DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

TERMS TO REMEMBER:
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION is the manner in which materials are ordered, assembled, and united into a
whole, as frame construction, based on standard construction techniques.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY is a general term including all processes and materials used to assemble a
complete building.

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTRUCTION METHODS

ARCHITECTURE undergoes a cycle of development. The first phase for each cycle is the Archaic
Period. The designer or builder of the Archaic Period is in search for new material. The discovered
material will pass through some improvement, enhancement and perfection. This height of development is
called the Period of Mastery. The last stage is the Period of Decadence when the use of materials is not so
much desired. This heralds the start of a new cycle. Each development of materials produced a new
method of construction. Here are the traditional or conventional methods:
WOOD CONSTRUCTION. Wood is one of the oldest and most widely used of building
materials. Approximately, seventy-five (75%) percent of processed wood is used for building purposes.
Today, new methods of processing and combining wood with other materials have been developed.
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION. Masonry Construction refers to buildings made of stone, brick,
concrete block, and structural clay tile. All materials used by masons. Stone and brick have been
important building materials for thousands of years, stone being the oldest natural building material and
brick the oldest manufactured material. Later, new materials such as concrete block and structural clay tile
were developed.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. Concrete is one of the most widely used and important building
materials today. Concrete made of natural cement was initially developed by the ancient Romans… In
1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer, invented the Portland cement. Jack Monier, a French gardener,
is credited with inventing reinforced concrete as early as 1850 by reinforcing garden pots with embedded
wire. Prestressed concrete was developed in 1927 by Eugene Freyssinet, a French engineer.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION.
As early as 3000 B.C. Egyptians formed iron tools by hammering meteorites into saws and
sickles. Later, iron was made by heating iron ore until soft enough to be forged or worked. This was called
wrought iron. To make hotter fires, bellows were used to blow air into the fire. The first blast furnace to
force a steady blast of air into the furnace to melt the ore was built in the 14th c., but iron was not produced
in large quantity until the 18th c.
Modern steel making employs blast furnaces that are merely refinements of the furnaces used by
the old ironworkers. The British inventor Sir Henry Bessemer, who developed the Bessemer furnace, or
converter, in 1855, accomplished the process of refining molten iron with blasts air. Since 1960s, several
so called minimills have been producing steel from scrap metal in electric furnaces. Such mills are an
important component of total U.S. steel production. The giant steel mills remain essential for the
production of steel from iron ore.

TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCE ARCHITECTURE:

1. Development of building materials have resulted in new methods of construction.
2. Invention of the elevator made possible the high-rise building.
3. Development of heating equipment has made thick walls unnecessary.
4. Development of Air Conditioning System has made contemporary buildings comfortable to live in.
5. Better methods of plumbing and sanitation have made contemporary buildings more healthful to live
in.
6. Development of computers have aid us to make things faster.

ART AND STRUCTURE

ARCHITECTURE is defined as the art and science of designing and constructing structure. ART is
more than beauty, it is about craft or skill. SCIENCE is associated with observation, analysis, deduction
hypothesis and experiment. Science is knowledge coordinated, arranged and systematized. Art and
Science are integrated in Architecture. But it is a common practice that these two are done separately.
Usually, in architecture, art becomes the responsibility of the Architect while the science portion is
undertaken by the Engineer.
Let us have a short study of words or the etymology of words. ARCHITECT comes from the
Greek root word arche- and tekton. Arche means chief, prime, master while tekton means builder, maker,
craftsman. The combination of these two words gives a definition of Architect as prime maker, master
builder and chief craftsman; he who builds or makes that which has not been built before based on
invention, innovation and creation. Therefore, architecture should not be given to mere duplication or
replication. ENGINEER comes from the Latin root word ingenium meaning ingenuity or the ability to
produce. He is able to produce or give birth to inventive, innovative ideas. These two terms are associated
with innovation and whatever they produce is called TECHNOLOGY which means a combination of
technique (skill) and knowledge (study).
The most important requirements in producing a good structure are the elements of creativity and
ingenuity, a drive to achieve a unique composition though it may seem impossible. If this desire is in the
bloodstream of every designer, he will understand that art and science are necessary to achieve a striking
design. Again, what is Architecture? It is more than the art and science of building, it is making the
possible impossible.

FILM REVIEW: “ENGINEERING THE IMPOSSIBLE”

MILLENIUM TOWER is a skyscraper almost as twice the size of the Empire State Building. Its
concept is a city within a city, hosting its own hospitals, schools, and a range of entertainment and retail
options large enough to attract and keep the traffic necessary for the financial success of such an endeavor.
Its chief Architect is David Nelson of Foster and Partners firm based in London, England.
Statistics:
Height : 2,755 feet, 170 stories
Resident Population: 52,000
Elevator Traffic: 100,000 people per day
Location: Hong Kong Harbor
Closest Living Relative: Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur (1,483‘, 88 stories)
Construction Duration: Approximately 10 years
Cost: $10 billion
DESIGN SPEC #1: MUST BE EARTHQUAKE- AND WIND-PROOF
Millenium Tower will stand in the harbor of Hong Kong and it has to withstand monsoons and
powerful earthquakes. Designers determined a round structure would alleviate the wind resistance found in
the traditional rectangular building. Varying its width from top to bottom would help dissipate vibration.
Its height also helps it shake slower than its smaller counterparts during an earthquake. With the
addition of dampers and motion-sensors, engineers expect the tower to withstand an earthquake of
magnitude 8.6 on the Richter scale, and winds of up to 200 mph.

DESIGN SPEC #2: GET THE PEOPLE WHERE THEY WANT TO GO ANAD FAST
Even though they could be built to run up to 34 mph, passengers’ eardrums could rupture at that
speed, so the elevators will probably run at around 15 mph. Some cars will hold about 160 people and
express elevators will stop at “sky lobbies” located every 30 floors where passengers can change to local
service.
Other cars may even be able to move horizontally. Innovations like these may be necessary to
move about 100,000 people a day.

DESIGN SPEC #3: GIVE THE PEOPLE WHAT THEY WANT

The Millenium Tower needs to offer many choices to make it a destination of choice. Residents
can go to not just one grocery store, but many. Office workers can browse a few clothing stores on their
level or the same amount 30 floors up. Tourists can find the movie they want in at least one of the many
theaters available. Designers say will house many options as you’d find in several city blocks.

DESIGN SPEC #4: BUILD IT QUICKLY, BUT SAFELY

Construction of the Millenium Tower will include traditional building techniques, that, in this
case, will put ironworkers thousands of feet in the air to place 5-tongirders with a minimum of safety gear.
But engineers are planning to also use a new technology – building by computer. The Self-Rising Factory
is a set of computerized cranes and lifts surrounded by a weatherproof enclosure. According to a precise
schedule, the steel beams are essentially handed to the machinery which then places them for workers to
bolt together. Once the beams and concrete panels for each floor are complete, the machinery hoists the
entire structure and the process starts over again.
 STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

For better understanding of the current trends, issues, and innovations in architecture, it would be
helpful to look back at the past and examine architectural development against a backdrop of structural
development.

1. TRABEATED OR POST AND LINTEL

Among the Greeks, construction and art are one and the same thing; the form and structure are
intimately connected… Greek Architecture always proceeds by the combination of vertical and horizontal
lines and surfaces. Roman architecture adds to these two elementary principles the arch and the vault –
the curved line and concave surface.
- Viollet-le-Duc, Discourses IV
The Architectural Theory of Viollet-le-Duc, p. 68

The TRABEATED system of construction finds its origin in timber construction. But Greeks use
stone construction since stone is abundant in the area and it is believed to be a strong and durable material.
Unfortunately, Greek builders missed the fact the though stone is strong in compression, it is weak in
tension meaning it will crack when subjected to just a fraction of tensile stresses. Thus, we can see cracks
in Greek temples such as in Parthenon, and Erectheum.

