metals

Article
An Analysis of Creep Phenomena in the Power
Boiler Superheaters
Piotr Duda * , Łukasz Felkowski and Andrzej Duda
Institute of Thermal and Process Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Al. Jana Pawła II 37,
31-864 Kraków, Poland; lukasz.felkowski@gmail.com (Ł.F.); edasc@edasc.pl (A.D.)
* Correspondence: pduda@mech.pk.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-12-628-34-01




Received: 22 October 2018; Accepted: 30 October 2018; Published: 1 November 2018


Abstract: Higher temperatures of the power boiler superheater operation may lead to high strains
caused by the creep phenomenon. This paper presents a determination of the maximum allowable
operating temperature limited by the creep phenomenon for steam superheater SH3. The calculations
are carried out first on the basis of applicable European standards. Then, calculations are performed
based on conducted creep tests, a proposed creep model, and a finite element method (FEM) model.
A detailed creep phenomenon analysis based on the conducted creep tests shows that stresses
that determine the creep process are mainly caused by pressure. Normal stresses resulting from
bending are mainly the effect of thermal expansion. These stresses undergo significant relaxation
because of creep. The creep phenomenon analysis explains the equations of the European standards.
The presented calculations enable estimation of a safe value of the operating temperature which
is constant over time. The estimated time of safe operation does not take account of temperature
spikes. For this reason, pressure elements working at high temperatures must be inspected regularly
to assess their wear state.

Keywords: boiler; stress; creep; diagnostic system; numerical simulation

1. Introduction
A procedure aimed at evaluating the relationship between the plant operation strategies
and its service life is presented by Stoppato [1]. Improving the boiler efficiency by raising the
operating pressure and temperature values leads to high-temperature corrosion [2] and increased
creep-related strains.
A detailed dynamic model of an industrial fire-tube boiler is presented in [3]. The obtained
results provide practical information regarding the trade-off between the size of the boiler and its
corresponding performance and controllability. Mechanical failures involve extremely the complex
interaction of load, time, material, manufacturing processes, and environment. The result of the
welding effect should be compensated in the structural design. Therefore, laser cladding can be also
used as an additive manufacturing technology [4].
Many failures of elements of the power boiler superheaters are caused by the improper operation
and the wrong support method of hanger tubes [5]. The hanger conditions in combination with
thermal expansion and pressure loads cause stress concentration zones in superheaters and shorten the
period of trouble-free operation. Elements subjected to high temperatures are exposed to phenomena
such as creep, and time-dependent properties of materials should be considered [6].
The existing methods of designing pressure equipment according to international standards
do not require detailed creep analysis, taking into account this phenomenon as a function of time.
Dimensioning is based on simple equations assuming that the creep phenomenon is quasi-static.
International standards do not describe the complexity of this phenomenon and the calculation

Metals 2018, 8, 892; doi:10.3390/met8110892 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 892 2 of 12

method can be chosen by the constructor. It often causes damage to the structure due to the local stress
concentrations, which are often omitted in simplified analyses, which rapidly affects the intensification
of creep phenomena.
The paper presents an analysis of creep phenomena in the power boiler superheater SH3 [7].
Calculations are first carried out on the basis of applicable European standards and with the help of
the FEM software to model large structures [8]. Then, calculations are performed based on conducted
creep tests, a proposed creep model, a FEM model, and with the use of the software to analyze the
nonlinear material behavior [9].

2. Basic Formulations
The heat transfer in solid materials is controlled by heat conduction. The thermal diffusion
equation in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates can be written as follows:
     
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k = ρ · cp (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

Introducing thermal diffusion a = k/(ρ · c p ), the heat conduction equation takes the following form:

∂T
= a · ∇2 T (2)
∂t
The stress field is described by three basic equations presented below:

σij,j + f i − ρ · ui,tt − µ · ui,t = 0 (3)

1

ε ij = ui,j + u j,i (4)
2
σij = 2Gε ij + λε kk δij − βTδij (5)

Equation (3) is the force equilibrium equation, Equation (4) is the geometric equation and
Equation (5) is the constitutive equation. For high temperatures and long-time operation, creep
phenomena must be taken into account. The creep equation enables determination of the
stress-and-strain distribution in a structural element.

