MEANING OF PLACE IN SACRED ARCHITECTURE

ZORANA SOKOL GOJNIK, PhD.

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB
KAČIĆEVA 26, ZAGREB, CROATIA
TEL. +385 91 168 1977; e-mail: zorana.sokol@arhitekt.hr

IGOR GOJNIK
ARCHITECTURAL OFFICE "SILOUETA"
ŠIROLINA 8, ZAGREB, CROATIA
TEL. +385 91 253 9151; e-mail; igor.gojnik@siloueta.com

SUMMARY

When we consider the meaning of place then we also find ourselves focusing on the meaning
of architecture, as well as the meaning of place within the context of sacred architecture. The
“meaning of place” quite evidently implies meaning and place. And while place refers to the
phenomenon of space, meaning refers to the phenomenon of what is implied, connotation. In
order to better understand the meaning of place, we first need to explain these phenomena
within the context of architecture as such, and then within the framework that provides the
meaning of the phenomenon of architecture. Through the application of this method, the aim
is to achieve an analytical approach to the meaning of place in sacred architecture that is
imbued with symbolism.

1
SPACE-PLACE

Although one should note that the concept of place is already clearly differentiated from the
concept of location, i.e. positioning within space, within the context of architectural theory,
this differentiation still remains blurred, despite endeavours invested by theoreticians of
architecture, such as Christian Norberg Schulz, Alberto Pérez-Gómez, Juhani Pallasmaa,
Karsten Harries or Dalibor Vesely, aimed at stressing the importance of this distinction for the
understanding of the phenomenon of architecture.

It would seem that the underlying reasons for this is to be found in the complexity
contained within the philosophy of Martin Heidegger which is a reference for all theoreticians
of architecture concerned with phenomenology and hermeneutics, as well as persisting
viewpoint that architecture is predominantly a human activity concerned with space, in the
sense of “shaping space”, “forms within space” or “the art of space”. Architecture definitely
belongs to this category; however, the problem lies in the conceptualization of the term space,
particularly in the sense of distinct mathematical-absolute space as a universal, a-temporal
scene used for the arrangement of objects and events. Devoiding of meaning conceal an
essential linguistic-meaningful dimension for archiectural space.
Therefore, in order to expound upon the meaning of place, we need to incorporate the
phenomenon of language within the context of the phenomenon of architecture. “When asked
about the “meaning” of architecture, one cannot avoid the use of language for interpretation:
Without language architecture cannot be understood or “grasped”." 1 The extent to which the
phenomenon of architecture is more complex than an understanding of architecture in the
sense of shaping space is stressed by Alberto Pérez-Gómez: “The reality of architecture is
infinitely more complex, both shifting with history and culture, and also remaining the same;
analogous to the human condition which always demands that we address the same basic
questions to come to terms with mortality and the possibility of transcendence opened up by
language, while expecting infinitely diverse answers, appropriate to specific times and places.
Architecture possesses its own "universe of discourse" and over the centuries has seemed
capable to offer humanity far more than a technical solution to pragmatic necessity”2
The modelling of the concept of space in a mathematical and abstract sense allows for
a fascinating development of science and technique, and fascination with the development
itself leads to an almost unison understanding of the phenomenon of space in the
mathematical and abstract sense. However, the phenomenon of space is not exhausted by this
one model in order to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon of architecture it is far
more fruitful to model space on the model of existential space, a notion put forward by Martin
Heidegger in his monumental work entitled Being and Time in which he further develops this
concept and then later links it with the concepts of dwelling and language found in his later
works3.

1
Dreyer, C.- "On Interpretation of Architecture" in "Wolkenkuckucksheim - International Journal of
Architectural Theory", Vol 2, No 2., 1997.
2
Pérez-Gómez, A.- "Hermeneutics as Architectural Discourse" in "Wolkenkuckucksheim - International Journal
of Architectural Theory", Vol 2, No.2, 1997.
3
Heidegger, M.- "Building, dwelling, thinking" in "Basic writings from Being and time (1927) to The task of
thinking (1964)", Harper & Row, 1977, p. 319.