LINTEL

POST

2. ARCUATED OR ARCH AND VAULT

a. THE ROMANS
Romans developed the rounded arch, barrel vault and hemispherical dome. To make a
passageway through a wall, the weight above the passageway must be redirected towards its sides.
Initially, two large stones were leaned against each other and the crude solution was effective.
Subsequently, stones were corbelled out into the opening over every layer below until the required span
was reached in the middle. Later on, these corbelling pieces were then treated to reflect the implied center
about which they circumscribed. This explains the tapered shapes of the keystone and the stone voussoirs
in their aim to laterally transfer the weight that is put on them onto the lower adjacent voussoir. A need to
support the masonry mass above a fairly wide opening developed the construction method of centering
which, refined by the Romans, resulted in the recognizable round arches in their architecture. While the
stones at the top part of the arch are laterally transferring the loads above them, thereby putting them in a
desirable state of compression, the lower stone experience something different. In addition to the
increasing weight they must support, they are also subjected to horizontal stresses which have accumulated
from the lateral thrusts of the stones above. Being in a more horizontal orientation, this tends to a.) make
the lower stones slide over each other (shear stress), and b.) make the lower part of the arch ring bow
outward (flexural-tensile stress). Since many of these stone arches are built without mortar, there is no
resistance to sliding over each other (friction is not significant enough). The use of mortar between stone
joints would be largely ineffective since it can resist shear stress even less than tensile stress. Therefore, to
prevent the lower arch segments from collapsing, further force must be applied onto these areas to “push”
them back to place.
The barrel and cross vaults developed as extrusions of the arch while the dome developed from the
arch’s revolution about a vertical axis.

b. THE GOTHIC
The Gothic Age gave us architecture of light and skeletal minimalism of stone. This meant that
solid wall would have to loss their volume if large windows were to be accommodated. However the loss
of wall mass equates to loss of buttressing capability needed to restrain the large lateral thrusts of the heavy
vaults. Vault had to be modified to have less weight and less side thrusts which resulted to the use of the
pointed arch and the ribbed vault. The pointed arch allows for more flexibility in vault proportions and
generates less lateral thrusts. The ribs, constructed prior to the vault segments, contribute to efficient
construction by requiring less scaffolding to support a vault which requires less material to build. The side
thrusts are concentrated into the ribs and down into the columns, thereby requiring less walls. In elevation,
a skeletal framework of piers and voids develops.
The introduction of additional side aisles in later cathedrals means that an array of external
buttresses is located further away from the ribbed vaults of the nave. To transmit the lateral thrusts of the
vault into the “dislocated” buttress, a linear force-transfer element in the form of a half arch with a flat top
was used; the flying buttress. Finally, spires or statues were set upon the buttresses to act as further ballast
weights in redirecting the lateral thrusts more vertically into the ground.

c. THE RENAISSANCE
During this age of new age, the different branches of knowledge have become more diversified
resulting in specialization. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) may stand as an exception: he may be one of
the few men of his time to integrate a scientific, systematized approach to architecture, specifically on the
Duomo of the Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. He built the dome and contributed significant innovations
in construction to realize a seemingly impossible condition. The problem was to construct a dome to cover
138.5’ clear span. When he was commissioned, the octagonal drum already existed, and walls of the drum
were too thin to provide lateral stability for a dome the will exert lateral thrust. The cathedral was based on
the revived Greco-Roman architecture, therefore the use of buttresses typical in Gothic times was
inappropriate. The height and span of the drum to be covered also added to the problems of construction:
available timber was too short to employ the conventional methods of scaffolding.
Constructing a dome without buttressing, centering, and scaffolding proves that a conceptual
mastery of structural behavior was required to come up with an alternative solution. Observation and
analysis of Roman and Gothic construction techniques allowed him to devise general principles of
structural and constructional theory, forming a system of knowledge which could address unique problems
such as this one. His key contributions in the Florence Cathedral dome are a.) circumferential chains for
reinforcement, b.) vault construction without scaffolding, and c.) reversible hoists and revolving cranes to
optimize construction operations.
Brunelleschi devised a system of horizontal chain rings to restrain the inevitable lateral thrust.
Stone chains were integrated into the masonry as circumferential or “hoop” reinforcement while the
wooden chains were exposed to serve as a measuring device to disclose the amount of stresses during the
course of construction. He settled for a Gothic dome with high pointed profile, resembling an egg to
generate minimal lateral thrust. The dome was divided into major sections by eight main ribs, and further
subdivided by two intermediate ribs, making 24 vault subsections. These ribs served to lessen weight
further by allowing the dome to split into an interior and exterior shell. Each shell was built with stone at
the base, changing the lighter brick laid in a herringbone pattern as its thickness tapered towards the top. In
each section of the dome, the masonry of stone and brick was laid in concentric horizontal courses, making
each vault section spheroidal rather than cylindrical. The concentric horizontal courses of each section
connected to form a continuous arch or ring which, with its tendency to fall inward, compressed upon itself
into a state of stability. This is the self-supporting construction method which allowed the elimination of
centering. Scaffolds were used not for the heavy vaults but for the much lighter workmen that were
constructing the dome.

3. CORBEL AND CANTILEVER

A CORBEL is a block projecting from a wall and supporting a weight. The cantilever is based
upon the same principle. The Persians used corbelling extensively.

4. TRUSS

CONSTRUCTION TRENDS, ISSUES AND INNOVATIONS

The increased demands from the world inhabitants paved way to building of unimaginable
structures such as the skyscrapers changing the image of skyline, magnetic levitation of rail systems, and
many others. Technological breakthroughs have delivered innovative materials, new methods of
construction and outstanding structural concepts resulting alternative design solutions.
As design and construction technologies increased, distances can be spanned, wide spaces can be
roofed, heights can be reached and heavy loads can be carried. Almost everything that man can imagine
has becoming possible. Construction projects have become vast, complex and complicated.
The major trend in present-day construction continues away from handcrafting at the building site
and toward on-site assembly of ever larger, more integrated subassemblies manufactured away from the
site. The traditional method of CAST-IN-PLACE, which means pouring of concrete at the jobsite whose
beams, slabs, and columns are set in forms on scaffoldings and later on removed after the concrete is hard,
is now being replaced by the massive use of precast concrete. PRECAST CONCRETE is defined as a
prefabricated reinforced concrete which have been cast and cured in factory rather than in place in the site..
Another characteristic of contemporary building, related to the latter trend, is the greater amount of
dimensional coordination; that is, buildings are designed and components manufactured in multiples of a
standard module (10cm / 4 in. being standard in the U.S.), which drastically reduces the amount of cutting
and fitting required on the building site. A third trend is the production or redevelopment of large structural
complexes as shopping centers, entire campuses, and whole towns or section of cities.
Construction Technology is continuously changing. It evolved from its traditional method of
construction into the following:
a. Prefabrication and Modular Coordination;
b. Industrialized Building System;
c. Building Automation;
d. Soft-Tensioned Structures;
e. Pneumatic Membrane and Cable Structures; and
f. Steel Tension Structure – Space Frames and Geodesic Structures
CONSTRUCTION ISSUES, TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS
1. MODULAR COORDINATION AND PREFABRICATION
MODULAR COORDINATION
Building represents an entity made up of individual components that have been coordinated or
fitted together on site. Today a technique for the systematic selection of preferred dimensions for building
and related sizes of components became a necessity in order to improve the economy of all the phases of
design production and construction. The technique for dimensional rationalization and coordination of
dimensions in the building is called MODULAR COORDINATION. This originated in the United States in
1920s and 1930s through industrialist ALBERT BEMIS who outlined the comprehensive principles for
dimensional coordination based on cubical modular method of design using a 4-inch module as
fundamental unit, this gave way to prefabrication. In 1940s, modular coordination was based on a 100mm
module in Europe.

The AIMS OF MODULAR COORDINATION are to achieve compatibility between building

dimensions, span, or spaces, and the sizes of components and equipment. It also reduces the need for
special sizes, minimizes field cutting and simplifies practices in drafting and estimating.

PREFABRICATION.
PREFABRICATE – means to fabricate or manufacture before hand to speed up assembly and
erection of building.
“Traditional construction is characterized by site operations where skilled craft operatives work on
relatively unprocessed materials. Non-craft laborers and a relatively small amount of plant support skilled
workers. Thereof, a high proportion of the value of a building is added on-site, rather than off-site in a
factory.
Towards the end of the 1950s, however, greater attempts were made to emulate manufacturing.
The construction process was industrialized by carrying out more of the construction process off-site in
factories. A typical example this period was systems building – wall and floor panels were prefabricated
off-site, then bolted together on site. The intention was that large numbers of housing units could be built
quickly, thus solving the housing shortage, which had existed since 1945… This first attempt to
industrialize building production was largely unsuccessful – the systems were poorly designed and
executed.
Consequently, changes to social and organizational factors gathered pace in 1970s. The main
change was the shift from direct employment to self-employment and labor only subcontracting. The
principal effect of this was to create a stronger link between pay and productivity. This was because those
employed were now paid a lump sum for carrying out a set amount of work, rather than a regular weekly
wage. Hence, this particular payments-by-results system came to be known as the ‘lump’.
With the changes described above, the stage was set for a new phase of industrialized
construction. Once again, prefabricated components are being used structurally. The impact of these
changes has been far reaching. The main focus of value added has shifted from the site to the factories
where materials and components are made. Although the workforce is more flexible and has the potential to
be multi-skilled, there has nevertheless been an increase in specialization of a sort. This is due to the
division, and possible further subdivision, of work into packages.”(Stephen Lavender. 1996, pp. 268-271).

