23.0%.
Permeabilities varied from about 100 md to 300 md. The mode
of the pore radius was 11 microns [4.33 E-04 inches].
Electrical measurements were made using a triaxial
pressure resistivity cell, with axial and radial stresses on the
cores varying from 250 psi [1724 kPa] to 5000 psi [34,474
kPa]. Five electrodes were used, with two stainless steel
electrodes serving as both current and voltage electrodes (for
two-electrode measurements), and the remaining three point
electrodes measuring only voltage drops along the core. The
combination current/voltage electrodes will be referred to as the
inlet and outlet electrodes, because they also serve as fluid
distribution endplates for the saturating phases. The three
voltage electrodes are two inches apart and are numbered #1, #2
and #3, with #1 being closest to the inlet end of the core and #3
being closest to the outlet. Electrode #1 is 1 inch [25.4 mm]
from the inlet electrode and electrode #3 is 1 inch [25 .4 mm]
from the outlet electrode. Figure 1 demonstrates the electrode
configuration with respect to the Berea core.
Voltages were measured with a high internal impedance
(20 megohms) digital voltmeter. Current was supplied by a 60
Hz AC variable transformer. Currents were kept very low,
usually about 5 milliamps. Saturations were achieved by
dynamic displacement. Separate pumps were used for the brine
and naptha, and fluid saturations were calculated for the entire
core by material balance.
Core wettabilities were carefully measured using centrifuge
techniques as described by Sharma and Wunderlich4. Water-
wet cores were prepared by soaking them in ethanol for several
weeks and heating overnight at 250° C [482° F]. This process
rendered the sandstone cores strongly water-wet. Oil-wet cores
were prepared by treating them with Quilon C, which is a
material used to make surfaces hydrophobic. The following
procedure was used to treat the Berea cores with Quilon:
1. A 20% solution of Quilon C and reagent grade
isopropyl alcohol was prepared.
2. The core to be treated was evacuated for at least
two hours.
3. Quilon solution was added to the core under a
vacuum until the core was submerged in the
solution. The core and solution were boiled under
vacuum (at ambient temperature) for 15 minutes.
4. The core was allowed to sit in the Quilon solution
overnight.
5. The Quilon solution was drained from the flask and
the core was evacuated for 4 hours.
6. Steps 3,4 and 5 were repeated.
7. The core was flushed with ethanol until effluent
was a very slight green color.
8. The core was heated overnight at 60° C [140° F].
9. Steps 3 through 8 were repeated.
Amott Ratios and the USBM Index were determined for the
Quilon treated cores. The Oil Amott was 0.38 and the Water
Amott was 0.02. The USBM Index was -0.18. These numbers
demonstrated that the Quilon treated Berea cores were oil-wet.
Computerized Axial Tomography was used to evaluate the
water saturation as a function of core length. The machine used
was a second generation X-ray scanner where multiple detectors
698
SPE 18178
in a translate/rotate configuration collect data. Scans were taken
at 5 mm [0.197 inch] intervals along the length of the core.
CAT Scan software allowed the mean density of each interval
(slice) to be calculated. Cores were initially scanned under
vacuum, which allowed an unsaturated rock density to be
obtained. The cores were then flooded with barium chloride
doped brine. Barium chloride has an extremely large effective
X-ray density which allows the brine density to contrast with the
naptha density in the naptha and brine saturated cores.
Saturations were calculated using a density balance equation of
the following form:
Pscan = Pgrain (1 -<I>)+ Pfluid (<I>) • · · · · · · • [1]
where the density of the saturating fluid is defined by:
Pfluid = Pbrine (Sw) + Pnaptha (1 - Sw) · · · · · · [2]
Combining these equations and solving for Sw, water saturation
could be calculated for each slice.
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Eyaluation of Electrical Contact Resistances and
Capmary End Effects
Voltage drops were measured with various electrode
combinations along the cores. Two-electrode measurements
were made using the inlet and outlet electrodes as both voltage
and current electrodes. Two-electrode measurements were also
made by using the inlet electrode and voltage probe #1 as well as
the outlet electrode and voltage probe #3 to measure voltage
drops. Four-electrode measurements were made by using the
inner electrode combinations of; probes #1 and #2, probes #2
and #3, and probes #1 and #3 for measuring voltage drops. The
combination of these probes allowed resistivity to be calculated
along the length of the core.
Figures 2 through 5 show resistivity profiles along water-
wet and oil-wet cores. The resistivity points at 0.5 inches [12.7
mm] were obtained by using the inlet electrode and electrode #1
to measure the voltage drop. The points at 2 inches [50.8 m]
were obtained by using electrodes #1 and #2 to measure the
voltage drop. The points at 3 inches [76.2 mm] used electrodes
#1 and #3, the points at 4 inches [101.6 mm] used electrodes #2
and #3, and the points at 5.5 inches [139.7 mm] used electrode
#3 and the outlet electrode to measure voltage drops. The
assumption was made that each resistivity point was located
halfway between the electrodes used to make the voltage drop