2
FROM ABSOLUTE TO EXISTENTIAL SPACE

Despite our habitual understanding that the mathematical-abstract conceptualisation of the

phenomenon of space is the only intuitive understanding of space, it is interesting to note that
early philosophical conceptualisations provided by Plato and Aristotle 4 differ to those
advocated by the contemporary mathematical-abstract model of space. Aristotle’s concept of
topos is interesting in that it suggests that the understanding of place should be seen as a
continuous collection of various places that are interconnected.5
Early conceptualisations of the phenomenon of space have more in common with the
concept of existential space than they do with the mathematical-abstract concept of space. But
what exactly is existential space? A comparison of the three dominant theories on space, that
of Descartes-Newton, Leibniz and Kant, may afford clearer insight into this issue.
The Descartes-Newton6 theory of absolute space states that space has an autonomous
existence in the sense that it is independent of things. This approach became dominant in an
era in which science began to develop and mathematical models were applied to describe and
explain events occurring within space. Although modern physics has drifted away from this
theory7, centuries of dominance and dissemination of this theory within the educational
system have turned this concept into an almost pre-reflexive intuitive theory.
Leibniz’s relational theory of space denies the independent existence of space without things.
Space is the interrelationship among objects. If there are no things, then there is no space.
Therefore, space is another term for the configuration and interrelationship among objects.
Kant claims that space is but an a priori condition for experience which is inherent and
subject-oriented. Space is not an empirical concept that can be derived from experiencing the
“world outside”. Space, like time, is only the way in which a subject organises information
received from the outer world.
Leibniz’s and Kant’s theories8 are echoed in architectural-theoretical discourses, above
all, in those dealing with the aesthetics and psychology of space. However, no single theory of
architectural space explicitly refers back to their theories quite in the same way in which

4
For Plato space is not empty and it is not separated form the atoms that move around within it; space is a
recipient in which pictures are reflected as they would be in a mirror. Space is like a room or like a place where
there are things. (MacDonald, F. - "Plato's Cosmology: The Timeus of Plato Translated with Running
Commentary", Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010, p. 200). For Aristotle the modern mathematical-absolute
concept of a spatial point which can be empty or full is a foreign concept. According to him, a material body has
a place according to the principle of limitations imposed by the body in which the former is embodied, and
progression extends to the celestial spheres where it stops as there is no space beyond them. (Whittaker, T. -
"From Euclid to Eddington: a study of conceptions of the external world", Constable, 1958, p. 10.)
5
Moreover, ancient Greek as a language has no clear distinction between the concepts of place and space in the
contemporary sense. Both chora and topos as concepts do not correlate to the contemporary concept of space,
but always refer to a region, i.e. spatialized meaning in relation to centre. Algra, K. - "Concepts of space in
Greek thought", Brill Academic Publishers, 1997, p. 33.
6
Descartes’ work (Leibniz, G. W., Clarke, S. - "The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence", Manchester Univ. Press,
1976), Newton’ work, Principles of Philosophy (1644), and Principia (1687) (Newton, I. - " The Principia",
Prometheus Books, 1995)
7
This has been significantly discussed by non-Euclidean geometry, by Einstein’s general theory of relativity, and
quantum theory, as well as recent theories like string theory and related multi-dimensional theories on the time-
space continuum.
8
Both Leibniz’ and Kant’s theories are far more applicable in an understanding of architectural space than
absolute theory as they inscribe information “in space”, i.e. they treat space as an intermediary or co-configurator
of meaning. Whereas as relational theory obtains information through the configuration of things, i.e. the world
outside, for Kant, the a priori condition of experience, which is inherent to the subject and a precondition, has the
potential to give form to amorphous information arriving from the outer world by applying experience.

3
contemporary architectural theory refers back to Heidegger’s concept of space as existential
space.

EXISTENTIAL SPACE

During the 1920s, Heidegger developed his own unique variant of phenomenological-
existential philosophy9 in his monumental work Being and Time. Heidegger does not refute
any of the theories of his precursors; he aims at stressing that they are derived moduses of
space that stem from a basic, primal experience of space. The essence of the theory of
existential space is the abandonment of the subject-object dichotomy. He maintains that all
traditional theories on space focus on deciding upon the essence of space and whether it is,
fundamentally, objective or subjective. However, the subject-object dichotomy underlies both
cases, whereas the concept of space aspires to annul the conventional modern dichotomy of
subject and object in the analytics of man (Dasein), which has ontological consequences
within the context of theory of architectural space, as man is no longer to be found within
space, but becomes spatialized. Man and space are inseparably interconnected.
Heidegger sees truth, in the sense of ontological phenomenology, in the phenomenon,
that is, that which appears of its own accord and behind which, in principle, there is nothing
else. He replaces the traditional concept of man with his Dasein neologism, whereby he aims
at stressing the habitual state of man who pre-reflexively understands the phenomenon he
encounters, and understanding as being the essence of man’s existence10. One such
phenomenon is space. The phenomenon of space should be primarily viewed as being the
phenomenon of space as it appears to man on a daily basis, during his daily encounters with
things in the world, for example, during walking, while picking things up, his understanding
of distance and size. Such a space, one which we understand intuitively in our daily lives,
needs to be given primacy in the modelling of the concept of space as man understands space
per se and without reflexive application of any particular theory of space11.