PRECAST CONSTRUCTION HAS THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES:

1. Casting and curing conditions and concrete design can be rigidly controlled resulting in consistently
high quality concrete.
2. The cost of forms and scaffolding is reduced.
3. Mass production of standardized and repetitive units.
4. Less construction time.
5. Close supervision and control of materials and a specialized work force in a centralized plant result in
a high-quality product.
6. Plant production is not normally subject to delays due to adverse weather conditions.
7. Dead load of the structural members themselves can be reduced.
8. Construction free of defects and weather conditions.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURES

1. Wall Panel
To improve the thermal insulation of the panel foam glass or glass fibers or expanded plastic is
inserted between two layers of lightweight concrete.
a. flat
b. double tee
c. ribbed
d. mullion
2. Roof and Floor Member
a. flat slab
b. hollow plank
c. double tee
d. single tee

3. Beams
a. rectangular
b. ledger
c. L-beam
d. AASHTO bridge girder – Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
4. Columns – from 0.30m. to 0.60m. In multi-story construction columns are made up to four storeys
wherein corbels is used to provide bearing for the beam.

CORBEL
TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF PRECAST STRUCTURAL MEMBERS:
1. Normally Reinforced
2. Prestressed
a. Pre-tensioned
b. Post-tensioned

COMPARISON:
REINFORCED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

R.C. BEAM Pretensioning or post-

tensioning is applied using
prestressing jacks
Even w/o loading, the
beam carries its own A slight arch or camber
weight. result due to high compres-
sion in the lower portion of the member

Under service loading The resulting upward force

The bottom of the beam counteracts the applied
service loads eliminating
flexural cracks and
deflection

PRESTRESSING – is a basic principle of design in which stresses are built into a structural element, such
as a beam, in order to offset load-carrying stresses. The stresses directly oppose the stresses created when a
load is applied to the beam, and in effect, tend to “cancel out” the load stresses. In short, it is a technique of
introducing stresses of a predetermined magnitude and nature into a structural ember to improve its
behavior. Prestress is applied to a member by high-strength steel bars, wires, or cables, collectively called
TENDONS. The AIMS of Prestressing are to include desirable stresses and strain in the structure and to
counterbalance the undesirable stresses and strain.
HISTORY
The early concept of prestressing was suggested by P.H. Jackson and G.R. Steiner of USA, J.
Manil of Austria and J. Koenen of Germany between the year 1886 and 1908. The use of high steel was
through the suggestion of F Von Emperger of Austria in 1923 followed by R.H. Dell of USA who proposed
full prestressing to eliminate cracks completely but their ideas only ended on papers.
The practical development of prestressed concrete was accredited to Eugene Freyssinet and Y.
Guyon of France, E. Hoyer of Germany and G. Magnel of Belgium.
In 1923 W.H. Hewitt has originated the circular prestressing of cylindrical tank and pipes followed
by the important contributions made by T.Y. Lin in the design of many types of prestressed concrete
structure in the United States since 1950.
In 1972, during the height of the Philippines’ industrialization program, Constress Philippines,
Inc. negotiated with F.K.K. Kyokutu Kogen Shinko Co., LTD., Tokyo, Japan for use of Freyssinet Method
of Tensioning. Post Tensioning was first used in Indonesian Embassy Building in Makati and tried on
Gapan-PeñarandaBridge in Nueva Ecija. In 1974, Freyssinet Filipinas Corp. was established.
Freyssinet System makes use of high-tensile cables in tendons for support which are about four
times to five times more durable than ordinary steel and can resist strength of 270,000 to 300,000 psi while
an ordinary steel can only resist 60,000 to 70,000 psi. This results to thinner sections for beams or girders
and lesser columns therefore wider span. It is also best for fast-track construction because it cuts
construction time by 50% but entails 20% to 30% higher cost.
METHODS OF PRESTRESSING:
1. PRE-TENSIONING – the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. After the concrete
hardened sufficiently the tendons are cut, and the prestress force is transferred to the concrete by
bond. Members have a slight arch or camber.

2. POST-TENSIONING – metal or plastic ducts are positioned securely in the forms before the
concrete is cast. The tendons are placed in the ducts or inserted later. After the concrete hardens
sufficiently, the tendons are stretched and mechanically attached to the ends of the members to
maintain the tendons in their stretched condition. Thus, the prestress force is transmitted to the
concrete by end bearing, and not by bond.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION USING PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION – refers to walls and other members that have been custom pre-cast on site
and then lifted by crane (tilted-up) into their final vertical position.

LIFT-SLAB CONSTRUCTION – is another method of site pre-casting after columns are erected. Each
floor slab is cast on ground, one on top the other, using a membrane to prevent adhesion. The slabs are cast
directly below their final position, surrounding the columns with sliding steel collars. Cast in each slab
about each column. Special hydraulic jacks are located at the top of each column and connected first to the
cured roof slab. The roof slab is hoisted slowly (about one inch per minute) to its final position and
fastened to each column by welding or by some other method. The procedure is repeated for each addition
floor slab.

HOW LIFT-SLAB LOWERS COSTS:

1. Forms are required only on the outside edge of the slabs, eliminating 90% of the formwork
required for a cast-in-place method and reduces the number of carpenters to a minimum. With
very little waste and trash, costly cleanup is eliminated. Irregularly shaped floor plans are easily
formed.
2. Slabs are cast one atop the other.
3. Two Casting Systems are available.
2. INTEGRATED BUILDING SYSTEM.
SYSTEMS BUILDING (INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING) – is construction process using a high degree of
prefabricated manufacture standard units or components to speed assembly and erection of building.

HOW IT WORKS:
1. The foundation site is excavated and prepared while the structural components are fabricated at the
plant.
2. As soon as the foundation is ready, the structural components are delivered to the construction
site,
3. Erection immediately follows using heavy lifting equipment. Completed portions of the building
are immediately ready for finishing.

ERECTION PROCESS
1. Excavation
2. Construction of Foundation socket
3. Installation of Precast column
4. Installation of Precast beam
5. Installation of Precast slab
6. Installation of Structural Members at succeeding floors
7. Finishing Works

3. BUILDING AUTOMATION
A Building Automation System (BAS) is computer controlled system that can perform many
functions that were not available with conventional control systems. Although a BAS can be used to
control building operations such as security, lighting, fire alarm, etc., the area with the quickest Return On
investment is the control of HVAC systems. With a BAS installed, any function of the system (air temp,
amp draw, etc.) can be monitored, and many of those functions can be adjusted from anywhere with a
computer. The system can also record information (such as room temperature) in any increments over any
period of time.
The system can easily be programmed to send an alarm to a pager or other device if acceptable
conditions are deviated from. For example, you may want the system to send out an alarm if the
temperature in a computer room exceeds a desired level; or you may want it to send out an alarm only if it
exceeds the desired level for a period of time. It’s all easily programmed.
A BAS can control many units at any one time, without sacrificing comfort, and significantly
lowering the demand charge on the electric bill. The BAS will automatically sense which areas need
HVAC the most and allow those units to run. The BAS has the ability to continuously sense various
conditions and serve the areas that need HVAC. This can not be achieved with standard or programmable
wall thermostats.
An Automation System can monitor the “vital signs” of HVAC equipment and send out an alarm
if the operating efficiency or other parameters get out of an acceptable range; indicating a need for service
before minor problems turn into major problems. Most major equipment failures are caused by a minor
problem that could have been detected several weeks prior to the major breakdown.
BAS is more effective tool in providing management of over-all building operating system,
through the utilization of computer and microprocessor control technology. It is designed to integrate
building systems and subsystems such as air conditioning, lighting, fire detection/alarm, fire
suppression/control, vertical transport, office automation, telecommunications and information
management, security and access controls. Because it can reduce initial and on-going cost, generate
management report and simplify building operation maintenance. It enhances the over-all productivity,
comfort, life safety and asset protection on both the building, owner and its clients. The “intelligence” of a
project may vary depending on the degree and levels of automation system to be incorporated.