εc (t) = f (t, σ, T ) (6)

In general, creep strain εc , elastic strain ε, plastic strain εpl , and thermal strain εo together form
summary strain, εsum . The creep calculation algorithm requires the definition of a modified total
strain ε0 :
pl
ε0n = εsum
n − ε n − εon − εcn−1 (7)

For multi-axial creep, all parts of Equation (7) are tensors containing corresponding components
of strain. The modified strain field can also be written using the equivalent modified strain εeq :
 2 2 0.5
1 
2 3 2 3 2 3 2
ε eq = √ · ε0xx − ε0yy + ε0yy − ε0zz + ε0zz − ε0xx + · (ε0xy ) + · (ε0yz ) + · (ε0zx ) (8)
2(1 + ν ) 2 2 2

The equivalent stress can be calculated as:

σeq = E · ε eq (9)
Metals 2018, 8, 892 3 of 12

Next, based on Equation (6), strain εeq and stress σeq , the increment in creep strain ∆εc is calculated.
For a uniaxial state, it is defined as follows:

∆εc 0
∆εcxx = · ε xx (10)
ε eq

For a multi-axial problem, the components of ∆εc are given by the following relations:

∆εc (2ε0xx −ε0yy −ε0zz )

∆εcxx = ε eq · 2(1+ ν )
∆εc (2ε0yy −ε0zz −ε0xx )
∆εcyy = · 2(1+ ν )
ε eq (11)
∆εczz = −∆εcxx − ∆εcyy
∆εc 3ε0xy
∆εcxy = ε eq · 2(1+ ν )

Elastic strains and total creep strains are calculated according to:

(ε xx )n = (ε0xx )n − ∆εcxx
(12)
(εcxx )n = (εcxx )n−1 − ∆εcxx

The above equations are integrated with respect to time by means of the Euler method.

3. Analysis of Creep Phenomena

The maximum operating temperature Tw of a selected structural element is found using European
standards. In this algorithm, the following constraints are defined:

• maximum stresses are limited to allowable values for the initial time.
• maximum stresses are limited to allowable values for the time of 200,000 h under creep conditions
(if a design lifetime is not specified), and creep strain should be less than 1% at 100,000 h (if design
lifetimes is shorted than 100,000 h).

Next, the optimal solution is verified. A detailed analysis of the creep phenomenon is performed
based on creep strain measurements. The temperature and stress distributions described by
Equations (1)–(6) are calculated by means of a finite element method using the ANSYS [9] and the
Auto Pipe [8] programs.

3.1. Calculation Based on European Standards

Due to high pressures (greater than 0.5 bar), the boiler pressure parts are subject to the European
Directive 2014/68/EU [10]. For this reason, superheaters should be calculated according to harmonized
standards EN 12952-3 [11] and EN 13480-3 [12], where a simple algorithm is presented.
The first constraint complies with standard EN 13480-3. For the initial time, pipelines operate
without creep conditions and the following criterion should be satisfied:

Pdo 0.75iMA iMC

σ= + + ≤ fR (13)
4en Z Z

The second constraint refers to the creep condition:

Pdo 0.75iMA 0.75iMC

σ= + + ≤ f CR (14)
4en Z 3Z

The stress intensification factor (0.75i) should be higher than or equal to 1.0. Equations (13) and
(14) present longitudinal stresses caused by pressure, thermal expansion, weight, or other sustained
Metals 2018, 8, 892 4 of 12

loads. The sum of longitudinal stresses should be smaller than or equal to the specified allowable
stress value.
Allowable stress fR is formulated as the ratio of the yield strength to the safety factor for the
ambient or calculation temperature, which should comply with standard EN 13480-3.
Allowable stress fCR (for creep) is the ratio of the mean creep rupture strength to the safety factor,
which should comply with standard EN 13480-3 or standard EN 12952-3.
The forces and moments in the analyzed component caused by pressure, the coil thermal
expansion and its weight can be calculated by the Auto Pipe program [8]. Auto Pipe uses
one-dimensional finite elements to calculate the superheater coil displacements based on the static
strength analysis. This method can identify the most loaded parts of the coil.
The Auto Pipe software also evaluates longitudinal stresses according to Equation (13) or (14)
and shows their distribution in the analyzed component. Fulfilment of criteria for (13) or (14) can be
checked without difficulty. The procedure for finding allowable stresses continues until the maximum
operating temperature is determined. Subsequent iterations are carried out by means of the golden
search method. Finally, the condition of the highest creep strain not exceeding 1% after 100,000 h
should be checked. If the condition is not satisfied, the operating temperature must be reduced
gradually. The algorithm for the highest creep strain calculation is presented in the next section.

3.2. Verification of Calculated Temperature Values Based on a Detailed Analysis of the Creep Phenomenon
A detailed analysis is performed to verify the solution obtained above. It is made for the most
loaded part of a selected structural element using the ANSYS Mechanical package [9]. Creep constitutive
equations in various studies are specific. In [13] constitutive models were established based on an
isothermal creep method to describe the high-temperature creep behavior of SA-508.
The creep equation for the selected steel grade is built based on uniaxial homogeneous stress
states realized in standard material testing [14]. A standard cylindrical tension specimen is heated up
to temperature T = (0.3–0.5) Tm and loaded with the tensile force F, which are kept constant during
the experiment.
The measured data are approximated using a modified Garofalo creep equation [15]. The coefficients
in this equation depict physical quantities. This model enables an adequate description of the first and the
second stage of creep, but it also takes account of the third stage of the phenomenon. The proposed form
of the creep equation is as follows:

  
 
 !−K  M
t  t 
εc (t) = A 1 − exp −

+ exp(c3 σ − c4 )t + exp−  (15)
tI I exp(c1 + c2 ln(σ + 1))2
 
 

The constants in Equation (15) are calculated based on the results of uniaxial creep tests conducted
in Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy (IMŻ) [16–19]. In order to find initial values for all coefficients in
Equation (15) before the final multivariate approximation is carried out, the algorithm described below
is applied.
Using measurement data, time to failure–stress pairs are generated. The created points are
approximated using the following function:

tr = exp(c1 + c2 ln (σ + 1)2 ) (16)

This equation makes it possible to find the time to rupture based on stress.
Next, minimum creep strain rate–stress pairs are used to find coefficients of the following function:
.c
εmin = exp(c3 σ − c4 ) (17)
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Metals 2018, 8, 892 5 of 12

Using this equation, it is possible to estimate the minimum creep strain rate as a function of
stress. The minimum
Using creepitstrain
this equation, rate isto
is possible calculated
estimate by theinterpolating
minimum creep creepstrain
strainrate
versus
as atime usingof
function a
high-degree polynomial
stress. The minimum approximation.
creep strain rate is calculated by interpolating creep strain versus time using a
The value
high-degree of tII is the
polynomial time to reach the minimum creep rate, which depends on the amount of
approximation.
tension
The invalue
the creep
of tIItest. Fortime
is the the initial
to reachvalue
theofminimum
tII, an average
creepvalue
rate,of all analyzed
which depends stresses
on theisamount
assumed.
of
Theinfirst
tension the and
creepthe second
test. For thestage of creep
initial value are
of tIIdescribed by value
, an average the following equation:
of all analyzed stresses is assumed.
The first and the second stage of creep are described by the following equation:
  t 
ε c (t , σ ) =A1 − exp
  −   + ε min
 t t  .c t
c
(18)
c 
ε (t, σ ) = A 1− exp − II  + εmin t (18)
tI I
Parameter A can be calculated from the measured data and previously determined parameters
c Parameter A can be calculated from the measured data and previously determined parameters
( ε.cmin , t II ). The average of all analyzed stresses is adopted as the initial value.
(εmin , t I I ). The average of all analyzed stresses is adopted as the initial value.
All
All three
three creep
creep stages
stages are described by
are described by the
the following
following relation:
relation:
     
 t t   +. cε c t + exp (
(t /rt)r−)K− K M
 M
)
ε (t, σ ) = A 1 − exp − −
ε σ
c
( t , ) = A 1 − exp

+
c (19)
 εminmin t + exp (t/t (19)
  t I I t II  
(15) are
All parameters in Equation (15) are finally
finally obtained
obtained by
by means
means of
of the
the Lavenberg-Marquardt
Lavenberg-Marquardt method.
method.

4. Numerical
4. Numerical Example
Example
The proposed
The proposed algorithm
algorithmisisapplied
applied forfor
thethe
steam
steamsuperheater
superheaterSH3SH3
[7,20]. It is the
[7,20]. It ispart
the of theof
part boiler
the
installation presented in Figure 1, where all pipe coils 1 (dimensions: 44.5 × 6.3)
boiler installation presented in Figure 1, where all pipe coils 1 (dimensions: 44.5 × 6.3) are supportedare supported by
hanger tubes 2 (dimensions: 44.5 × 6.3) and by plate 4, which is welded between
by hanger tubes 2 (dimensions: 44.5 × 6.3) and by plate 4, which is welded between pipes 2. The pipe pipes 2. The pipe
coil passes
coil passesthrough
throughthe themembrane
membranewall wall3 and
3 and goes
goes to to
thethe inlet
inlet or the
or the outlet
outlet header.
header. Details
Details A andAB and
in
B in Figure 1 illustrate the geometry of the superheater pipes. Hanger tubes 2 are
Figure 1 illustrate the geometry of the superheater pipes. Hanger tubes 2 are anchored at their upper anchored at their
upperwhere
part, part, where
tension tension
can be canadjusted
be adjusted appropriately.
appropriately. TheThe purpose
purpose of of
thethetension
tensionadjustment
adjustmentisis to
to
compensate for
compensate for thermal
thermal expansion
expansion [20].
[20].

Kind of support Detail A Detail B

Figure
Figure 1. Superheater
1. Superheater SH3SH3 model
model (data
(data from
from [7]).
[7]).