9
Basing his work on Husserl’s phenomenology, in his work Being and Time Heidegger provided the guidelines
for a philosophy that attempted to separate itself radically, as he stresses, from the metaphysical layers that have
fossilized the further development of philosophy and thought. One such fossil is the traditional dichotomy of
subject-object. Although his works written subsequent to Being and Time are far more relevant to the overall
understanding of the phenomenon of architecture, the concept of existential space that Heidegger introduces in
this work is vital.
Heidegger, M. - "Bitak i Vrijeme", Zagreb, 1985, pp. 58-125.
10
In his later works, Heidegger turns his attention to the phenomenon of language, and he sees man’s
Dasein as being inextricably intertwined with the structure of language, i.e. meanings that transcend man, but
also allow him to transcend himself in the sense of ex-static projection.
11
What needs to be noted and stressed, in view of the harmony of pre-reflexive understanding of space, is that,
when he “projects space”, an architect does not place guidelines or rules as to how this space should be used “on
the door”; neither does he specify whether this projected space should be understood according to an absolute
model, a relative one or any other theory of space. The architect assumes that the space will be self-evidently
understood and, instead of explaining the nature of space, he focuses on organizing semantic structures which he
encodes within this space.

4
 This assumption is possible as man understands space as being his existential space 12
which, taken within the context of the world at large, always extends from the centre and then
branches off into regions – containing meaning, found at a certain distance from the centre,
and in some correlation to the centre. The Dasein (man) does not only find itself in space, but
is spatialized, distributed within space. “Space is not to be found in the subject, nor does the
subject observe it as if that world were in a space but the subject (dasein), if well understood
ontologically, is spatial“13.
The ultimate consequence of the concept of space according to the model of existential
space is expressed in the notion of place, which unites space and meaning within one
construct.

EXISTENTIAL SPACE WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

The existential model of space had a profound impact on architectual thought in the 20 th
century during which architectural theory began to recognize all the problems that
architectural space imposes on the perception of space as a purely mathematical-absolute
construct. Dragobert Frey, Kevin Lynch, Rudolf Schwarz14, among others, saw the need to
redefine deliberations on the phenomenon of space within the context of architectural space
and set out to formulate existential space within architectural theory.
This theory is most articulately expressed in the works of Christian Norberg-Schulz,
who introduced Heidegger’s phenomenological concept of existential space in architectural
theory, while the theoretical deliberations of Kevin Lynch and Christian Norberg-Schulz had a
strong impact on both theoretical and practical architectural discourse. Concepts such as
image of the city or genius loci have now become standard lexis when discussing the
phenomenon of architecture.
Christian Norberg-Schultz books, "Existence, space and architecture" and “Genius
loci: Towards a phenomenology of architecture”15, also played a significant role in the
understanding of architectural space in the sense of existential space. Under the influence of
12
In this sense, Heidegger’s theory of existential space is based on three basic levels of space:
a) world space as an analagon to traditional theories of absolute and relational space that characteristically
extends without any clear centre
b) region as part of existential space, and carrier of semantic structure which the Dasein may allow to be
expressed through it, i.e. to allow in relation to the centre of its existential space.
c) spatiality of the Dasein (man) which, through structure of distance (close, distant) and direction (up, down,
left, right) allows the afore-mentioned region to enter a configuration in relationship to the centre of existential
space. In addition, distance and direction should not be taken in the sense of measurable values, something that
may be measured with a metre, but as existentially close or distant. E.g. a hammer which we use to do something
is far closer than the glasses through which we see it, even though the glasses are mathematically and metrically
closer.
13
Heidegger, M. - "Bitak i Vrijeme", Zagreb, 1985., p. 146.
14
Frey stressed the link between the motion of the body and architecture space, by defining architecture
as the structuring of space by means of a goal or a path. According to Frey, we give form to formless space as we
move about it in the search of an end or goal. In his most famous work, The Image of the City published in 1960,
Lynch debates on how users perceive and organize spatial information as they navigate through cities. Lynch
reported that users understood their surroundings in consistent and predictable ways, forming mental maps with
five elements: path, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. In his book, The church incarnate (Schwarz, R. - "The
Church incarnate", German edition, 1998, p. 53.) Rudolf Schwarz tries to describe the fundamental structure of
existence, and attempts to translate this structure into concrete characteristics of architectural space. According to
Schwarz, “man cannot plan his world without projecting himself into it.” For Schwarz, architectural space is an
expression of the ontological position of man: “There they found everything together: all the creatures, the
human beings, the nations, mankind, all habitable land, the depths of the earth and the heights of the heavens, the
stones and the stars. They saw all things in unbroken unity, and then they lost sight of distinction“
15
Schulz, C.N. - "Existence, space & architecture", Praeger, 1971. and Schulz, C.N. - "Genius loci:
towards a phenomenology of architecture", Academy Editions, 1980.