SCOPE OF AUTOMATED BUILDING SYSTEMS

1. Environmental Control Systems – all traditional building controls including temperature/comfort
conditioning, central equipment control (i.e., boilers, chillers), the control of all HVAC equipment,
indoor air quality control and all control work that is usually part of section 15900 in a Mechanical
Specification for a new building.
2. Lighting Control Systems – integration for buildings is becoming increasingly important.
Traditionally, the lighting control has been handled in isolation in the Electrical Specification or
Section 16000 of the Building Specification Document. Close coordination will be required as light
switches and dimmer modules start to support standard communication protocols. This will allow
seamless extensions of lighting control thereby achieving a truly Automated Building.
3. Fire and Life Safety Systems – The high level of interaction required between the active fire system,
building wide communications, HVAC, and interactive smoke control systems that are normally part
of the environmental control system has greatly increased the complexity of these systems. Network
standards can greatly simplify the sharing of information from the vital fire and life safety system.
4. Security Systems – When the client owns and controls the complete building the security automation
becomes more feasible and desirable.
5. Vertical Transportation Systems
6. Material Conveyance Systems
7. Energy Efficiency – Intelligence with respect to energy in an intelligent building consists of the
reduction of energy use to the bare minimum. Computerized systems are used extensively.
8. Life Safety Systems – Intelligence with respect to life safety in an intelligent building consists of the
use of high technology to maximize the performance of fir alarm and security systems while at the
same time minimizing costs.
9. Telecommunication Systems – consists of offering to tenants of many sophisticated telecom features at
a considerable reduced cost due to the fact that the equipment is shared by many users. Some of these
features include PBX telephone system, cablevision, videotext, and electronic mail.
10. Workplace Automation – consists of the use of high-tech office automation systems to render the
operation of a company more efficient. This can be done at a reduced cost to tenants by virtue of the
equipment being shared. Some of the factors involved here are Centralized Data Processing, Word
Processing, Computer Aided Design and Information Services

4. SOFT TENSION STRUCTURE

In recent years, architect and developers are favoring tension structures for many large-span
building constructions as an alternative to more traditional structures of steel, concrete and timber. This is
because they present a unique architecture with non-orthogonal organic shapes that are in contradiction to
the rigid grid-like buildings of our time, hence appealing to the public.
Tension Structures are mainly of three types. They are:
1. Tensile Membrane Structure –
The covering membrane is usually made of some kind of fabric or textile materials. The tent of
the Nomad was the first-known textile membrane structure of man, which until today is used in the hot
areas around the world. In Europe, textile structures were mainly used as army accommodation tents
during a war and as circus pavilions for public entertainment. The tents or textile buildings were usually
looked upon as housing for poor people in many parts of the world.
The modern textile membrane structures have to be designed quite differently compared to
traditional ‘normal’ structures. This is due to the fact that the shape of a membrane structure is created
according to the forces acting on it, whereas in traditional structures the shape is created by te personal
choice of the architect and the external forces are to act through the pre-designed geometry of the structure..
In membranes we can only have tensile forces; that’s why they are generally called tension
structures. Forces can only act in the direction of the membrane. The flapping wind effect of conventional
tents generated by wind forces acting on the structure is well known. Here we can get quite large
deformations with small forces that might easily lead to the collapse of the whole structure.
However, the modern textile membrane structures are much more stable and are less susceptible to
deformation due to external forces. To add stability of the system, the modern textile membrane structures
have to anticlastic, which means that every spot on the surface of the membrane is curved in two opposite
directions. In order to achieve this, the whole structure has to be prestressed. The resulting deformation
due to wind or snow loads depends on the amount pf prestress applied to the system. The structure is able
to bear loads due to the combination of prestress and anticlastic shaping.

2. Cable Nets
Cable nets are another variation of lightweight tension structure. The process of form finding is
due to the same physical laws as textile membrane structures, i.e., counter curved and prestressed. We can
imagine them as “woven” textile with the same strength in warp and weft directions, just the distances
between the threads or the tension cables are bigger.
Cable nets are often used in combination with textile membranes, when the forces become too big
for the membrane alone to carry.
Cable net structures can also be constructed as stand-alone units. The gaps between the crossings
of parallel cables can be covered with conventional materials like glass, timber, polycarbonate or metal
plates.
In cases of cages for birds or animals in zoos, cable nets are used without fillings.

3. Pneumatic Structures
The pneumatic structures are another variation of lightweight tension structure. As the name
indicates, the supporting medium is concealed and consists of compressed air or gas. An internal pressure
creates tension forces on a concealing “skin”. In this case the membrane is curved in one direction and is
called “synclastic” surface.
Forces working on such a structure are more commonly dealt with.
The skin takes the tension forces whereas the air is responsible for compression forces in a manner
similar to the composite material like reinforced concrete.
Pneumatic structures can have bending moments and yet remain in shape, whereas in all other
membrane structures the system will react in a change of shape to reach equilibrium again.
 The three different types of tension structures described above, e.g., textiles membrane structures,
cable nets and pneumatic structures, may be used in combination with each other.

FABRIC MATERIALS In Tensioned Membrane Structures

Membranes not only unite shape and structure but also do so with graceful, complex curves. Only
the doubly curved surfaces work for the tensioned membranes, and the subtle, evocative curvature is
beautiful in the contemporary eye. And they can control climate without the need for walls, doors, air
locks.
Membrane can let – anything in (sunlight, heat, fresh air)
- keep anything out (UV light, cold, moisture)
- push anything out (noise, excess heat) and
- keep anything in (heat, sound, coolness, moisture
Example of membrane fabric : Teflon-coated fiberglass which is durable, incombustible,
translucent and self-cleaning

5. GEODESIC DOME
A GEODESIC DOME is a type of structure shaped like a piece of a sphere or a ball. This
structure is comprised of a complex network of triangles that form a roughly spherical surface. The more
complex the network of triangles, the more closely the dome approximates the shape of a true sphere.
By using triangles of various sizes, a sphere can be symmetrically divided by thirty-one great
circles. A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn around a sphere, like lines of latitude around
the earth, or the equator. Each of theses lines divides the sphere into two halves, hence the term geodesic,
which is from the Latin meaning, “earth dividing”.
A dome is a structure with the highest ratio of enclosed area to external surface, and in which all
structural members are equal contributors to the whole. There are many sizes of triangles in a geodesic,
depending on the frequency of subdivision of the underlying spherical polyhedron. The cross section of a
geodesic approximates a great-circle line.

Geodesic dome is an almost spherical structure based on a network of struts arranged on great circles
(geodesics) lying approximately on the surface of a sphere. The geodesics intersect to form triangular
elements that have local triangular rigidity and yet also distribute the stress across the entire structure. It is
the only man-made structure that gets proportionally stronger as it increases in size. When completed to
form a full sphere, it is known as a geodesic sphere.

Of all known structures made from linear elements, a geodesic dome has the highest ratio of enclosed
volume to weight. Geodesic domes are far stronger as complete units than the individual struts would
suggest. It is common for a new dome to reach a "critical mass" during construction, shift slightly, and lift
any attached scaffolding from the ground.

The design of the geodesic dome is a complicated matter. In part, this is because there is no one standard
design. Rather, there are a number of designs based on taking a Platonic solid, such as an icosahedron, and
then projecting each face onto the interior surface of the sphere. There is no perfect way to do this, as
neither the angles nor the sides can be preserved without one distorting the other. The result of the design
compromise is a regular pattern of triangles with their vertices lying approximately on the surface of the
sphere. The edges of the triangles create "geodesics," great circles of a sphere, to distribute stress across the
sphere.
Geodesic designs can be extended to any curved, enclosed space, although very oddly-shaped designs
would require calculating (and fabricating) each strut individually, and thus be expensive and complicated
to construct. Because of the expense and complexity of design and fabrication of any geodesic dome,
builders have tended to standardize on a few basic designs

6. SPACE FRAME/PLATES

A space frame is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric
pattern. Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional span, and are often used to accomplish long spans
with few supports. They derive their strength from the inherent rigidity of the triangular frame; flexing
loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.

Simplified space frame roof with the nearest unit polygon hightlighted in blue

Most often their geometry is based on platonic solids. The simplest form is a horizontal slab of
interlocking square pyramids built from aluminium or steel tubular struts. In many ways this looks like the
horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger purer form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedral pyramids in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred
to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the
lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.

Space frames were independently developed by Buckminster Fuller in the 1950s and Alexander Graham
Bell around 1900. Bell's interest was primarily in using them to make rigid frames for nautical and
aeronautical engineering although few if any were realised. Buckminster Fuller's focus was architectural
structures and has had more lasting influence.

Space frames are an increasingly common architectural technique especially for large roof spans in
modernist commercial and industrial buildings.

I.

Computer Animation of a Mero Space Frame Node.