The superheater coil pipes (labeled 1 in Figure 2) are anchored in the membrane wall (labeled 3
in Figure 2) in all directions. All the steam coil pipes are supported on the hanger tubes (labeled 2 in
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

The superheater coil pipes (labeled 1 in Figure 2) are anchored in the membrane wall (labeled 3
Metals 2018, 8,
in Figure 2)892in all directions. All the steam coil pipes are supported on the hanger tubes (labeled 6 of212
in
The superheater coil pipes (labeled 1 in Figure 2) are anchored in the membrane wall (labeled 3
Figure 2) by plate (labeled 4 in Figure 1). Seven rows of the hanger tubes support steam pipes
in Figure 2) in all directions. All the steam coil pipes are supported on the hanger tubes (labeled 2 in
(labeled 1 in Figure 2). The hanger tubes are anchored at their upper part, which is in accordance
Figure
Figure2) by
2) byplate (labeled
plate 4 in Figure
(labeled 1). Seven
4 in Figure rows ofrows
1). Seven the hanger
of the tubes support
hanger tubes steam pipes
support (labeled
steam pipes
with the boundary conditions of the hanger pipes at the transition through the upper wall. Additionally,
1 in Figure 2). The hanger tubes are anchored at their upper part, which is in accordance
(labeled 1 in Figure 2). The hanger tubes are anchored at their upper part, which is in accordance with the
the upper wall tension of the hanger tubes is included.
boundary conditionsconditions
with the boundary of the hanger
of thepipes
hangerat the transition
pipes throughthrough
at the transition the upper
the wall.
upperAdditionally, the
wall. Additionally,
upper wall tension of the hanger tubes is included.
the upper wall tension of the hanger tubes is included.

Figure 2. Boundary conditions of superheater SH3 hanger.

Figure 2. Boundary conditions of superheater SH3 hanger.
Figure 2. Boundary conditions of superheater SH3 hanger.
Calculated pressure, P, acting on the internal surface of the pipes equals 284 bar. The adopted
Calculated pressure, P, acting on the internal surface of the pipes equals 284 bar. The adopted
method of the coil support by means of the plate allows the superheater pipes displacement of up to
methodCalculated
of the coilpressure,
support by P, means
acting of
onthe
theplate allows
internal the superheater
surface of the pipespipes displacement
equals 284 bar. Theofadopted
up to
5.5 mm in the vertical direction. The boundary conditions in the Auto Pipe program are realized by
5.5method
mm in ofthethe
vertical direction.
coil support The boundary
by means conditions
of the plate allows thein the Auto Pipepipes
superheater program are realized
displacement byto
of up
two methods of support and one tension, see Figure 3: Anchor, Guide, Cut Short. The coefficient of
two5.5 mm in the vertical direction. The boundary conditions in the Auto Pipe program are realizedofby
methods of support and one tension, see Figure 3: Anchor, Guide, Cut Short. The coefficient
friction between the pipes and the supporting plate is 0.3.
friction betweenofthe
two methods pipes and
support andthe
onesupporting
tension, seeplate is 0.3.
Figure 3: Anchor, Guide, Cut Short. The coefficient of
The superheater failure-free operation is possible only if the tension of the hanger tubes is
The superheater
friction failure-free
between the pipes and theoperation
supportingis possible only if the tension of the hanger tubes is
plate is 0.3.
appropriately adjusted to avoid rupture of the superheater coil at its anchorage to the membrane
appropriately
The superheater failure-free operation is possible coil
adjusted to avoid rupture of the superheater onlyatifitsthe
anchorage
tension to
ofthe
themembrane wall.is
hanger tubes
wall.
appropriately adjusted to avoid rupture of the superheater coil at its anchorage to the membrane
wall.

Figure 3. Method of superheater SH3 support: 1—Anchor, 2—Guide, 3—Cut Short.

Figure 3. Method of superheater SH3 support: 1—Anchor, 2—Guide, 3—Cut Short.
Figure 3. Method of superheater SH3 support: 1—Anchor, 2—Guide, 3—Cut Short.
Metals 2018, 8, 892 7 of 12
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

The
Thesuperheater
superheatercoil
coilisismade
madeofofSuper
Super304H
304Hsteel,
steel,which
whichisisoften
oftenused
usedfor
forthe
thesteam
steamsuperheater
superheater
components due to its high heat resistance and improved properties at elevated temperatures.
components due to its high heat resistance and improved properties at elevated temperatures. The steel
The
chemical composition
steel chemical is presented
composition in Table
is presented in1Table
[21]. 1 [21].

