Academic writing

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Academic writing, or scholarly writing is a prose register that is conventionally characterized by "evidence...that
the writer(s) have been persistent, open-minded, and disciplined in study"; that prioritizes "reason over emotion or
sensual perception"; and that imagines a reader who is "coolly rational, reading for information, and intending to
formulate a reasoned response." [1] The particular stylistic means of achieving these conventions can differ
considerably by academic discipline, however; these differences help explain the distinctive sounds of, for example,
writing in history versus engineering or physics versus philosophy. [2][3] One attempt to account for these differences
in writing is known as the theory of "discourse communities," [4] as explained in more detail below.
Contents
 Discourse community
o Discourse community constraints
o Writing for a discourse community
o Novel argument
 Intertextuality
o Conversation
 Key elements
 Academic document types
o For students
o Summaries of knowledge
o Collating the work of others
o Research and planning
o Disseminating knowledge outside the academy
o Technical or administrative forms
o Personal forms
o Newer forms
 Disposition
 See also
 References
 Further reading
o General
o Architecture, design and art
 Bibliography

Discourse communityEdit
See also: Community of inquiry
A discourse community is essentially a group of people that shares mutual interests and beliefs. "It establishes limits
and regularities...who may speak, what may be spoken, and how it is to be said; in addition [rules] prescribe what is
true and false, what is reasonable and what foolish, and what is meant and what not." [citation needed]
The concept of a discourse community is vital to academic writers across nearly all disciplines, for the academic
writer's purpose is to influence their community to think differently. For this reason the academic writer must follow
the constraints set by the community so his or her ideas earn approval and respect.

Discourse community constraintsEdit

Constraints are the discourse community's written and unwritten conventions about what a writer can say and how
he or she can say it. They define what is an acceptable argument. Each discourse community expects to see a writer
construct his or her argument using their conventional style of language and vocabulary, and they expect a writer to
use the established intertext within the discourse community as the building blocks for his or her argument.
 Writing for a discourse communityEdit
In order for a writer to become familiar with some of the constraints of the discourse community they are writing
for. Across most discourses communities, writers will:

 Identify the novelty of their position

 Make a claim, or thesis
 Acknowledge prior work and situate their claim in a disciplinary context
 Offer warrants for one's view based on community-specific arguments and procedures

Each of theses above are constructed differently depending on the discourse community the writer is in. For
example, the way a claim is made in a high school paper would look very different from the way a claim is made in
a college composition class.[5] It is important for the academic writer to familiarize himself or herself with the
conventions of the discourse community by reading and analyzing other works, so that the writer is best able to
communicate his or her ideas.
Novel argumentEdit
Within discourse communities, academic writers build on top of the ideas established by previous writers.

Good academic writers know the importance of researching previous work from within the discourse community
and using this work to build their own claims. By taking these ideas and expanding upon them or applying them in a
new way, a writer is able to make their novel argument.

IntertextualityEdit
Intertextuality is the combining of past writings into original, new pieces of text. Usually attributed to Julia
Kristeva, the concept of intertextuality is helpful for understanding that all texts are necessarily related to prior texts
through a network of explicit or implicit links, allusions, repetitions, acknowledged or unacknowledged inspiration,
and direct quotations.[6] Writers (often unwittingly) make use of what has previously been written and thus some
degree of borrowing is inevitable. One of the most salient features of academic writing irrespective of discipline is
its unusually explicit conventions for marking intertextuality through citation and bibliography. Conventions for
these markings (e.g., MLA, APA, IEEE, Chicago, etc.) vary by discourse community.
ConversationEdit
Factoring in intertextuality, the goal of academic writing is not simply creating new ideas, but to offer a new
perspective and link between already established ideas. This is why gathering background information and having
past knowledge is so important in academic writing. A common metaphor used to describe academic writing is
"entering the conversation", a conversation that began long before you got there and will continue long after you
leave. A quote from Kenneth Burke encapsulates this metaphor:

Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and
they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you
exactly what it is about. In fact the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there,
so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for
a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar.
Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against
you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending on the quality of your
ally's assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart, with
the discussion still vigorously in progress.
Intertextuality plays into this because without it there would be no conversations, just hundreds of thousands of
writings not connected or able to build on each other. The listening until you can join the conversation can be seen
as doing research. All of the research you read, is built on research instead of self-knowledge.
 Key elementsEdit
A number of areas of importance in all academic and scholarly writing are:

Formal style or register

Writing should not be casual, but be in a appropriate formal register.[7]
Appropriate references
Generally speaking, the range and organization of references illustrate the author's awareness of the current
state of knowledge in the field (including major current disagreements or controversies); typically the
expectation is that these references will be formatted in the relevant disciplinary citation system.[8]
Bibliography
Typically this lists those articles read as background, and will include the sources of individual citations.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism, the "wrongful appropriation of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions", and
the representation of them as one's own original work is considered academic dishonesty, and can lead to
severe consequences.[9]
Academic document typesEdit
 Book, in many types and varieties
 Chapter in an edited volume
 Book report
 Conference paper
 Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length
 Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length
 Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part of a particular work; e.g. its terminology,
dialect, allusions or coded references
 Research Article
 Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length
 Technical report
 Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000 words in length
 Translation

For studentsEdit
 Exam questions and Essay titles; the formulation of these
 Instructional pamphlet, or hand-out, or reading list; usually meant for students
 Presentations; usually short, often illustrated

Summaries of knowledgeEdit
 Annotated bibliography
 Annotated catalogue, often of an individual or group's papers and/or library
 Creating a simplified graphical representation of knowledge; e.g. a map, or refining a display generated from
a database. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final work
 Creating a timeline or chronological plan. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final
work
 Devising a classification scheme; e.g. for animals, or newly arisen sub-cultures, or a radically new style of design
 Encyclopedia entry
 Journal article (e.g. History Today); usually presenting a digest of recent research
 Literature review; a summary and careful comparison of previous academic work published on a specific topic
 Site description and plan (e.g. in archeology)

Collating the work of othersEdit

 Anthology; collection, collation, ordering and editing of the work of others
 Catalogue raisonné; the definitive collection of the work of a single artist, in book form
 Collected works; often referred to as the 'critical edition'. The definitive collection of the work of a single writer or
poet, in book form, carefully purged of publishers errors and later forgeries, etc.
 Monograph or exhibition catalog; usually containing exemplary works, and a scholarly essay. Sometime contains
new work by a creative writer, responding to the work
 Transcribing, selecting and ordering oral testimony (e.g. oral history recordings)

Research and planningEdit

 Experimental plan
 Laboratory report
 Raw data collection plan
 Research plan (sometimes called desk-based research).
 Structured notes

Disseminating knowledge outside the academyEdit

 Call for papers
 Documentary film script or TV script or radio script
 Obituary
 Opinion; an academic may sometimes be asked to give an expert written opinion, for use in a legal case before
a court of law
 Newspaper opinion article
 Public speech or lecture
 Review of a book, film, exhibition, event, etc.
 Think-tank pamphlet, position paper, or briefing paper

Technical or administrative formsEdit

 Brief; short summary, often instructions for a commissioned work
 Peer review report
 Proposal for research or for a book
 White paper; detailed technical specifications and/or performance report

Personal formsEdit
These are acceptable to some academic disciplines, e.g. Cultural studies, Fine art, Feminist studies, Queer
theory, Literary studies.
 Artist's book or Chapbook
 Autobiography
 Belles-lettres; stylish or aesthetic writing on serious subjects, often with reference to one's personal experience
 Commonplace book
 Diary or Weblog
 Memoire; usually a short work, giving one's own memories of a famous person or event
 Notebooks

Newer formsEdit
 Collaborative writing, especially using the internet
 Hypertext, often incorporating new media and multimedia forms within the text
 Performative writing (see also: belles-lettres)

DispositionEdit
The most common disposition standard in the academic world is the IMRAD method, stating that an academic
document should consist of sections in the following order:
 Introduction (Problem motivation, aim, objective, problem statement, own contributions, background materials,
overview)
 Method (Assumptions, questionary, system model, simulation model, performance measures)
 Result (Empirical results, charts, plots)

and

 Discussion (Analysis, Conclusions)

Other common sections in academic documents are:

 Abstract
 Acknowledgments
 Indices
 Bibliography
 List of references
 Appendix/Addendum, any addition to a document

See alsoEdit
 Academia
 Academic authorship
 Academic journal
 Academic publishing
 Author editing
 Creative class
 Criticism
 Expository writing
 Knowledge worker
 Persuasive writing or rhetoric
 Publishing
 Rhetorical device
 Scientific writing
 Scientific publishing
 Scholarly method
 Scholarly skywriting
 Style guide