CURVED SHELLS
Shells can be defined as curved structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two
directions to supports. Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried to the ground by the
development of compressive, tensile, and shear stresses acting in the in-plane direction of the
surface. Thin shell structures are uniquely suited to carrying distributed loads and find wide
application as roof structures in building. They are, however, unsuitable for carrying concentrated
loads.(Shodeck)
 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

The behavior of any shell surface under the action of a load is

analogous to a membrane, a surface element so thin that only tension forces can
be developed (e.g. a soap bubble). Of primary importance is the existence of two
sets of internal forces in the surface of a membrane that act in perpendicular
directions. Also in existence is a type of tangential shearing stress which is
developed within the membrane surface which helps carry the applied load. The
shell tends to act in a fashion sim ilar to a two-way plate structure. (Schodeck)

Support Conditions
Support conditions in both shells of revolution (spherical) and shells of
translation (cylindrical) are a major design consideration. Some device must be
employed to gather forces at the lower edges of the shell. In domes, common
methods include circular buttressing systems or a tension ring. Cylindrical shells
are usually supported by edge beams.

CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS

A consequence of carrying loads by in-plane forces (primarily tension

and compression) is that shell structures can be very thin in comparison to their
spans. Span to thickness ratios of 400 or 500 are not uncommon. (e.g. A 3 in.
thickness is possible for domes spanning 100-125 ft.) Reinforced concrete has
become the ideal material used for these types of three dimensional surfaces,
however, they may also be made of assemblies of short, rigid bars. In concrete
structures, the careful laying and specification of reinforcement is key to the
success of the structure. (Shodeck)

TYPICAL MATERIALS

Shells can be made of almost any material -- cold formed steel, wood,
reinforced concrete, plastics. Structures made of short, rigid bars of wood or
steel are technically not shell structures since they are not surface elements,
however, thei r structural behavior can still be conceptualized in this fashion.

BARREL SHELLS

A curved slab which as been cut from a full cylinder. The slab is bounded by two
straight "longitudinal" edges parallel to the axis of the cylinder and by two curved
"transverse" edges in planes perpendicular to that axis. The longitudinal edge beams
stiffen the shell edges and act together with the shell in carrying loads to the transverse
frames. When the edge beams are fully supported by continuous foundations, the curved
slab carries loads like a barrel arch.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Transverse frames, which fully support the shell, provide complete

rigidity in their vertical planes, and complete flexibility in planes parallel to the
shell middle surface. Ideally, the shell is assumed to be supported by a wall both
 so dee p that no in-plane displacement can occur and so thin that no out-of-plane
shear or bending can be developed.

Edge Beams
Edge beams serve to stiffen the shell edge and to act together with the
shell in carrying flexural stresses, usually tension. Normally there are two types
of edge beams: vertical and horizontal. Vertical beams are usually employed for
long shells, where the principal structural action is longitudinal bending.
Horizontal beams are commonly used with short shells, where the principal
structural action is transverse arching.
Without adequate edge beams or comparable support, large tension stresses due
to transverse bending moments occur at the crown of the shell.

CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS

Transverse frames fully support the shell and edge beams and are
usually composed of ribs, columns and footings. The ribs are normally arches
built monolithically with the shell. In general it is not desirable to design shell
slopes greater than 45 degrees because of the difficulty in casting. Shells with
slopes less than 45 degrees will be easier to build, but the stresses will be higher.
As a guideline, the slope should be neither too steep (for construction economy)
nor too shallow (for material economy).

TYPICAL MATERIALS

Although barrel shells of materials such as wood, steel and plastics are
often found, reinforced concrete is by far the most common material employed
in the construction of these shells.

RULES OF THUMB DESIGN

• Long shells: where r/l < .4

• Intermediate shells: where .4 < r/l < 2.0

• Short shells: where r/l > 2.0

As noted earlier, vertical edge beams would be employed for a long

shell while short shells would use horizontal beams.

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

A minimum of three layers of reinforcement is normally used: top and

bottom wire fabric with the main bars in between. The cover over the fabric
should be at least 3/8 in., preferably 1/2 in. The main bars may be as large as 3/4
in. in diameter and the fabric will probably be about 1/4 in. thick. This requires a
minimum of 2 in. Decreasing the amount of concrete usually means one must use
more careful field labor; 3 in. of concrete will give ample cover and permit
reasonably rapid construction.
 Inclusion of shear deformations allows the bending theory to be extended to relatively thick beams
and shells and, at the same time, simplifies the finite element formulation for both thick and thin beams
because monotonic convergence may be achieved without ensuring continuity of displacement derivatives
between adjacent elements. Consequently, on may use low order interpolation polynomials, including
linear ones. This is particularly useful in the case of curved beams because with higher order interpolation
polynomials it is very difficult to satisfy exactly the conditions of no self-staining at rigid body rotations
and of availability of all constant strain states, while with linear displacement interpolation polynomials and
a straight shape of the element these requirements are easily met. Tension Structures, also known as Tensile
Structures, are innovative shade structure construction art forms that provide designers and end users a
variety of aesthetic free-form canopy designs. Custom-made tension fabric structures are membrane
systems engineered and fabricated to meet worldwide structural, flame retardant, weather proofing and
natural forces requirements.
ARCHITECTURAL VARIATIONS
BREAKING-
BREAKING-OUT-
OUT-OF-
OF-THE-
THE-BOX
 TOWER STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION

The HIGH-RISE BUILDING is generally defined as one that is taller than the maximum height
which people are willing to walk up. It thus requires mechanical vertical transportation. This includes
rather limited range of building uses, primarily residential apartments, hotels, and office buildings, though
occasionally including retail and educational facilities. A type that has appeared recently is the mixed-use
buildings, which contains varying amounts of residential, office, hotel, or commercial space.

High-rise buildings are among the largest building built, and their unit costs are relatively high,
their commercial and office functions require a high degree of flexibility. They arose in urban areas where
increased land prices and great population densities created a demand for buildings that rose vertically
rather than spread horizontally, thus occupying less precious land area. These buildings were made
practicable by the use of steel structural frames and glass exterior sheeting.

MINIMUM HEIGHT
The cut-off between the high-rise and medium-rise building is 35 meters. This height was based
on an original 12-floor cut-off, used for the following reasons: 1) 12 floors is normally the minimum height
needed to achieve the physical presence which earn the name “high rise”; 2) The 12-floor limit represents a
compromise between ambition and manageability for a worldwide database.

EVOLUTION OF SKYSCRAPER

In 1860s, Chicago had become the focal point of commerce in the United States. But a tragic
event happened in Oct. 8,1871, when a cow allegedly kicked over a lamp that set the city on fire destroying
one-third of the place. The rebuilding of Chicago gave impetus to the development of SKYSCRAPER.
The Skyscraper is a very tall high-rise building. It was made possible by the introduction of steel frame
and the invention of elevator. “Tall building is the landmark of our age.”

The book SKYSCRAPERS FORM AND FUNCTION identified Seven Evolution of Skyscraper.
They are:
The Functional Period – 1880-1900
The Eclectic Period - 1900-1920
The Art Deco Period - 1920-1940
The International Style – 1950-1970
The Supertall Period - 1965-1975
The Social Skyscraper – 1970-1980
The Postmodern Period- 1980

1. The Functional Period – 1880-1900

This was also called the First Skyscraper Era. Instead of heavy masonry edifices, there emerged
those with light, steel skeleton and a façade of stone or terracotta. With lighter structure, larger
areas of glass became possible and buildings of the period were cost-effective and well-engineered
with little decoration.
 Four men dominated the period: William Le Baron Jenney with the Home Insurance Building;
Daniel Burnham with Reliance Building; John Wellborn Root with the Monadnock Building, and
Louis Sullivan with the Auditorium Building and Carson Pirie Scott Building.

2. The Eclectic Period – 1900-1920

This era sought aesthetic solutions through the application of historical models. The
restrained elegance and order of the Chicago skyscraper were superseded by the exuberance of
Gothic and Renaissance motifs imported from Europe and grafted onto a growing colony of
monuments to capitalism. Based in New York, this exciting and dynamic style was epitomized by
two buildings: Daniel Burnham’s Flatiron Building (1903) and Cass Gilbert’s Woolworth
Building (1913).