measurements. This assumption is probably not entirely valid,
but for the purpose of evaluating some of the mechanisms
responsible for non-uniform water saturation and electrical
contact resistances, Figures 2-5 prove quite useful.
Figure 2 shows resistivity versus length profiles for
several water-wet cores under primary drainage. Water-wet
cores were initially saturated with deaerated brine, then driven to
residual water saturation by primary drainage. Multiple
experimental runs demonstrate very similar resistivity profiles.
Resistivities are very high at the inlet and outlet ends of the
cores. Within the middle portion of the cores, resistivity
decreases steadily, If these profiles are combined with CAT
Scan water saturation data in Figure 6, the characteristic shape of
the resistivity versus length profiles for water-wet primary
drainage can be broken down.
Water saturation versus length from CAT Scan data is
plotted in Figure 6 for a water-wet core under primary drainage.
The CAT Scan was taken after 100 pore volumes of naptha had
displaced the brine. Several features are noticeable in Figure 6.
The capillary boundary effect is prominent at the outlet end of
SPE 18178 M.G. LEWIS, M. M. SHARMA, H.F. DUNLAP AND M.H. DORFMAN
the core, particularly in the final 5 millimeters [.197 inches]
before the outlet. Capillary boundary effects are caused by the
discontinuity in pressure at the outlet end of the core. As the
effective pore radius becomes very large at the outlet where the
fluids exit the core, capillary pressure goes to zero. On a
drainage curve for water-wet cores, the only point of zero
capillary pressure is at Sw = 100%. Therefore, water saturation
goes from Swr within the majority of the core, to 1.0 at the
outlet. The theory of capillary boundary effects is adequately
covered by RichardsonS and Lewis6.
A core flood schedule was followed for both electrical
measurements and CAT Scan data. The initial flowrate of the
displacing fluid was 2.5 cm3/min [0.53 E-02 ft3/hr] for 2 pore
volumes, 5.0 cm3fmin [1.06 E-02 ft3fhr] for the next 2 pore
volumes and 10.0 cm3/min [2.12 E-02 ft3/hr] for the final 96
pore volumes. This flood schedule was used in order to
minimize fingering with the low initial rates, then compress the
length of the capillary end effect with the following high
flowrates. Since the length of the capillary end effect is
inversely proportional to flowrate, higher flowrates lead to
shorter lengths of the saturation discontinuity.
High resistivities at the inlet and outlet ends of the core are
related to the contact resistances between the inlet and outlet
voltage electrodes and the core. The inlet resistivity is much
larger than the outlet resistivity because the water saturation is
much higher at the outlet due to the capillary end effect. The
higher water saturation leads to smaller contact resistances at the
outlet, because the electrode was able to contact the saturating
brine much better than at the inlet where the oil saturation was
very large. Decreasing resistivities from 2 inches [50.8 mm] to
4 inches [101.6 mm] are related to the increasing water
saturation towards the outlet as shown in Figure 6.
The overall material balance water saturation is indicated
by the dashed line in Figure 6. In the first half of the core,
actual water saturations are much less than the material balance
water saturation. In the second half of the core, actual water
saturations are greater than the material balance saturation. If
four-electrode resistivities were measured between electrodes #1
and #2 using the overall material balance water saturation, the
calculated saturation exponent (n) would have been too large.
Conversely, if resistivities had been measured between
electrodes #2 and #3, the calculated value of the saturation
exponent would have been too small. The water saturation
between electrodes #1 and #3 is approximately equal to the
material balance water saturation, so the four-electrode
measurements made with this pair of electrodes were assumed to
be correct.
Figure 3 shows resistivity versus length profiles for water-
wet cores under secondary imbibition. As in Figure 2, all of the
curves have the same general shape, with low resistivities at the
inlet and high resistivities at the outlet. The high resistivity at the
outlet is largely due to contact resistances, but the low inlet
resistivity indicates that the water saturation is very high at the
inlet. This is probably because of the proximity of the water
source to the inlet electrode allowing a film of brine to build up
between the core and the inlet electrode. Resistivity increases
slightly from 2 inches [50.8 mm] to 4 inches [101.6 mm],
indicating that viscous fingering may have been responsible for
non-pistonlike displacement. Sweep efficiencies are more likely
to be higher towards the inlet. During imbibition in water-wet
cores, the water saturation at the outlet is at the point on the
imbibition curve of zero capillary pressure. This point is
approximately 1 - S0 r for strongly water-wet rocks. Therefore,
water saturation should be almost constant over the entire core
length. The increase in resistivity at the outlet is indicative of the
magnitude of the contact resistance between the core and the
outlet electrode.
Resistivity versus length profiles for oil-wet cores are
699
3
shown in Figures 4 and 5. Oil-wet cores were initially saturated