5
Lynch’s psychological analytic concept of space and imbued by Heidegger’s phenomenology
of space, he introduces the concept of centre and place, stressing that places are the aims or
centres in which we experience a meaningful event in our existence, but they are also starting
points for us to give meaning to our existence. Schulz consigns place within a broader
context, adding courses, directions, paths and domains as elements of existential space. A
network consisting of a centre, courses, directions, paths and domains is the basic scheme of
orientation, and when they are combined, then space gains a real dimension in human
existence.

SPACE AS SEMANTIC FIELD

The central issue of architecture – the sense of place, leads us towards another dimension –
that of meaning. In this way, the concept of place guides us towards space, and the concept of
sense guides us towards language or a more primordial dimension of meaning as a dimension.
Furthermore, if one then include separate analyses of these two phenomena within the context
of philosophy, then the phenomenon of architecture binds them into a single unique
phenomenon as architectural space appears here as an configuration of meaning ascribed and
deciphered by the Dasein in the sense of existential space. The act of ascribing and
deciphering this meaning is based on the rules governing language in the broadest sense, a
point comprehended and put forward by Jacques Derrida 16 in his method of deconstruction,
which is founded on the ontological approach to language taken over from the
phenomenological-hermeneutical philosophical circle.17 Language is the “space” of universal
comprehension, both in the linguistic sense and in the sense of cognition and reflexive
synthesis of meaning within stable meaning, but also every possible perceptual understanding
without theoretical pretensions. In this way, language is both space for an understanding of
spatialized phenomena and the phenomenon of space itself. In order for this space to be used,
it needs to be a-theoretically understood beforehand. And this a-theoretical use of space stems
from understanding. Man cannot stand outside language as he exists only through and in
language. “Language is the house of Being. In its home man dwells. Those who think and
those who create with words are the guardians of this home”.18
The language through which man is spatialized is the modus of Language. It shares
certain aspects with other forms of language, such as thought, opinion, speech, writing, but is
also sui generis. What space has to say, and especially architectural place, cannot be
articulated in other forms of language.
Karsten Harries, a contemporary theoretician of architecture, sees the essence of the
dimension of meaning to existential space as man’s inherent openness to transcendence
through language itself: “To hold that there is nothing that transcends human beings and
speaks to them, that reality itself is mute and meaningless, means nihilism. If there is to be an
alternative to nihilism, it must be possible to make some sense of and learn to listen to the
language of things.”19
The intrinsic connection between language and space, which remains hidden in the
mathematical-absolute model of space, is revealed clearly through the concept of existential
space as the configuration of regions – carriers of meaning in the broadest sense of the term –
closest in concept to Norberg-Schulz’s viewpoint on “concretization of life situation” 20 within
16
Derrida, J. - "Writing and Difference", Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, and Derrida, J. - "Of
Grammatology", Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
17
18
Heidegger, M.- "Letter on Humanism" in "Basic writings from Being and time (1927) to The task of
thinking (1964)", Harper & Row, 1977, p. 189.
19
Harries, K. - "The ethical function of architecture", The MIT Press, 1998, p. 133.
20
Schulz, C.N. - "Genius loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture", Academy Editions, 1980.