3. The Art Deco Period - 1920-1940

An extension of the eclectic style, Art Deco involved greater imagery, flamboyance and
color. It originated in Europe in 1920s and had developed into a major style by 1930s. The name
was derived from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Indutriels Modernes held in
Paris in 1925. Art Deco was a mixture of different styles, including past European fashion;
Mayan, Aztec, and Chinese Architecture; and the modern influences of Cubism, Futurism, and
Expressionism. Example: Chrysler Building and the Empire Sate Building.
4. The International Style –1950-1970
Developed in Europe, the International Style was spread to U.S. by refugees, such as
Mies van der Rohe, fleeing WW II. The new commercial citadels had to be economical and
functional; they were usually box-shaped, made of glass, steel and concrete, and stripped of all
decoration. The purity of form was realized in only a handful of buildings, the best of which was
the Seagram Bldg.

5. The Supertall Period - 1965-1975

The image of the skyscraper re-emerged as one economic prowess and might. This
return to individualism of the 1920s can be attributed as much to innovation in the technology of
tall buildings as to the growing dissatisfaction with the uniform glass-box look. The development
of high-grade steel, fusion-welded sections, and new types of connections offered enormous
potential for saving weight and with it construction time and money, esp. when combined with
some of the new designs for megastructures. Leading light and pioneer of the bundled tube was
Fazlur Khan, who worked for Skidmore, Owings and Merill in Chicago. He designed the John
Hancock Center and the Sears Tower, two of the most innovative tall structure ever seen.

6. The Social Skyscraper – 1970-1980

Skyscrapers could no longer exist as isolated towers, each one cut off from the street and
community of which it was part. The design that emerged was the forerunners of the
postmodernism and Romantic Modern skyscraper of the late 20th century.

7. The Postmodern Period- 1980

Postmodernism, a reaction to the Modern Movement or Int’l Style, incorporated color,
sculptured form and decoration. But the choice of exact style was wide open, and s type of
modern eclectic approach emerged. This style is no longer confined to North America, with many
 of today’s skyscraper being built in Europe and the Far East. At present, high-rise structure is led
by Philip Johnson, William Pedersen, Cesar Pelli, and Norman Foster.

PRIMODIAL CONSIDERATION FOR TOWER DESIGN

1. LIFE SAFETY
a. earthquake
b. fire

2. UTILITIES
a. sewage treatment plant (STP)
b. substation – electrical
c. water system
d. mechanical and air conditioning system
e. parking

3. MAINTENANCE
a. easy to maintain
b. change ability of parts or components
c. adaptability to new technology

4. BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS)

a. security – CCTV closed circuit tv.
b. Energy conservation
c. Building automation
d. Maintenance schedule

MAJOR PLATE: 24-STOREY MIXED-USE BUILDING

The challenge is to plan and design a 30-Storey Mixed-Use Building on a lot located in a
downtown commercial area in conformity with all pertinent provision of zoning regulations, the National
Building code, and the Fire Code of the Philippines to cater to various classes of society.
The logical function and efficient operation of the building both from the management’s
standpoint and occupants’ standpoint must be observed in planning and designing the building. The
structural design concept must be reflected in the various drawings where applicable. The designer is
expected to apply his/her expertise in the use of innovative materials and the current construction
technology and hereby be exposed in his/her design composition.
The following facilities are required to be incorporated into the building:
A. GENERAL AREAS:
1. grand main lobby
2. information center
3. elevator access to parking lot
4. elevators
5. parking spaces for tenants and visitors
6. drivers’ lounge and quarters
7. central Laundry and drying area
8. centralized garbage disposal/collection room
 9. sewage treatment plant
10. underground water reservoir
11. Building Management Auxiliary System Room
B. OTHER AMENITIES
1. clubhouse
2. swimming pool
3. spa with sundeck
4. locker and shower rooms
5. gym
6. whirlpool bath and open-air spa
7. children’s playground
8. jogging paths and walkways
9. sundeck and snack bar
10. landscapes
11. basketball court
12. health club
C. UNITS
1. 35 – one-bedroom suite 70-100 square meters
2. 30 – two-bedroom suite 125-180 square meters
3. 25 – three-bedroom suite at least 200 square meters
D. COMMERCIAL AREAS
(1) administration offices
(2) BMS
(3) Maintenance and eng’g office
(4) Others
Commercial Area should include the following:
(1) department store
(2) supermarket
(3) ten (10) or more spaces for various specialty goods and services
(4) restaurant

b. OFFICE SPACES – to occupy 4th floor to 12th floor.

(1) TYPE A – minimum total area of 100 square meters with toilet and storage
facilities.
(2) TYPE B – minimum total area of 50 square meters with storage facilities only.
Provide toilet facilities at the lobby.
c. RESIDENTIAL UNITS – 14th to 24th floor
(1) one-bedroom unit
(2) two-bedroom unit
(3) three-bedroom unit
These units must be complete with living, dining, kitchen, T&B, and service areas.
All habitable rooms must have access to natural lighting and ventilation.

d. ROOF DECK AND BASEMENT

 ROOFDECK/PENTHOUSE should include the following: the building administrator’s
three-bedroom residence, penthouse for elevators and stairs, AC cooling towers, water
tank and maintenance/work area.
BASEMENT – parking spaces, maintenance/work area, generator set, main water
reservoir, etc.

e. MID FLOOR UTILITY/MAINTENANCE AREA

- Driveways, alleys, arcades, sidewalks, lobbies, corridors, balconies, toilets, vertical

circulation facilities such as elevators, escalators, and stairs must be allocated with
appropriate dimensions and sizes depending on need.
- Other facilities such as mechanical and electrical and maintenance rooms/areas; fire
fighting and fire preventive facilities such as exits, fire walls, etc., must be provided for.
Observe proper fire zoning both vertically and horizontally.
- Landscaping must be provided
RESTRICTIONS:
All buildings and structures shall use first class materials and adopt new technology in
construction. It should be designed with the intention of permanency.
The building may be built flush with the property line. If the building will be built away from the
common boundaries with adjoining properties, a minimum setback of two (2) meters from the property line
must be observed. The setback shall be measured from the property line to the nearest projection of the
building.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
OFFICEC/OFFICE BUILDING – the use of the building or the place is for the conduct of
business or profession.
RESIDENTIAL/RESIDENTIAL BUILDING – use of the building or the place is for dwelling.
COMMERCIAL SPACE – use of the building or place is for the sale of merchandise,
commodities or goods to customers for their consumption.
GROSS FLOOR AREA – the total floor space within the perimeter of the permanent external
building walls occupied by office areas; residential areas; commercial areas; corridors, lobbies, vertical
penetrations; machine rooms, pump rooms, electrical; utility rooms, storage and closets; covered balconies
and terraces; and other interior features. This excludes covered areas used for parking and driveways; and
uncovered areas for AC cooling towers, overhead water tanks, roof decks, etc.
FIREWALL – an interior or exterior wall having sufficiently high fire resistance.
COURT – an open, uncovered, and unoccupied space partially or fully surrounded by walls or
building.
CHASE – a continuous recess built into a wall to receive pipes, ducts, etc.
ROOF DECKS – the flat portion of a roof used as a terrace, etc.
PENTHOUSE – a structure occupying usually less than half the roof area of a flat roofed building.
LOBBY – a space at the entrance of a building, theater, elevator, etc.
SETBACK – a minimum distance between a property line and a building or portion thereof, as
required by the ordinance or a code.
 ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS

ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING
The major elements of a building include the following:
(1) the foundation, which supports the building and provides stability;
(2) the structure, which supports all the imposed loads and transmits them to the foundation;
(3) the exterior wall, which may or may not be a part of the primary structure;
(4) the interior partitions, which also may or may not be part of the primary structure; (5) the
environmental control systems, including the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, lighting, and acoustical
systems;
(6) the vertical transportation systems, including elevators, escalators, and stairways;
(7) communications, which may include such subsystems as intercommunications, public address, and
closed-circuit television, as well as the more usual telephone-wiring systems; and
(8) the power, water supply, and waste disposal systems.

ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEM

EXTERIOR WALLS
Curtain wall, the most common type of nonload-bearing wall, may be assembled either on or off
the site. It consists of an exterior skin backed with insulation: a vapor barrier; sound-deadening materials;
and an interior skin that may be part of the curtain wall or may be attached separately. The exterior skin
may be made of metal (stainless steel, aluminum, bronze) masonry (concrete, brick, tile), or glass,
limestone, marble, granite, and precast concrete panels are also used for facades.
The traditional method of constructing a roof is to lay down, over a steel or concrete deck
spanning the framing members, rolls of roofing felt laminated with tar and topped with gravel. Synthetic
materials are also being used increasingly in place of felt and tar. New grasslike and ruglike materials
made of plastic enable recreation areas to be built on top of roofs at little expense.