Table 1. Chemical
Table composition
1. Chemical of Super
composition 304H
of Super steel.steel.
304H
ChemicalComposition
Chemical Composition (%)—ASME
(%)—ASME Code Case
Code 2328-1
Case 2328-1
CC SiSi Mn
Mn P SS Cu Cr
Cu Cr Ni Ni Nb Nb BB NN AlAl
Max
Max Max
Max Max
Max Max 2.50
Max 2.50 17.0
17.0 7.57.5 0.30
0.30 0.0001
0.0001 0.05
0.05 0.0003
0.0003
0.07–0.13
0.07–0.13
0.30
0.30 1.00
1.00 0.0040 0.0010
0.0040 0.0010 3.50
3.50 19.0
19.0 10.5
10.5 0.60
0.60 0.0010
0.0010 0.12
0.12 0.0030
0.0030

4.1.Calculation
4.1. CalculationBased
Basedon
onEuropean
EuropeanStandards
Standards
Forallall
For iterations,
iterations, maximum
maximum stresses
stresses occuroccur at point
at point A—as A—as
shown shown
in Figurein4.Figure
In the 4.firstIniteration,
the first
iteration,
the operatingthetemperature T equals 650T◦equals
operating temperature C, and 650 °C, and
pressure pressure
P acting P acting
on the on surface
internal the internal
of thesurface
pipes isof
thebar.
284 pipes
Theislongitudinal
284 bar. Thestresslongitudinal stressatdistributions
distributions the initial timeat the initial
in the newtime in the new
component component
(without creep
(without creep
phenomenon) phenomenon)
and after 200,000and h ofafter 200,000 h ofwork
the component the component
under creep work under creep
conditions conditions
are obtained fromare
obtained from
Equations Equations
(13) and (14). The (13)maximum
and (14). The maximum
longitudinal longitudinal
stress occurs atstress
pointoccurs at point
A. It equals σ =A.158It equals
MPa
σ = σ158
and C = MPa
90 MPa andatσthe
C = commencement
90 MPa at the commencement
and after 200,000 and after
h of 200,000respectively.
operation, h of operation,Bothrespectively.
values are
Both
not values
higher thanarethe
notallowable
higher than the allowable
values of stress fRvalues of stress
= 319 MPa andffRCR
= 319 MPaMPa.
= 105.3 and fCR = 105.3 MPa.
Thelongitudinal
The longitudinal stress
stress distribution
distribution afterafter 200,000
200,000 h and htheand the maximum
maximum longitudinal
longitudinal stress locationstress
location
are are presented
presented in Figure 4. in The
Figure 4. The maximum
maximum longitudinallongitudinal stressσ(normal)
stress (normal) C = 90 MPa σC =is 90 MPathan
lower is lower
the
than the allowable
allowable value fCR andvalue fCR strength
yield and yieldRe.strength Re. concentration
The stress The stress concentration
zone (pointzone (pointbe
A) should A)controlled
should be
controlled
during during the superheater
the superheater operation. operation.

Figure4.4.Ratio
Figure Ratioofoflongitudinal
longitudinalstress
stresstotoallowable
allowablestress
stressfor
forthe
thesuperheater
superheaterafter
after200,000
200,000hhofofoperation
operation
under creep conditions.
under creep conditions.

The ◦
Thesecond
seconditeration
iterationisismade
madefor
for700
700 C.
°C.At
Atthis
thistemperature,
temperature,the
themaximum
maximumstress
stressexceeds
exceedsthe
the
allowable values, see Table 2. The maximum allowable operating temperature of the
allowable values, see Table 2. The maximum allowable operating temperature of the SH3 steam SH3 steam
superheater ◦
superheaterisisfound
foundatat665
665 C.
°C.
Table 2. Maximum longitudinal stress.
Table 2. Maximum longitudinal stress.

Temperature Stress Stress Yield Allowable

Yield Strength Stress (MPa)
Allowable (See(MPa)
Stress Section 3.1)
(◦Temperature
C) σ (MPa) Stress
σ C (MPa) Stress (MPa) fR fCR
Strength (See Section 3.1) σ C /fCR
(°C) σ (MPa) σC (MPa)
650 158 90 172 (MPa) 319.0fR fCR
105.3 σ0.85
C/fCR
700 650 167 158 92 90 160 172 252.5
319.0 58.3
105.3 1.58
0.85
665 160 90 160 296.5 91.2 0.99
700 167 92 160 252.5 58.3 1.58
665 160 90 160 296.5 91.2 0.99
4.2. Verification of the Final Solution Based on a Detailed Analysis of the Creep Phenomenon
4.2. Based
Verification of the Final Solution
on experimental Based aoncreep
data [16–19], a Detailed
modelAnalysis
is built of
fortheSuper
Creep304H
Phenomenon
steel. The coefficients
in Equation
Based (15) are calculated
on experimental for[16–19],
data the optimal temperature
a creep established
model is built in304H
for Super the previous sub-section,
steel. The coefficients
i.e., 665 ◦ C. The resulting creep model and the measured creep strain curves at 665 ◦ C are shown in
in Equation (15) are calculated for the optimal temperature established in the previous sub-section,
Figure 5. °C. The resulting creep model and the measured creep strain curves at 665 °C are shown in
i.e., 665
Figure 5.
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12