ReferencesEdit
1. ^ Chris Thaiss and Terry Myers Zawacki (2006) Engaged Writers and Dynamic Disciplines: Research on the
Academic Writing Life, Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, [5-7].
2. ^ Stephen Catterall; Christopher Ireland (October 2010). "Developing Writing Skills for International Students:
Adopting a critical pragmatic approach". ResearchGate.
3. ^ Hyland, Ken (22 July 2004). Disciplinary Discourses, Michigan Classics Ed.: Social Interactions in Academic
Writing. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-03024-8.
4. ^ Swales, John. ''The Concept of Discourse Community." Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research
Settings. Boston: Cambridge UP, 1990.21-32. Print.
5. ^ Wikidot: Academic Writing For the Students Academic Writing
6. ^ Roozen, Kevin. (2015) "Texts Get Their Meaning from Other Texts." Naming What We Know: Threshold
Concepts in Writing Studies, Adler-Kassner & Wardle, eds. Logan: Utah State UP, 44-47,
7. ^ "How to write in an academic style". De Montfort University. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
8. ^ Giltrow, Janet and Michele Valiquette. (1994). Genres and knowledge: Students writing in the disciplines. In
Freedman, Aviva; Peter Medway (Eds.), Learning and teaching genre. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook (pp. 47-62).
9. ^ "Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices". Princeton University. 2012-07-27

Further readingEdit
GeneralEdit
 Tony, Becher,; Paul, Trowler, (1 October 2001). Academic Tribes And Territories: Intellectual Enquiry and the
Culture of Disciplines. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). ISBN 978-0-335-20627-8.
 Booth, Wayne C.; Colomb, Gregory G.; Williams, Joseph M. (15 May 2009). The Craft of Research, Third Edition.
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06264-8.
 Borg, Erik (2003). 'Discourse Community', English Language Teaching (ELT) Journal, Vol. 57, Issue 4, pp. 398–
400
 Canagarajah, A. Suresh (2002). A Geopolitics of Academic Writing. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-
8229-7238-9.
 Coinam, David (2004). 'Concordancing Yourself: A Personal Exploration of Academic Writing', Language
Awareness, Vol. 13, Issue 1, pp. 49–55
 Phyllis, Creme,; Mary, Lea, (1 May 2008). Writing At University: A Guide For Students. McGraw-Hill Education
(UK). ISBN 978-0-335-22116-5.
 Goodall, H. Lloyd, Jr. (2000). Writing Qualitative Inquiry: Self, Stories, and Academic Life (Walnut Creek, CA:
Left Coast Press)
 Johns, Ann M. (1997). Text, Role and Context: Developing Academic Literacies (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press)
 King, Donald W., Carol Tenopir, Songphan Choemprayong, and Lei Wu (2009). 'Scholarly Journal Information
Seeking and Reading Patterns of Faculty at Five U.S. Universities', Learned Publishing, Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp. 126–
144
 Kouritzin, Sandra G., Nathalie A. C Piquemal, and Renee Norman, eds (2009). Qualitative Research: Challenging
the Orthodoxies in Standard Academic Discourse(s) (New York: Routledge)
 Lincoln, Yvonna S, and Norman K Denzin (2003). Turning Points in Qualitative Research: Tying Knots in a
Handkerchief (Walnut Creek, CA; Oxford: AltaMira Press)
 Luey, Beth (2010). Handbook for Academic Authors, 5th edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
 Murray, Rowena, and Sarah Moore (2006). The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach (Maidenhead:
Open University Press)
 Nash, Robert J. (2004). Liberating Scholarly Writing: The Power of Personal Narrative (New York; London:
Teachers College Press)
 Paltridge, Brian (2004). 'Academic Writing', Language Teaching, Vol. 37, Issue 2, pp. 87–105
 Pelias, Ronald J. (1999). Writing Performance: Poeticizing the Researcher's Body (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois
University Press)
 Prior, Paul A. (1998). Writing/Disciplinarity: A Sociohistoric Account of Literate Activity in the Academy (Mahwah,
NJ; London: Lawrence Erlbaum)
 Rhodes, Carl and Andrew D. Brown (2005). 'Writing Responsibly: Narrative Fiction and Organization Studies', The
Organization: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Organizations and Society, Vol. 12, Issue 4, pp. 467–491
 Richards, Janet C., and Sharon K. Miller (2005). Doing Academic Writing in Education: Connecting the Personal
and the Professional (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum)
 Zamel, Vivian; Spack, Ruth (6 August 2012). Negotiating Academic Literacies: Teaching and Learning Across
Languages and Cultures. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-60891-9.