INTERIOR PARTITION
Traditional methods of partitioning a building interior include the use of masonry walls 10 to
15cm (4 to 6 in.) thick made of concrete, gypsum, or pumice block, painted or plastered; or wood or metal
frames covered with lath over which plaster is spread. Plasterboard and wallboard are increasingly used.
To provide for greater flexibility within buildings, movable or easily disassembled partitioning
systems are used, the only restriction to their placement being the spacing of the interior columns. Such
partitions may be metal, prefabricated plasterboard components, accordionlike rolling curtains, or, if sound
transmission is a problem, leaded curtains that move either horizontally or vertically. Lightweight
materials usually mean an increase in transmitted sound and a loss of privacy. Nevertheless, the trend is
toward lighter partitions and increased use od sound-absorbing materials. In many buildings, the only walls
still made of masonry are fire walls, which enclose elevator shafts, stairs, and main corridors.

FABRICATE
to construct by assembling diverse and usually standardized parts
MODULAR DESIGN
Planning and utilizing prefabricated modules or modular coordination for ease of erection,
flexible arrangement, or variety of use.

PANEL
pre-fabricated section of a wall, floor, ceiling, or roof handled as a single unit in building
assembly.

SANDWICH PANEL – structural panel consisting of a core of relatively light material

enclosed between two sheets of high-strength material generally resulting to a high stiffness
ratio to weight ratio.

STRESSED-SKIN PANEL – a structural panel consisting of plywood facings glued to

lumber stringers used in roof, walls, floor, members that are subject to bending stresses.

CEILING
Drop Ceiling – secondary ceiling formed to provide space or ductwork, or to alter the proportions of a
room. Usually of wooden construction.

Suspended Ceiling Assembly – suspended from an overhead floor or roof structure to provide for pipes,
ductwork, lighting fixtures and other service equipment.

Types of Suspended Ceiling Assembly/Grid System:

1. Exposed Grid – metal grid of tees supporting the acoustical of a suspended ceiling
2. Recessed – metal grid for supporting a suspended acoustical tile ceiling having rebutted joints.
3. Concealed – suspended ceiling hidden within kerfs cut into the edges of tiles.

Types of Ceiling Systems:

1. Acoustical Ceiling – ceiling of sound absorbing material such as cork, mineral fiber, glass fiber,
metal pan, etc.
2. Linear Metal Ceiling – suspended ceiling system of narrow metal strips, usually incorporating
modular lighting and air handling components.
3. Louvered Ceiling – multi-cellular louvers for shielding the light sources mounted above it.
4. Luminous Ceiling – translucent panels for diffusing light from luminous mounted above it.
5. Integrated Ceiling System –suspended ceiling incorporating acoustical, lighting, and air handling
components into unified whole
6.
Types of Decking
1. Form/Metal Decking – serves as a permanent formwork for reinforced concrete slab until the slab
can support itself.

2. Acoustical Decking – contains glass fiber between the perforated webs of ribbed decking or in the
perforated cells of cellular decking

3. Cellular Decking – corrugated steel sheet welded to a flat steel sheet forming a series of raceways
for electrical wires and cables.
INNOVATIVE FLOOR SYSTEM
Access/Raised Flooring System – removable and interchangeable floor panels supported by adjustable
pedestals on stringers to allow free access of space beneath.

FLOOR SYSTEM:
Depending upon how it is reinforced, reinforced concrete slab is classified into:
1. One-way Solid Slab
2. Two-way Solid Slab
3. Ribbed Floor
4. Flat Slab or Girderless Floor (solid or ribbed)

ONE-WAY SLAB
This type of floor system is adopted when the supporting beams are almost rectangular in floor
plan. This type of slab is comparatively economical for a medium and heavy live load on short span
ranging from 2 to 3.5 meters distance. Additional reinforcements are placed perpendicular with the Main
Reinforcement which serves as “Temperature Bars” to counteract the effect of shrinkage and changes in
temperature. These bars also distribute possible concentration of loads over a larger area.

The ACI Building Code on temperature and shrinkage reinforcement sates that:
“in no case shall these reinforcement be placed further apart than five times the slab thickness or more
than 45 centimeters.”

TWO-WAY SLAB:
Slab, which is supported on four sides where the floor panel is nearly square is generally
economical to employ the two directions reinforcing bars placed at right angle with each other. This type
of reinforcing arrangement transmits the load of the floor to the four sides of the supported beams. The
Code provides that: “thickness of the slab shall not be less than 10 cm. Nor less than the perimeter of the
slab divided by 180. The spacing of the reinforcement shall not be more than 3 times the slab thickness and
the ratio of reinforcement shall be at least .0025.”

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB:

Ribbed floor is applicable only to medium span with light or medium load. A ribbed floor slab
consists of small adjacent T-beam wherein the open spaces between the ribs are filled with clay tiles,
gypsum tiles or steel forms. The tiles are generally 30x90 cm. With depth of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 40 cm
placed at 40 cm. On center making the ribs 10 cm wide. The concrete topping ranges from 5 to 6.5 cm thk.
The reinforcement of a ribbed floor system consist of two bars placed at the lower part of the rib where one
is bent and the other straight, or sometimes, straight bars are placed on the top and bottom of the rib.
Temperature bars are either No. 2 bar (6mm) or wire mesh which runs at right angle with the ribs.

FLAT SLAB:
Flat Slab is a rectangular slab directly supported by columns without beams or girders.
CLADDING SYSTEM – membrane structure that separate the interior from the exterior area of a
building. It is also a process of bonding materials together, to seal the interior of a building from outside
environment.
Different Types:
1. Pre-cast concrete
2. Glass Reinforced Polyester (GRP)
3. Glass Fiber Reinforced Cement (GFRC)
4. Profile Metal and Asbestos
5. Sheet Metal Cladding Panels
6. Curtain Walling

Commonly used cladding systems for tower structures:

1. Structure Cladding – cladding for columns and beams that are exposed and made of structural
steel. Fireproofed, sealed with santroprene gaskets and joints and encased in protective metal
sleeves and sealed with santroprene gaskets at joints.

2. Panel Walls – 5.7 m. x 1.98 m. or any other variable, usually 4mm thick aluminum mounted on
extruded aluminum subframes, “BUCKLING” or distortion is absorbed by expansion joints
welded to a subframes.

3. Double Height Mullion System – glass cladding @ +/- 7 m height, 500mm deep solid aluminum
frame extrusion for mullions, (mullions should be deep enough to accommodate
movement/earthquakes and glass should not shutter or fall off), external 6mm clear structurally
toughened glass.

4. Grid Wall – usually the system which clad lift shafts, fire escapes, atriums in the building,
simplest and most economical methods, conventionally sealed with structural silicone sealant;
glass panels are butt jointed and glued to aluminum frame.

5. Louvres and Plant Linings – screening measures to conceal air handling units, boilers, chillers.
Weatherproofed skin for an industrialized profile

BUILDING EQUIPMENT

FOUNDATION SYSTEM AND BUILDING EQUIPMENT

Soil and geologic analyses are necessary to determine whether a proposed building can be
supported adequately and what would be the most effective and economical method of support. If there is a
sound bedrock s short distance below the surface of the construction site, the area over which the building
loads are distributed can be quite small because of the strength of the rock. As progressively weaker rock
and soils are encountered, however the area over which the loads are distributed must be increased.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Building foundation is designed to provide buildings with support and stability. Foundations are
the first structural components installed in most construction projects.
The most common types of foundation systems are classified as shallow and deep foundations.
Shallow foundation systems are several feet below the bottom of the building: examples are spread footings
and mats. Deep foundations extend several dozen feet below the building; examples are piles and caissons.
The foundation chosen for any particular building depends on the strength of the rock or soil, magnitude of
structural loads, and depth of groundwater level.
e. SPREAD FOUNDATION – The most economical and most common foundation type is
the Spread Foundation. It is used for building areas where the subsurface conditions
present no unusual difficulties. The foundation consists of concrete slabs located under
each structural column and a continuous slab under load-bearing walls.
f. MAT FOUNDATIONS – are typically used when the building loads are so extensive and
the soil so weak that individual footings would cover more than half of the building area.
A mat is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced with steel, which carries the downward
loads of the individual columns or walls. The mat load per unit area that is transmitted to
the underlying soil is small in magnitude and is distributed over the entire area. For large
mats supporting heavy buildings, the loads are distributed evenly by using supplementary
foundations and cross walls, which stiffen the mat.
g. PILES – are used primarily in areas where near-surface soil conditions are poor. They
are made of timber, concrete or steel and are located in clusters. The piles are driven
down to strong soil or rock at a predetermined depth, and each cluster is then covered by
a cap of reinforced concrete. A pile may support its load either at the lower end or by
skin friction along its entire length. The number of piles in its cluster is determined by
the structural load and the average load-carrying capacity of each pile in the cluster. A
timber pile is simply the trunk of a tree stripped of its branches and is thus limited in
height. A concrete pile, on the other hand, may be of reasonable length and may extend
below groundwater level as well. For extremely heavy or tall buildings, steel piles,
known as H-piles because of their shape, are used. H-piles are driven through to bedrock,
often as far as 30m (100 ft) below the surface. H-piles can be driven so great depths
more easily than piles made of wood or concrete; although they are more expensive, the
cost is usually justified for large buildings, which represent a substantial financial
investment.
h. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS – are used when soil of adequate bearing strength is found
below surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat. A caisson foundation consists
of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated under the proposed
structural column locations. The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their
lower ends, which are often bell-shaped.