with naptha. It was found that if they were initially saturated
with brine, naptha did not entirely replace the brine from the
surface of the rock. Measured values of the saturation exponent
for oil-wet cores were very similar (about 2.4) to those for
water-wet cores if the oil-wet cores were saturated initially with
water and then displaced with naptha. The subsequent
secondary drainage gave saturation exponents much larger than
the primary imbibition (about 3.5). It was concluded that this
behavior was due to oil slowly displacing the brine from the
surface of the rock. Much larger values of the saturation
exponent (over 5) were obtained for oil-wet cores initially
saturated with oil.
Primary drainage (water displacing naptha in an initially
naptha saturated oil-wet rock) is shown in Figure 4. The
drainage curves for the oil-wet rocks are similar to the imbibition
curves for the water-wet rocks. High resistivities predominate at
the outlet because of the large contact resistances. Inlet
resistivities are low because of the proximity of the water to the
inlet as in the water-wet imbibition case. Secondary imbibition
curves are displayed in Figure 5. Very large resistivities are
present at the inlet and the outlet. The outlet resistivity is larger
than the inlet resistivity because of the capillary boundary effect
causing the oil saturation to increase to 1 at the outlet.
Two-electrode and four-electrode values of the saturation
exponent are shown in Table 1 for water-wet (WW) and oil-wet
(OW) cores under drainage and imbibition. Two-electrode
resistivities consistently run higher than corresponding corrected
four-electrode measurements. The average difference between
two and four-electrode saturation exponents for water-wet cores
is 7%. Oil-wet cores show an even more dramatic difference
between two and four-electrode measurements. Two-electrode
measurements run an average of 12.2% higher than corrected
four-electrode measurements. Corrected four-electrode
measurements are assumed to be those made between voltage
electrodes #1 and #3, where the material balance water saturation
was equivalent to the CAT Scan water saturation between the
electrodes. It was assumed that oil-wet rocks under drainage
behaved similarly to the water-wet rocks, except oil saturation
would replace water saturation in Figure 6. The largest
difference between the two methods is for oil-wet rocks during
imbibition. This occurs because of the combination of high oil
saturation and water being trapped within the pores making
contact between the conductive brine and the electrodes very
difficult, leading to large contact resistances.
If an assumption is made that electrical end effects are
responsible for the difference between two and four-electrode
resistivities, the magnitude of the contact resistances can be
calculated. An equivalent resistance for the entire core length
can be calculated knowing the geometry of the core, the
measured resistivities of the two-electrode measurements
between the inlet and outlet electrodes, and the corrected four-
electrode resistivities using electrodes #1 and #3. Subtracting
these equivalent resistances gives the magnitude of the contact
resistances or:
r2 - r4 = rcon ........... [3]
Calculated contact resistances for water-wet and oil-wet
rocks under drainage and imbibition are shown in Table 2.
Water-wet and oil-wet contact resistances under drainage are
very similar in magnitude, running between 300 ohms and 1000
ohms. Water-wet rocks under imbibition show the smallest
contact resistances, running from 20 ohms to 200 ohms. Oil-
wet contact resistances under imbibition are exceptionally large,
trending around 500,000 to 600,000 ohms. Contact resistances
are small for water-wet cores at high water saturations, because
water coats the rock grains and is very continuous. The
conductive brine should always be in good contact with the
4 TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SANDSTONE CORES
electrodes at high water saturations. This is also demonstrated
by the oil-wet drainage numbers, where water saturation is
large. Water saturation is much lower in the water-wet drainage
case, and contact resistances are one to two magnitudes larger
than the imbibition case. Oil-wet imbibition contact resistances
are extremely large because of the combination of low brine
saturations and isolation of the brine from the electrodes.
If the magnitude of contact resistances is comparable to the
resistance of the core, large errors in the measured two-electrode
resistivities and calculated saturation exponents can result. Short
cores have lower resistances than long cores of the same
diameter. Since contact resistances are additive to the core
resistances in a two-electrode measurement, smaller cores have a
much larger percent change in measured resistivity than larger
cores using two-electrode systems.
It can be demonstrated that large contact resistances can alter
calculated saturation exponents. Using the resistivity data from
Run #19, and given that Ro = 4.15 ohm-m and Sw =0.33, the
saturation exponent (n) can be calculated using the Archie
equation. Assuming the core is 1 inch [25.4 mm] long and 1
inch [25.4 mm] in diameter, the equivalent resistance can be
calculated from the corrected four-electrode resistivity. The
resistance is calculated to be 66,500 ohms. Adding the 600,000