Figure 5. Real measured and modeled creep strains [-] for Super 304H steel in the temperature of
665 ◦ C.5. Real measured and modeled creep strains [-] for Super 304H steel in the temperature of 665 °C.
Figure
Figure 5. Real measured and modeled creep strains [-] for Super 304H steel in the temperature of 665 °C.
A detailed
A detailed analysis
analysisisisconducted
conductedforfor thethe
most loaded
most partpart
loaded of the of superheater
the superheater located close close
located to point
to
point A
A, seeA, detailed
Figure analysis
4. The4.ANSYS
see Figure is
The ANSYSconducted
Mechanical for
Mechanical the
package most loaded
is used
package part
for the
is used of the
forstrength superheater
analysis
the strength located
[9]. The
analysis close
Solid
[9]. The 185to
Solid
point
finite
185 A, see
element
finite Figure
element is 4.
is used The
to
used toANSYS
discretize Mechanical
the
discretize part under
the part package is used for the strength analysis [9]. The Solid
consideration.
under consideration.
185 The
finiteinitial
element is
initial analysisused to
analysisperformed discretize
performedinin the
thethe part
ANSYS
ANSYSunder
program consideration.
programis based
is basedon a ontypical solution
a typical for thefor
solution theory
the
theory The
of elasticity.initial
of elasticity.analysis
The boundary performed
conditions,
The boundary in
thethe ANSYS
equilibrium,
conditions, program
geometric
the equilibrium, is based on(Cauchy),
(Cauchy),
geometric a typical
and solution
constitutive
and for the
equations
constitutive
theory
are usedoftoare
equations elasticity.
used toThe
determine theboundary
unknown
determine theconditions,
displacement, the strain,
equilibrium,
unknown displacement, andstrain,geometric
stress (Cauchy),
distributions.
and stress and constitutive
distributions.
equations are used to determine the unknown displacement,
The developed finite element model must be loaded with pressure strain, and
pressure and stress
and end distributions.
end loads
loads [22].
[22].
Theend
The developed
loads are finite element model
represented must be loaded
by displacements with from
obtained pressure and end
the Auto Pipeloads
program[22]. at point
The end
C (located
(located 400loads
400 mmfrom
mm are
from represented
pointA,A,see
point by
see displacements
Figure
Figure 6).6). obtained
In order
In order from
to check
to check the
the Auto
the model model Pipe program
accuracy,
accuracy, theatAuto
the Auto point
Pipe
C (located
Pipe program
program 400 mm from point
end displacements
end displacements A, see Figure
and rotations
and rotations 6). In order to
(transformed
(transformed check the model
to displacements)
to displacements) accuracy, the
are applied
are applied Auto
to an ANSYStoPipe
an
program
ANSYS end
auxiliary displacements
pipe and and rotations
equivalent (transformed
stresses were to
compared. displacements)
For the
auxiliary pipe and equivalent stresses were compared. For the ANSYS Mechanical analysis, the ANSYS are applied
Mechanical to an ANSYS
analysis,
auxiliary
the boundary
boundary pipeconditions
and equivalent
conditions correspond stresses
correspond to were
to those those compared.
forAuto
for the the Auto ForPipe—with
Pipe—with the ANSYS theMechanical
the tension tension
of the of analysis,
the hanger
hanger the
tubes
boundary
tubes [20].
[20]. conditions correspond to those for the Auto Pipe—with the tension of the hanger tubes
[20].

Figure
Figure 6. ANSYS
6. ANSYS submodel.
submodel.
Figure 6. ANSYS submodel.
stress distributions
The stress distributionsclose closetotopoint
pointAAfor forthetheinitial
initialstate
state and
and after
after 200,000
200,000 h are
h are presented
presented in
Figures 7 and 8, respectively. At the start of operation, the highest stress is caused mainly by bendingin
in The
Figures stress
7 and distributions
8, close
respectively. Atto point
the A
start for
of the initial
operation, state
the and after
highest 200,000
stress is h are
caused presented
mainly by
Figures
bending
due to the7 and
due to8,the
material respectively.
material At theexpansion.
thermal
thermal expansion. start of operation,
After After h,
200,000 the
the highest
200,000 h, thestress
maximum maximum is caused
stress is stress
lower mainly
isand itby
lower bending
isand it is
caused
due
mainlyto the
caused mainly material thermal
by pressure.
by pressure. expansion.
In order
In order After
to determine
to determine 200,000
the most
the most h, the maximum
crucial
crucial stress
stress stress
after
after is lower and it
200,000h,h,linearization
200,000 is
linearizationcaused
of
mainly by pressure.
equivalent stresses
stresseson In
onthe order
thewall
wall to determine
thickness
thickness the
is carried
is carriedmost
out,out,crucial
as shown
as shownstress after
in Figure 200,000 h, linearization
9. The9.time-dependent
in Figure The time-dependent stressof
equivalent
relaxation
stress stresses
for
relaxation for on
a point the wall
awhere
point stress
wherethickness
stress is
concentrationcarried
occurs
concentration out,
is as shown is in
illustrated
occurs in Figure
Figure 9.
illustrated inThe
10. At time-dependent
the
Figure initiation
10. At the of
stress relaxation
operationof
initiation the for a point
stress is considerable,
operation where stress concentration
but after 10,000
the stress is considerable, but h, occurs
it diminishes
after is diminishes quickly. 10. At the
illustrated
10,000 h, itquickly. in Figure
initiation of operation the stress is considerable, but after 10,000 h, it diminishes quickly.
Metals 2018,
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8, 892
x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
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Figure 7. Distribution of equivalent stresses at the initial time of operation (T = 665 °C).
Figure 7. Distribution of equivalent stresses at the initial time of operation (T = 665 ◦ C).
Figure 7. Distribution of equivalent stresses at the initial time of operation (T = 665 °C).