Architecture, design and artEdit

 Crysler, C. Greig (2002). Writing Spaces: Discourses of Architecture, Urbanism and the Built Environment(London:
Routledge)
 Francis, Pat (2009). Inspiring Writing in Art and Design: Taking a Line for a Write (Bristol; Chicago: Intellect)
 Frayling, Christopher (1993). 'Research in Art and Design', Royal College of Art Research Papers, Vol. 1, Issue 1,
pp. 1–5
 Piotrowski, Andrzej (2008). 'The Spectacle of Architectural Discourses', Architectural Theory Review, Vol. 13,
Issue 2, pp. 130–144
 Roudavski, Stanislav (2010). 'Transparency or Drama? Extending the Range of Academic Writing in Architecture
and Design', Journal of Writing in Creative Practice, 3, 2, pp. 111–133

BibliographyEdit
 Baldo, Shannon. "Elves and Extremism: the use of Fantasy in the Radical Environmentalist Movement." Young
Scholars in Writing: Undergraduate Research in Writing and Rhetoric 7 (Spring 2010): 108-15. Print.
 Greene, Stuart. "Argument as Conversation: The Role of Inquiry in Writing a Researched Argument." n. page. Print.
 Kantz, Margaret. "Helping Students Use Textual Sources Persuasively." College English 52.1 (1990): 74-91. Print.
 Porter, James. "Intertextuality and the Discourse Community."Rhetoric Review. 5.1 (1986): 34-47. Print.

Last edited 4 days ago by Bonadea

RELATED ARTICLES

How to Write Good Academic Papers: Easy

Guide for Beginners
 How to Write Good Academic Papers: Easy Guide for Beginners
 How to Write Academic Paper: Main Points to Consider
 General Principles
 Essential Steps of the Writing Process
 Thesis Statement
 Introduction
 Body Paragraphs
 Conclusion
 Revising
 Editing and proofreading
 Citation

Have no idea how start an engaging introduction paragraph in your history essay? Need advice on how to write good academic
papers - you are not alone. Academic writing is an important skill for the success in higher education and in any career field but
many university students find their written assignments too challenging and often consider them to be a form of a medieval torture.

Why is it so? The problem is that a lot of high school graduates enter colleges and universities having no idea how to complete
grammatically correct sentences that make sense, to say nothing about writing a college-level academic paper because no one
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How to Write Academic Paper: Main Points to Consider

Many young people have difficulties with academic paper writing. This type of writing is specific and differs a lot from what you were
asked to produce in high school because it involves a lot of reading, doing in-depth research of scholarly literature, planning,
revising, making changes in content and structure, rewriting, editing, proofreading, and formatting. Don’t be scared. Writing is a skill
that any student can learn and master. We hope that this short guide will explain everything you need to succeed.

What is an academic paper? This type of writing can be defined in many ways and your instructors can give different names to
these assignments – essay, term paper, analysis essay but all of them have the same purpose and are based on the same
principles.

The goal of completing written assignments is to show that you have a profound knowledge of a specific topic and to share your own
thoughts about a scientific question or an issue that may be of interest to your audience – students, your professor, and other
scholars. You have to demonstrate your critical thinking skills.

General Principles
Take into account 8 key principle of academic writing.

 Your papers must have a clear purpose (inform, analyze, synthesize or persuade) and answer your topic question.
 Your papers must present your original point of view.
 Your writing must have a single focus – all paragraphs have to include relevant evidence (facts, expert opinions,
quotations, examples) to support your thesis statement.
 You must follow a standard organizational pattern. Every academic text must include the following parts: an introduction,
the main body, and a conclusion. Some papers may require an abstract.
 As an author, you need to provide clear, logical, and simple explanations to your reader.
 You should refer to a number of scholarly sources. You need to integrate source materials into your discussion. Take care
to include all sources (books, articles from a scientific journal, publications on online resources) that you cite, introduce,
analyze or explain on a reference list in the bibliography page.
 To ensure academic integrity, all college essays should be formatted in accordance with the requirements of one of the
specific citation styles – APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago that determine the rules for in-text citations, paper sections, format,
reference list.
 You need to use your own words. Don’t try to be too formal or you may sound boring to your readers. Use natural
language, common for conversations.

Essential Steps of the Writing Process

Writing an academic paper can be done step-by-step. If you are a beginner, you can follow these steps that have worked for millions
of college students; they can save you a lot of time.

1. Select an interesting topic. If you lack ideas, you may search the internet using Google, look through your lecture notes,
and consider your course readings or current news.
2. Do research and record sources’ information. Keep in mind that you may need to continue research as you discover
thesis, make an outline, write and revise the document.
3. Formulate a strong thesis statement that you will argue.
4. Plan your essay and make a basic outline. Take notes from your sources and add details to your outline and make sure
that you have supporting evidence for your points.
5. Write the first draft of your essay. You can start from any part and you shouldn’t worry about grammar, punctuation and
spelling as you construct your sentences. You will fix it later.
6. Revise your first draft and improve the content, logic, and the flow. Make transitions between your ideas. Make changes to
improve the content and rewrite your draft. You may need to do it more than once.
7. Edit and proofread your final draft to ensure that your essay is flawless.