ohm contact resistance to this gives a two-electrode measured
resistance of 666,500 ohms. Converting back into resistivity
gives a hypothetical two-electrode resistivity of 13,304 ohm-m.
Using the Archie equation and solving for the saturation
exponent gives a value of n = 7.28 for the small core. The two-
electrode saturation exponent for the 6 inch [152.4 mm] core
was measured to be 6.07. If the same procedure is repeated for
a hypothetical 12 inch [304.8 mm] core, the two-electrode
saturation exponent is calculated to be 5.71. The corrected four-
electrode saturation exponent was measured to be 5.18. These
hypothetical calculations indicate that two-electrode
measurements with short cores are extremely sensitive to
electrical contact resistances. Since capillary end effects cause
saturation variation to occur over a larger fraction of the length
of short cores, this adds to the problem. Saturation exponents
should be measured using as long a core as possible.
Hysteresjs apd Wettability Effects
Hysteresis behavior between drainage cycles of saturation
and core wettabilities are important factors in the determination
of the saturation exponent. Lewis7 and others8 have indicated
that the saturation exponent is substantially different under
drainage and imbibition cycles of saturation. A common method
of determining the saturation exponent is the "three point
method", where the resistivity index (I) is measured at Sw =
100%, at Swr and at Sor· A regression line is then drawn
between the points and the saturation exponent is determined.
This method of determining (n) should not be used since Swr is
achieved during a drainage cycle of desaturation and S0 r is
achieved during an imbibition cycle.
Centrifuge desaturation techniques are also questionable,
because of the redistribution of the phases after centrifuging has
taken place. Since the pressure difference between the phases is
a function of the distance from the axis of centrifuge rotation,
each portion of the core has a different water saturation because
of the non-uniform capillary pressure. After rotation has ceased,
capillary pressure equilibrates somewhere between the maximum
and minimum pressures and the fluids redistribute. The portion
of the core which has a higher wetting phase saturation is under
drainage during the redistribution. The portion of the core
which has a lower wetting phase saturation is under imbibition.
This leads to unknown hysteresis effects when centrifuge
techniques are used.
700
SPE 18178
Wettability is also very important to the resistivity behavior
of cores. Saturation exponents show an increase with more oil-
wet conditions (see Reference 7). In-situ wettabilities are likely
to be different from core wettability conditions during the
electrical measurements. Therefore, it is important that reservoir
wettability conditions be simulated in order for the electrical
resistivity data obtained from cores to be meaningful when
applied to actual saturation determinations from electrical logs.
CONCLUSIONS
Many factors need to be examined when analyzing the
electrical resistivity behavior of cores. These factors have not
usually been accounted for in past work, leading to unreliable
calculated values of the Archie saturation exponent (n). After
examining electrical contact resistances and capillary end effects
on Berea cores, the following conclusions were reached:
1. Electrical measurements of multiphase saturated cores are
affected by electrical contact resistances between the core and
electrodes, and non-uniform water saturations along the
length of the core because of capillary boundary effects.
2. Four-electrode systems are essentially unaffected by
electrical contact resistances between the inner voltage
electrodes and the core if a high internal impedance voltmeter
is used to measure voltage drops. Two-electrode
measurements are highly affected by contact resistances.
3. Saturation gradients within the core can be measured with
Computerized Axial Tomography. The saturation gradients
are caused by viscous fingerirtg and capillary boundary
effects. Saturation gradients due to capillary boundary
effects are more troublesome during drainage cycles of
saturation for both water-wet and oil-wet cores.
4. Multiple experimental data is necessary when measuring the
electrical properties of rocks. Repeatability of experimental
work allows a higher confidence and permits calculation of
standard deviations of the results.
5, Short cores are undesirable when measuring the electrical
properties of rocks. Large contact resistances can develop
between the core and the electrodes, which are additive to the
core resistance in two-electrode measurements. Non-
uniform water saturations are critical if the length of the core
is not substantially larger than the length of the capillary
boundary effect.
6. Separate saturation exponents should be measured for
drainage and imbibition cycles of saturation, since saturation
hysteresis affects the electrical properties of the cores.
Centrifuge desaturation techniques are undesirable because
of the unknown saturation hysteresis after centrifuging.
NOMENCLATURE
DR. Drainage cycle of saturation
I = Resistivity index
1MB. = Imbibition cycle of saturation
n = Archie saturation exponent
ow Oil-wet
Pore volumes, (fraction)
PV =
Two-electrode equivalent resistance, (ohms)
SPE 18178 M.G. LEWIS, M.M. SHARMA, H.F. DUNLAP AND M.H. DORFMAN 5