Figure 8. Distributions of equivalent stresses after 200,000 h (Th =(T665 ◦ C).

Figure 8. Distributions of equivalent stresses after 200,000 = 665 °C).
Figure 8. Distributions of equivalent stresses after 200,000 h (T = 665 °C).
The
The time-dependent
time-dependent stress
stress relaxation
relaxation for
for aa point
point where
where stress
stress concentration
concentration occurs
occurs is
is illustrated
illustrated
as Stress σ
as StressThe HMH
σHMH = 91.2 MPa at point
= 91.2 MPa at point A1 which is reached after t = 700 h, and at point A2 after ttis==illustrated
after 2100 h.
h.
time-dependent
HMH stressA1 which isfor
relaxation reached
a pointafter
where t = 700 h, and
stress at point A2
concentration occurs 2100
After
After t = 200,000
t = 200,000 h the stresses in the superheater are much lower than the limit.
as Stress σHMH h= the
91.2stresses
MPa at in the A1
point superheater are much
which is reached lower
after thanh,the
t = 700 andlimit.
at point A2 after t = 2100 h.
After t = 200,000 h the stresses in the superheater are much lower than the limit.

Figure 9. Linearized equivalent stress (HMH) after 200,000 h (T = 665 ◦ C).

Figure 9. Linearized equivalent stress (HMH) after 200,000 h (T = 665 °C).
Figure 9. Linearized equivalent stress (HMH) after 200,000 h (T = 665 °C).
Metals 2018, 8, 892 10 of 12
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Metals2018,
2018,8,8,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 10
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12

Figure
Figure Relaxation
10.10.
Figure 10. of of
Relaxation
Relaxation equivalent stress.
ofequivalent
equivalent stress.
stress.

At
At this
Atthis temperature,these
thistemperature,
temperature, thesestresses
these stresses
stresses areare
are large
large
large enough
enough
enough to to produce
toproduce
produce a growth
aagrowth
growth in increep
inthe
the the
creep creep strain.
strain.
strain.The
The
The
creepcreep
creepcurves curves
curvesfor for
forpoints points
pointsA1 A1andA1
andA2and A2
A2are are
areshown shown
shownin in
inFigureFigure
Figure11. 11.
11.The The
Thecreep creep equivalent
creepequivalent strains
equivalentstrains
strainsfor for points
forpoints
pointsA1A1
A1
andand
and A2A2
A2 do do
notnot
donot exceed
exceedexceed 1%1%
1% after
after
after 100,000
100,000
100,000 h,h,h, which
which
which means
means
means thatthe
that
that thecondition
the conditionpresented
condition presentedin
presented inSection
in Section
Section333is
is
is
satisfied.
satisfied. For
Foraaastress
satisfied.For stress
stressof of 91.2
91.2MPa,
of91.2 MPa,corresponding
MPa, correspondingto
corresponding to timett=
totime
time t==700
700hhhat
700 atatpoint
pointA1,
point A1,strain
A1, strain
strainεεHMH_A1 = 0.06%,
0.06%,
HMH_A1==0.06%,
εHMH_A1
and
and at
andat point
atpoint
pointA2A2
A2(t(t(t===2100
2100
2100h)h)−−
h) −εεHMH_A2
εHMH_A2
HMH_A2 = 0.11%.
==0.11%.
0.11%.