6
a spectrum of discourses on the underlying meaning of such a situation. It would be wrong to
understand region as sign in the de Saussurean sense, but inappropriate to understand it as the
modern shift in linguistics from the word to the sentence or even the context. Within
existential space every semantic region stands in correlation to every other region. A shift of
the centre also reconfigures the meanings of individual regions, but also the contexts of
meaning. This does not imply that the a-temporal sense21 is redundant because it lacks
stability, but because it functions in this manner. Language is a dynamic field consisting of
more or fewer stable meanings, and their stability is dictated by context which defines sense
more precisely.
This model of how language functions, is in many ways similar to probabilistic
quantum models used in modern physics to view the nature of matter, or to mathematics used
on the nature of information through non-linear dynamics, which are often attacked as
standing in opposition to the concepts of truth and order. Be that as it may, it does not negate
truth, but merely states that truth cannot be conveyed a-temporally and a-spatially with
absolute clarity, as this would mean the negation of the complete otherness22 of truth.
Language provides truth with presence in the only way it can and may, and its internal
structure and dynamics are capable of expressing even that which has as yet not been
expressed, it is capable of imbuing the context of meaning with a novum in meaning.

SYMBOLIC DYNAMISM OF SACRED SPACE

Sacred space aspires to be a place of transcendence. It aspires to be the other side of what we
term habitual. Authentic sacred spaces, as the interplay of sacred place as a total linguistic
phenomenon, is both the first, but also the last architectural space. Historically, the first as the
intensity of sacred symbolic dynamism lead to the establishment of the first space which can
be taken as being architectural space in the history of mankind. The last, as authentic sacred
space allows for a dynamism of symbolic interplay provided by language, which tends
towards the dissolving, not only space, but history as well.
The path towards understanding the meaning and sense of sacred place has undergone
a number of stages:
a) analyses so far indicate that place is the primordial modus of man’s spatialization, and
differs from space in the mathematical-absolute sense which only places man within space
b) place, based on the structure of existential space as a field full of meaning, is enmeshed and
linked with the phenomenon of meaning, which gains presence through the phenomenon of
language
c) phenomenological-hermeneutical philosophy indicates the ontological potential of
language, that is, its founding in Truth. The structural potential of language is that it
transcends existing meaning through the phenomenon of semantic novum.
d) man and language are ontologically intertwined, and the functioning and internal
dynamism of language capable of transcending its own boundaries puts man in the position of
active listener of the Truth.
So, how can language transcend its own semantic context? What does this
transcending imply? Does it indicate the dynamism of language which is closed upon itself as
the final and ultimate ontological boundary, and how is Derrida’s sentence “there is nothing
outside text” to be interpreted? In searching for the meaning of sacred place, this kind of
interpretation is null and void as it cancels the meaning of sacred place as such, so the
21
Heidegger and Derrida see the metaphysics of presence as providing the basic reason why language
through linguistics leads to a system of stable meanings and which are made up of words with clearly defined
meanings. Deconstruction does not negate the ideal of presence; it only states that it is different in character to
that which has been formulated by classical metaphysics.
22
Ward, G. - "Barth, Derrida and the language of theology", Cambridge University Press, 1999.

7
conclusion would be that there is no meaning. Man’s essential being revolts against such an
interpretation, and confirmation of this would be the phenomenon that we term sacred place.
The consequence of cancelling meaning for sacred place means that every other place is also
cancelled.
Linguistic dynamism, therefore, implies that language, unlike the concept of closed
upon itself, is an open space for communicating about the here and the there, the Other. The
true meaning of a text is equally to be found in the words, as well as in the empty spaces
between the words. Language can transcend when it is allowed to speak. When it is not seen
simply as linguistic methodology in which language is reduced to structure turned in upon
itself. Dynamism of language enables openness of language to the presence of new meaning
and the structuring of the linguistic phenomenon which we term symbol as opposed to sign.
Symbol encompasses and points towards what is beyond the already-at-hand, enables a
breakthrough, a breaking of the boundaries of the self-explanatory and pushes the boundaries
of meaning further towards a novum event. The Greek word for symbol – syn-bolon: to bring
closer, to join, stresses the prime character of language as a place where what has been
semantically attained and that which remains to be attained meet.
Rudolf Schwarz states the following concerning sacred space: "The profound meaning
of all church building is just this: to find, beyond all preliminary tasks, the absolute task and
to introduce in incorrupted works the primal process itself, God's sacred maintaining of the
world. Like the mystic who seeks the way to that innermost cell where God lives in the midst
of the world, so the cathedral builders seek to do God's true work, to render the process of all
process. Here in purity God's work should "be done". 23
The question that poses itself is: How can man finish God’s work? Schwarz is
speaking metaphorically, but, at the same time, he implies that man’s ontological structure is
da-sein, i.e., the here-and-now Dasein, in the sense of man’s possible place in the order of
things. Through the phenomenon of meaning and the dynamics of language, in whose essence
lies différance as a possibility for breaking through and a possibility for constructing the
symbolic as openness towards the Other, man has the ontological possibility of transforming
his horizontal plane into a vertical one.
Semantic structure as configuration of semantic regions established, not as signs but as
symbols in all their burdened dynamics, which reveals itself dynamically in the presence of an
authentic reader who is not afraid of unexpected events containing new meaning. The
structure of religious experience is, above all, openness. An openness of events in which the
event is not guaranteed beforehand, as it is not the result of causal inevitability.
Sacred place is existential space as, like every other place, even that constructed from
stable signs is made up of a configuration of semantic regions in relation to a centre. Dasein is
always at the centre of every place – man for whom this is place. In contrast to semantic
dynamism of regions, in a configuration around a centre, place may consist of mostly signs,
signs and symbols, or mostly symbols.
A place made up mostly of signs, for example, a workshop with a set of tools, which
gives man presence in a stable form in the here-and-now and organises and mediates
functional sets24, in a horizontal relationship with the world, is authentic existential space, but
it is not architectural space.
In order for a place to be architectural space within a semantically configured regions,
symbol appears alongside sign, which changes the meaning of the context with its own
dynamism and, therefore, has the potential to shift away from the actual concrete place.
Symbolic dynamism transcends concrete place, it is ex-static and calls for changes to place.