FRAMING SYSTEM

The construction of multistory buildings may be constructed in a number of ways, some of which
are shown here.
a. SKELETON FRAMING – involves a network of columns, girders and beams, interconnected to
provide strength and stability. For structures up to 40 stories high, reinforced concrete, steel, or
composite-reinforced concrete and steel can be used in a variety of ways. The basic elements of
the steel skeleton frame are vertical columns, horizontal girders spanning the longer distance and
 between columns and beams spanning shorter distances. The frame is reinforced to prevent
distortion .and possible collapse because of uneven or vibratory loads. Lateral stability is
provided by connecting the beams, columns, and girders; by the support given the structure by the
floors and interior walls; and by diagonal bracing or rigid connections between columns, girders
and beams. Reinforced concrete can be used in a similar way, except that concrete shear walls
would be used instead of diagonal bracing to provide lateral stability.
b. CABLE HUNG METHOD – All floors except for the ground floor are supported by a central
utility core. Each floor is both connected to the core locally and attached to the roof framing at the
top of the core by hanging cables. After the core is complete, the floors are built from top down.
c. STACKING FRAME – utilizes boxlike prefabricated units, constructed off-site. Cranes lift the
individual units into place, after which they are fastened together to create a sturdy framework.

For buildings over 40 stories, typically steel had been considered the most appropriate material.
However, recent advances in the development of high-strength concretes have mad concrete competitive
with steel. Tall buildings often requires more sophisticated structural solutions to resist lateral loads, such
as wind, and earthquake forces. One of the more popular structural systems is the exterior structural tube,
which was used in the construction of the World Trade Center towers (411m/1350ft.) in New York City.
Closely spaced columns were connected rigidly to the horizontal spandrel beams on the perimeter of the
building, which provided sufficient strength to resist loads and the stiffness to minimize lateral deflections.
The structural tube has now been used with concrete and with composites construction consisting of
structural steel members encased in reinforced concrete.
For very tall buildings, the mixing of steel and concrete is becoming more popular. The high
strength-to-weight ratio of steel is excellent for the horizontal spanning members. High strength concrete
can economically provide the compression resistance needed for vertical members. In addition, the mass
and internal damping properties of the concrete assist in minimizing vibration effects, which are potential
problems in very tall buildings.

UTILITY SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Perhaps the greatest improvements in building construction have been in heating, cooling,
ventilation, lighting, and sound control. In most large buildings complete, year-round air conditioning is
now standard. Some areas in a building may need to be cooled, depending on the distance from exterior
walls and the heat generated by lighting, electrical equipment, or human occupancy. The level and quality
of lighting have improved greatly. Largely as a consequence of these changes, the cost of the mechanical
and electrical systems in buildings has increased at a greater rate than other individual building costs; such
costs currently account for a quarter to a third of total construction expenditure. Increasingly since the late
1970s all these systems are automatically operated and controlled by computers that are programmed to
maximize efficiency and minimize waste and energy consumption

VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION
Elevators, especially high-speed, automatically controlled cable-operated elevators are the major
form of vertical transportation in high-rise structures. Low-rise buildings and the lower floors of
commercial buildings may also have escalators. For fire protection, it is necessary to provide at least two
means of egress from every major space in a building. Therefore, in addition to elevators and escalators, all
buildings, even the tallest, have two enclosed and protected stairways for the entire height.

WATER SUPPLY AND WASTE DISPOSAL

Buildings should have a piped-in water supply for a variety of purpose: drinking, washing,
cooking, waste disposal, internal fire fighting (either through standpipes and hoses or through automatic
sprinklers), and service to air conditioning systems or boilers.
Disposal of wet or dry wastes in buildings is accomplished by a variety of devices, such as
incinerators, shredders, and garbage compactors. There are also devices that assist waste pick-up and
disposal systems. The usual method of carrying away waterborne waste is through piping connected to the
sewer system outside the building. New technology is aimed at recycling water to reduce waste and
pollution.

COMMUNICATION AND BUILDING SAFETY

The growing use of power, telephone, and facsimile transmission equipment and of closed circuit
television, intercommunication, and security and alarm systems has increased the amount of wiring that
must be installed in buildings. Main cables run vertically in open shafts, with branches at each floor
running trough conduits located either in the hung ceiling space or embedded in the floor slab itself.
The electrical power required in buildings has increased with the number and complexity of
environmental systems in operation. Because a power outage cannot be tolerated, emergency power
generators are installed in an increasing number of buildings. Some buildings, particularly in remote
locations are equipped with their own primary electrical generating systems. Diesel and gas turbine
generators are used. The heat generated by these engines, instead of being wasted, is sometimes utilized
for other purposes within the building.
 QUIZ NO. 2

NAME:_________________________________ February 27,2004

TEST ONE. FILL-IN THE BLANKS. 2 points each. Avoid erasures. Make sure the spelling is right.
Do not use pencil.

1. _____ slab is a rectangular slab directly supported by columns without beams or girders.
2. A ribbed floor slab consists of small adjacent T-beam wherein the open spaces between the ribs are
filled with _____ tiles, ________ tiles or ______ forms.
3. ________ slab has nearly square floor panel supported on four sides with reinforcing bars placed at
right angle with each other.
4. _________ Bars are placed perpendicular to the Main Rebars to counteract change in temperature and
effect of shrinkage.
5. _________ Construction is another method where each floor slab is cast on ground, one on top the
other, using a membrane to prevent adhesion.
6. ______________ is the method where tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
7. _______________ – metal or plastic ducts are positioned securely in the forms before the concrete is
cast.
8. _________is when a concrete is poured at the jobsite whose beams, slabs, and columns are set in forms
on scaffoldings and later on removed after the concrete is hard.
9. ____________ is a prefabricated reinforced concrete which have been cast and cured in factory rather
than in place in the site.
10. _________ Construction is another method for walls and other members that have been custom precast
on site and then tilted-up by crane in the final vertical position.

TEST TWO. Give at least six advantages of precast construction.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

TEST THREE. DRAW AND LABEL. 10 point each

1. Isometric of Integrated Building System showing the foundation, column, beam, and slab.
2. Plan of Two-Way Slab showing dimensions, main rebars and temperature bars.
 DESIGNING TOWER STRUCTURES

TECHNIQUES OF SEISMIC DESIGN

SIMPLE RULES FOR PLAN LAYOUTS OF SEISMIC BUILDINGS.

(Only with dynamic analysis and careful detailing should these rules be broken.)

( DO'S ) ( DONT'S ) ( COMMENT'S )

 Ideal for behavior

and analysis

 Good summetry,
analysis less and
easy
 Beware of differential
behavior at opposite ends
of long buildings

 Bad for asymmetrical

effects

Although symmetrical,
long wings give
behavior prediction
problems.
 Projecting access
towers. Problems with
analysis & detailing.
 Asymmetry of members
resisting horizontal
shear. Analysis and
torsion problems.

SIMPLE RULES FOR ELEVATION SHAPES OF SEISMIC BUILDINGS.

(Only with dynamic analysis and careful detailing should these rules be broken.)

DO'S DONT'S COMMENTS

b
b

Very slender buildings

may have excessive
H < 4b H > 4b horizontal deflections.

Effects of façade
setbacks cannot be
predicted by normal
code equivalent-
static analyses..

SIMPLE RULES FOR VERTICAL FRAMES IN SEISMIC BUILDINGS.
(Only with dynamic analysis and careful detailing should these rules be broken.)

DO'S DONT'S COMMENTS

Avoid low redundancy

of cantilevers: no fail-
safe mechanism

Avoid changes of
stiffness with height.
Problems with
Shear Wall analysis and detailing.

Avoid changes of
stiffness with height.