r4 Four-electrode equivalent resistance, (ohms)

rcon = Contact resistance, (ohms)
Ro Resistivity of 100% brine filled rock, (ohm-m)
Pbrine Density of saturating brine, (g/cm3)
Ptluid Density of saturating fluid, (g/cm3)
Pgrain Rock matrix grain density, (g/cm3)
Pnaptha Density of naptha, (g/cm3)
Pscan Density of CAT scan slice, (g/cm3)
ci> = Porosity, (fraction)
Sor Residual oil saturation, (fraction)
Sw = Water saturation, (fraction)
Swr = Residual water saturation, (fraction)
ww Water-wet

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The support of the participants in the Consortium on

Logging and Petrophysics Research Program at the University
of Texas, The Department of Energy and the American Chemical
Society Petroleum Research Fund is appreciated. Also many
thanks to Mr. George R. Coates for his constructive input
during the research effort.

REFERENCES

1. Rust, C. F.: "Electrical Resistivity Measurements on

Reservoir Rock Samples by the Two-Electrode and Four-
Electrode Methods," Trans. A/ME (1952), Vol. 195, p.
217.

2. Walther, H. C.: "Saturation from Logs-Laboratory

Measurements of Logging Parameters," SPE Paper No.
1865, SPE Annual Meeting, Houston, TX. (1967).

3. Dunlap, H. F. et al:: "The Relation Between Electrical

Resistivity and Brine Saturation in Reservoir Rocks," Pet.
Trans. A/ME (1949), Vol. 186, p. 259.

4. Sharma, M. M. and Wunderlich, R. W.: "The Alteration of

Rock Properties Due to Interactions with Drilling Fluid
Components," SPE Paper No. 14302, SPE Annual Meeting,
Las Vegas, NV. (1985).

5. Richardson, J. G. et al.: "Laboratory Determinations of

Relative Permeability," Trans. A/ME (1952), Vol. 195, p.
187.

6. Lewis, M.G.: The Effects of Stress and Wettability on the

Electrical Properties of Rocks, Masters Thesis, The
University of Texas, p. 102.

7. Lewis, M. G., Sharma, M. M. and Dunlap, H. F.:

"Wettability and Stress Effects on Saturation and
Cementation Exponents," Trans. SPWLA 29th Annual
Logging Symposium, June 5-8, 1988, Vol. 1, Paper K.

8. Swanson, B. F.: "Rationalizing the Influence of Crude

Wetting on Reservoir Fluid Flow with Electrical Resistivity
Behavior," Jour. of Pet. Tech. (1980), Vol. 32, p. 1459.