23
Schwarz, R. - "The Church incarnate", German edition, 1998, p. 140.
24
Functional set is used here in the sense of Heidegger's concept das Zeug (Equipment) in the sense of
the Dasein's interaction within the world as Zuhandenheit (Ready-to-Hand)

8
Symbol opens up the dimension of the otherness, but an otherness that is still of-this-world. It
opens the doors to the centre of some other place which is organised around its own centre
and which contains its own configuration of semantic meanings. The phenomenon of art
appears within the interplay of interconnectedness of centres and their contextualised
meanings.
When a symbol opens up a semantic dimension in which the farthest existential
limitations of man appear, then questions like: “What lies beyond…”, “How…”, “Why…”
which lie outside man’s spatial-temporal limitations, when man poses questions in order to
attain his own authenticity, then a symbol achieves the character of the sacred. Existential
space that is organised as a system of semantic regions around a centre as a symbol that opens
up meanings for the existential limitations of man is sacred place, i.e. sacred space. This kind
of place has the structure of existential space; it attains semantic character in its sacred
symbols through spatialized meanings and is consequently also architectural space.
Sacred space is architectural space, and thereby also existential space within which lies
a paradox, as its basic intention is to cancel architectural-existential space. Man taken as Da-
sein, wishes to remove himself from the Da-.
Saint Augustine expresses this paradox in an intimate, personal manner, stemming
from the very depths of man’s soul, and asks: “What do I love when I love my God?”25.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Algra, K. - "Concepts of space in Greek thought", Brill Academic Publishers, 1997.

2. Derrida, J. - "Writing and Difference", Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
3. Derrida, J. - "Of Grammatology", Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1976.
4. Dreyer, C.- "On Interpretation of Architecture", Wolkenkuckucksheim - International
Journal of Architectural Theory, Vol 2, No 2., 1997.
5. Leibniz, G. W., Clarke, S. - "The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence", Manchester Univ. Press,
1976.
6. Harries, K. - "The ethical function of architecture", The MIT Press, 1998.
7. Heidegger, M.- "Basic writings from Being and time (1927) to The task of thinking (1964)",
Harper & Row, 1977.
8. Heidegger, M. - "Bitak i Vrijeme", Zagreb, 1985, p. 58-125.
9. MacDonald, F. - "Plato's Cosmology: The Timeus of Plato Translated with Running
Commentary", Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010.
10. Newton, I. - " The Principia", Prometheus Books, 1995.
11. Pérez-Gómez, A. - "Hermeneutics as Architectural Discourse", Wolkenkuckucksheim -
International Journal of Architectural Theory, Vol 2, No.2, 1997.
12. Saint Augustine, - "The Confessions of Saint Augustine", 1st World Library - Literary
Society, 2006.
13. Schulz, C.N. - "Existence, space & architecture", Praeger, 1971.
14. Schulz, C.N. - "Genius loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture", Academy
Editions, 1980.
15. Schwarz, R. - "The Church incarnate", German edition, 1998.
16. Ward, G. - "Barth, Derrida and the language of theology", Cambridge University Press.,
1999.
17. Whittaker, T. - "From Euclid to Eddington: a study of conceptions of the external world",
Constable, 1958.

25
Saint Augustine, - "The Confessions of Saint Augustine", 1st World Library - Literary Society, 2006, p. 170.

9
1