Figure
Figure Creep
11.11.
Figure 11. curve
Creep
Creep forfor
curve
curve points
for A1A1
points
points and
A1 A2.
and
andA2.
A2.
5. Conclusions
5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
The maximum operating temperature Tw limited by the creep phenomenon is calculated using
The
Themaximum
maximumoperating
operatingtemperature
temperatureTTwwlimited
limitedbybythethecreep
creepphenomenon
phenomenonisiscalculated
calculatedusing
using
the golden search method. Two types of strength analysis of superheater coils are described. The first
the
the golden
golden search
search method.
method. Two
Two types
types ofof strength
strength analysis
analysis ofof superheater
superheater coilscoils are
are described.
described.
type is based on European standards, which establish the maximum allowable operating temperature
The
Thefirst
firsttype
typeisisbased
basedon onEuropean
Europeanstandards,
standards,whichwhichestablish
establishthe
themaximum
maximumallowable
allowableoperating
operating
for steam superheater SH3 at 665 ◦ C. The second analysis is based on the creep equation. A detailed
temperature
temperature for for steam
steam superheater
superheater SH3 665 °C.
SH3 atat 665 °C. The
The second
second analysis
analysis isis based
based on on the
the creep
creep
analysis is performed to verify the optimal solution. An ANSYS analysis reveals that the initial stress
equation.
equation.AAdetailed
detailedanalysis
analysisisisperformed
performedto toverify
verifythe
theoptimal
optimalsolution.
solution.AnAnANSYS
ANSYSanalysisanalysisreveals
reveals
value is decreased by about 55%. According to the EN 13480-3 standard, this decrease is smaller and
that
thatthe
theinitial
initialstress
stressvalue
valueisisdecreased
decreasedby byabout
about55%.55%.According
Accordingto tothe
theEN
EN13480-3
13480-3standard,
standard,this
this
equals 44%. A detailed creep phenomenon analysis based on the conducted creep tests shows that
decrease
decreaseisissmaller
smallerandandequals
equals44%.
44%.AAdetailed
detailedcreep
creepphenomenon
phenomenonanalysis
analysisbased
basedon onthe
theconducted
conducted
stresses that determine the creep process are mainly caused by pressure. The maximum stress after
creep
creeptests
testsshows
showsthatthatstresses
stressesthat
thatdetermine
determinethe thecreep
creepprocess
processare
aremainly
mainlycaused
causedby bypressure.
pressure.TheThe
200,000 h is 75.13 MPa, while the membrane stress is 73.4 MPa. Normal stresses resulting from bending
maximum
maximum stressstress after
after 200,000
200,000 hh isis 75.13
75.13 MPa,
MPa, while
while the
the membrane
membrane stress
stress isis 73.4
73.4 MPa.
MPa. Normal
Normal
are mainly the effect of thermal expansion. These stresses undergo significant relaxation because
stresses
stressesresulting
resultingfrom
frombending
bendingare aremainly
mainlythetheeffect
effectof
ofthermal
thermalexpansion.
expansion.These
Thesestresses
stressesundergo
undergo
of creep. A detailed analysis of the creep phenomenon explains why the last term in Equation (14)
significant
significantrelaxation
relaxationbecause
becauseof ofcreep.
creep.AAdetailed
detailedanalysis
analysisofofthe
thecreep
creepphenomenon
phenomenonexplains explainswhywhy
produced by thermal expansion is much less significant compared to the last term in Equation (13).
the
thelast
lastterm
termin inEquation
Equation(14)
(14)produced
producedby bythermal
thermalexpansion
expansionisismuch
muchless
lesssignificant
significantcompared
comparedto to
the
the last
last term
term inin Equation
Equation (13).
(13). The
The presented
presented calculations
calculations enable
enable estimation
estimation of of aa safe
safe operating
operating
Metals 2018, 8, 892 11 of 12

The presented calculations enable estimation of a safe operating temperature which remains constant
in time. The estimated time of safe operation does not take temperature spikes into account. For this
reason, pressure elements working at high temperatures must be inspected regularly to assess their
wear state.

Author Contributions: P.D. conceived and designed the experiments; Ł.K. and A.D. performed the experiments;
P.D. analyzed the data and wrote the paper.
Funding: This research was financed by National Science Centre, Poland, UMO-2015/19/B/ST8/00958.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A the highest creep strain at the end of the first stage of creep, -
cp specific heat capacity, J/(kg·K)
c1 experimental constant, ln(h)
c2 experimental constant, ln(h)/ln(MPa2 )
c3 directional factor for the second stage of creep, (ln(1/h))/MPa
c4 coordinate of the t-intercept for the second stage of creep, ln(1/h)
do pipe outer diameter, mm
en pipe thickness, mm
fR , fCR allowable stresses, MPa
G Lame constant, MPa
i stress intensification factor, -
k thermal conductivity, W/(m·K)
K, M coefficients describing the destruction process intensity, -
MA moment caused by weight and other sustained loads, Nm
MC moment caused by thermal expansion, Nm
P pressure, MPa
t time, h
tII time marking the beginning of the second stage of creep, h
T temperature, ◦ C
Tm the material melting point, ◦ C
u displacement vector, m
x,y,z Cartesian coordinates, m
Z the pipe section modulus, mm3
β thermal expansion coefficient, 1/K
εc (t) actual normal creep strain, -
ε strain tensor, -
λ Lame constant, MPa
ν Poisson’s ratio, -
ρ density, kg/m3
σ normal stress, MPa
σ stress tensor, MPa
n time step (subscripts)

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