701
 TABLE 1-TWO·ELECTRODE AND FOUR-ELECTRODE RESISTIVITY DATA seE 18178
RESISTIVITY RESISTIVITY n n SATURATION
RUN# 4·ELECTRODE 2·ELECTRODE 4-ELECTRODE 2·ELECTRODE CYCLE ~%
(n-m) (!l-m) (WW/OW)
TABLE 2-MAGNITUDE OF CONTACT RESISTANCES FOR WATER-WET AND OIL-WET CORES
10 19.21 21.2 1.99 2.10 DR.0/'JW) 5.5
10 5.17 5.2B 1.57 1.64 IMB.(WW) 4.5
CONTACT RESISTANCE (OHMS)
11 19.10 21.4 1.63 1.79 DR. (WW) 9.B
11 9.22 9.2B 1.37 1.41 IMB.(WW) 2.9 (DRAINAGE) (IMBIBITION)
13 17.91 20.B 1.9B 2.14 DR. 0/'IW) B.1
EXPERIMENT WATER-WET OIL-WET WATER-WET OIL-WET
13 5.27 5.BB 1.66 1.74 IMB.(WW) 4.B
14 17.24 20.54 2.12 2.36 DR. CNW) 11.3 10 600 30
14 4.70 5.1B 1.6B 1.B3 IMB.(WW) B.9 11 700 20
13 900 200
15 45.65 65.7 2.29 2.63 IMB.(OW) 14.B 14 1000 140
15 12.96 14.1 3.35 3.56 DR. (OW) 6.3 15 300
17 21.24 24.2
*
4.22 4.53 DR. (OW) 7.3 17 BOO, B001 500000
17 724.26 2565.0 4.14 5.1B IMB.(OW) 25.1 19 BOO, B00 1 600000
20 300 500000
17 21.33 24.4 3.75 4.0B 2DR. (OW) B.B
19 20.01 23.1 5.16 5.69 DR. (OW) 10.3
19 1327.2 3456.0 5.1B 6.07 IMB.(OW) 17.2 •Data not included
1Data for primary and secondary drainage
19 23.51 26.7 4.B7 5.22 2DR. (OW) 7.2
20 20.93 22.0 3.B1 3.93 DR.(OW) 3.2
20 1002.67 3304.0 3.7B 4.61 IMB.(OW) 22.0

~% REFERS TO THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO AND FOUR-ELECTRODE SATURATION

EXPONENTS

RESISTIVITY vs LENGTH FOR WATER-WET CORES

PRIMARY DRAINAGE • 100 PV INJECTED
35~-----------------------------------,

~ RUN#10
--o-- RUN #11
VOLTAGE ELECTRODES 30
#1 #2 #3 'E
:!::z::
~ 25

>
1-
~ 20
en
u;
w
Fig. 1-Eiectrode configuration used to measure electrical resistivities. a: 15

2 3 4 6
LENGTH (In)
Fig. 2-Reslsllvlty profiles for water-wet Berea during primary drainage.

RESISTIVITYvs LENGTH FOR WATER-WET CORES RESISTIVITY vs LENGTH FOR OIL-WET CORES
SECONDARY IMBIBITION -100 PV INJECTED PRIMARY DRAINAGE - 100 PV INJECTED
11 ~------------------------------------~ 60~--------------------------------~

10

'E s 4o
:!::z:: ::!:
:z:: ~ RUN#17
~ ~ --o-- RUN #19
~ RUN#10
> --o-- RUN#11
> 30 RUN#20
1- 1-
> 7
>
i=
en
u;
w
------
----6--
RUN#13
RUN#14
i=
en
u;
w 20
a: a:

2 3 4 6
LENGTH (in) LENGTH (In)
Fig. 3-Reslstlvlty profiles for water-wet Berea during secondary Imbibition. Fig. 4-Reslstlvlty profiles for oil-wet Berea during primary drainage.

702
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18

RESISTIVITY vs LENGTH FOR OIL-WET CORES

SECONDARY IMBIBITION - 100 PV INJECTED

8000
'E
~
e.
:I:
6000

>
1-
>
i=
4000
en
u;
w
a: 2000

0+-~--~~--~~--~~--r-~--r-~~
0 2 3 4 5 6
LENGTH (in)
Fig. 5-Resistivity profiles for oil-wet Berea during secondary imbibition.

WATER SATURATION vs CORE LENGTH

WATER-WET -100 PV DRAINAGE
1.00~-----r-------------r--------------------

#1 #2 #3

0.75

== 0.50
U)

0.25

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

INLET OUTLET
LENGTH (mm)
Fig. 6-CATSCAN determination of water saturation profiles.

703