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Thesis Statement
A thesis statement determines the main argument of your essay. A good thesis statement expresses the main idea of your essay,
presents your own point of view, and gives an answer to your research question. The success of your entire project depends on
your thesis and you need to do your best to ensure that it is debatable, specific, and concise. Try to write your thesis early. It will
help you stay focused when you do research and take notes.

Introduction
Introductions and conclusions are very important. The introduction introduces your argument to your reader and convinces them
why they should care about reading your paper. Your task is to engage your audience. Wondering how to do it? Check this useful
article on our blog that discusses engaging strategies for starting an essay.

Start your introduction with attention grabber and provide background information about the significance of your topic, introduce a
subject, and give some definitions of the key terms. End your introduction with a thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs
Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence; don’t begin a paragraph with a fact. The topic sentence should present the main
idea of the paragraph and express your point of view. In the next sentences, you should support the topic sentence with additional
supporting ideas, specific details, interesting facts, statistics, clear explanations, relevant examples. All supporting sentences should
be logical. You should make sure they are connected with connection words to help your reader follow your argument.

Finish every paragraph with a concluding sentence. It should be your own idea and not a source citation. The last sentence in a
paragraph should review the key points you have discussed in it, emphasize your main idea or your thesis statement, and prepare
your audience to the points that you are going to discuss in the next paragraph.

Don’t make your paragraphs too long. People find it difficult to focus on large blocks of text; paragraphs shouldn’t be longer than ¾
of a page. If you discover that your paragraph is very long, divide it logically into two separate paragraphs.

Conclusion
This part of your paper is the most important. Actually, readers remember the first and the last parts of what they read; a conclusion
is your last chance to make an impression and show the significance of your findings. How can you achieve that? When writing a
conclusion, you need to provide connections to the previous ideas, briefly summarize your findings or restate the thesis. You
shouldn’t include any new information. Finish your essay with a strong concluding statement that your readers will remember.

Revising
No one can write a perfect first draft. It’s impossible - revising is critical if you want to impress your professor and get a high grade
for your work. You should start revising the content at least a week before your paper is due. You can use another strategy as well -
revise individual paragraphs as you write them. Be ready that you may need to write more than one draft or revise your paper
several times.

Read your paper and make changes to fix it and make impeccable. You can do it in a number of ways.

 Eliminate irrelevant ideas and unnecessary information

 Add new explanations, details, points to ensure additional support for your argument
 Rewrite paragraphs and sentences to present your ideas better
 Re-organize paragraphs and sentences to make your paper logical

Editing and proofreading

Do you like your essay’s content? If you do, it’s time to edit it and add finishing touches. The goal of editing is making your writing
clearer, more precise to ensure that your readers will be able to understand it.
How should you do it? You may ask someone to read your essay and request their feedback. You can read your college paper
aloud yourself to hear the lack of clarity, repetition, wordiness, grammar mistakes and correct them. Use English dictionaries and
grammar books.

You should use the following editing strategies to make your essay as best as it can be.

 Fix sentences with the passive voice

 Improve word choice by replacing long words with shorter ones
 Improve sentence structure and word order – correct run-ons and fragments
 Fix the logic, flow, and connections between ideas
 Rewrite long sentences and make them concise; eliminate unnecessary sentences in paragraphs if they don’t convey new
messages
 Fix repetition and use thesaurus to find synonyms

When you finish editing, proofread your essay and fix minor errors, careless mistakes, typos. Check punctuation and spelling. Use
the printed copy to notice mistakes you may overlook on a computer screen. Start proofreading with the last sentence and go
backward; in this way, you will focus on spelling and grammar and not on the content.

Citation
We have discussed how to write academic paper. Let’s talk about another important aspect of your future essay – citations. To
avoid plagiarism, you must give credit to other people whose ideas you use in your own work.

You have the right to express your opinions. You have the right to use ideas of people to support your argument and draw
conclusions, but it’s your responsibility to inform your audience which ideas in your essay are not yours and which are your own.
With proper citations, you demonstrate that you understand the significance of other people’s research, findings, and ideas in
developing your own argument.

How to cite your sources? You should include in-text citations in accordance with the guidelines of the citation style recommended
by your instructor. You are required to include a list of the sources you have cited at the end of your paper. Don’t cite works that are
not in your bibliography.

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Follow these guidelines and useful tips to create great papers and impress your professor. Need interesting topic ideas for your
projects? Check other articles on our blog.

Writing academically on a college level is a hard work that requires a lot of time and effort. You can’t become a confident writer in a
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working for many hours every day.

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