Parte 1 y 2

ANALYSIS OF STRAIN
Universidad Autónoma del Carmen

Facultad de Ingenieria y Tecnologı́a – DAIT
Diseño mecanico
October 21, 2019
(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 1 / 60

Índice
1 Deformation
2 Affine Transformations
3 Infinitesimal Affine Deformations
4 A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain
5 Strain Quadratic of Cauchy
6 Principal Strains. Invariants

Contenido
1 Deformation

Deformation
The change in the relative position of points is a deformation, and the

study of deformations is the province of the analysis of strain.
A rigid body is an ideal body such that the distance between every pair of
its points remains invariant throughout the history of the body. The
behavior of rigid bodies subjected to the action of forces is investigated in
the mechanics of rigid bodies, where it is shown that the possible
displacements in a rigid body consist of translations and rotations.
Let the body τ , occupying in the underformed state some region R, be
referred to an orthogonal set of Cartesian axes 0 − X1 X2 X3 (Fig.1) fixed in
space.

Deformation
The coordinates of typical point P of τ in the unstrained state are

(x1 , x2 , x3 ). In the strained state the points of τ will occupy some region
0
R , and we denote the coordinates of the same material point P by
0 0 0
(x1 , x2 , x3 ). We shall be concerned only with continuous deformation of R
0
into R and shall write the equations characterizing the deformation in the
form,
0 0 0
xi = xi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = xi (x), (i = 1, 2, 3) (1.1)
We shall further suppose that Eqs (1.1) have a single-valued inverse
0 0 0 0
xi = xi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = xi (x ), (i = 1, 2, 3) (1.2)
0
so that the transformation of points from R into R is one-to-one. To
ensure the existence of the single-valued inverse, it would suffice to assume
0
that the functions xi (x), are of class C 1 in R and have a non-vanishing
Jacobian in the region. We shall assume that this is so.

Contenido
1 Deformation

Affine transformations
The properties of the general linear transformation of points,

0
x1 = α10 + (1 + α11 )x1 + α12 x2 + α13 x3
0
x2 = α20 + α21 x1 + (1 + α22 )x2 + α23 x3
0
x3 = α30 + α31 x1 + α32 x2 + (1 + α33 )x3
Or, written more compactly,
0
x2 = α20 + (δij + αij )xj , (i, j = 1, 2, 3), (2.1)

where the coefficients αij are constants, are well known. Since it is
desirable to demand the existence of an inverse, Eqs. (2.1) must be
0 0 0
solvable for the variables x1 , x2 , x3 as functions of x1 , x2 , x3 . It follows that
the determinant |δij + αij | of the coefficients of the unknowns entering
into the right-hand member of (2.1) must not vanish. It is obvious that
the inverse transformation
0
xi = β10 + (δij + δij )xi , (i, j = 1, 2, 3), (2.2)
Is likewise linear.

It is easy to see from (2.1) and (2.2) that an affine transformation carries
planes into planes, and hence a rectilinear segment joining the
Figure: 1
points P 0 (x10 , x20 , x30 ) and P(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is transformed into a rectilinear

0 0 0 0 0 0
segment joming the corresponding points P 0 (x10 , x20 , x30 ) and P (x1 ,
0 0
x2 , x3 ) (Fig. 1).

This follows from the fact that the rectilinear segment P 0 P can be
thought of as joming two points P 0 and P on the intersection of two
planes S1 and S2 ; under the transformation (2.1) points P 0 and P go over
0 0 0 0
into points P 0 and P , which lie on the intersection of planes S1 and S2 ,
into which the planes S1 and S2 are carried by the transformation. We
shall denote the unit base vectors, directed along the coordinate axes x1 ,
x2 and x3 , by e1 , e2 and e3 respectively. Thus, a vector A whose
components along the coordinate axe are A1 , A2 , A3 can be written as
A = e1 A1 + e2 (A2 + e3 )A3 = ei Ai , (i = 1, 2, 3).
Since the vector A = ei Ai is uniquely determined once its components

Ai (i = 1, 2, 3) are prescribed, we can represent the vector A by the symbol
Ai . Under the transformation (2.1) the vector Ai = xi − xi0 , joining the
points P 0 x 0 and P(x), is carried into another vector
0 0 0
Ai = xi − xi0

0
In general, vectors Ai and Ai differ in direction and magnitude.
0
xi = αi0 + xi + αij xij
We have
0 0 0
Ai = xi − xi0 = (αi0 + xi + αij xj ) − (αi0 + xi0 + αij xj0 )
= (xi − xi0 ) + αij (xj − xj0 ) = Ai + αij Aj ,
Or
0
δAi = Ai − Aj = αij Aj , (i, j = 1, 2, 3). (2.3)

It is clear from (2.3) that two vectors A and B, whose components are
0 0
equal transform into two vector Ai and Bi whose components are again
equal. Also two parallel vectors obviously transform into parallel vectors.
Hence, two equal and similarly oriented rectilinear polygons located in
different parts of the region R will be transformed into two equal and
0
similarly oriented polygons in the transformed region R .

Thus, the different parts of the body τ , when the latter is subjected to the
transformation (2.1), experience the same deformation independently of
the position of the parts of the body. For this reason, the deformation
characterized by (2.1) is called a homogeneous deformation.
0
Consider the transformation (2.1), and let the variables xi be subjected to
another affine transformation,
00 0
xk = γk0 + (δki + γki )xi . (2.4)
Recalling the definition of the Kronecker delta, we can write (2.4) as

00 0 0
xk = γk0 + xk + γki xi .

00 0
Let Ak be the transform of the vector Ak ; then
00 00 0 0 0 0
A00k ≡ xk − xk0 = (γki0 + xk + γki xi )(γk0 + xk0 + γki xi0 )
0 0 0 0 0 0
= (xk − xk0 ) + γki (xk − xk0 ) = Ak + γki Ai
Or
0 00 0 0
δAk = Ak + Ak = γki Ai , (i, k = 1, 2, 3). (2.5)

The product of the two successive affine transformations (2.1) and (2.4) is
equivalent to the single transformation obtained by substituting in (2.4)
0
the values of xi in the terms of x, from (2.1). Thus one has
xk00 = γk0 + (δki + γki )[αi0 + (δij + αij )xj ]

= αk0 + γk0 + (δkj + αkj + γkj )xj
+ αi0 γki + αij γki xj .
Now if the coefficients αij and γij are so small that one is justified in
neglecting their products in comparison with the coefficients themselves,
then
00
xk = αk0 + γk0 + xk + (αkj + γkj )xj .

The product transformation likewise carries the point (x10 , x20 , x30 ) to the
00 00 00
point (x10 , x20 , x30 ) where
00
xk0 = αk0 + γk0 + xk0 + (αkj + γkj )xj0 .

The vector Ak = xk − xk0 is thus transformed into the vector

00 00 00
Ak = xk − xk0 = (xk − xk0 ) + (αkj + γkj )(xj − xj0 )
= Ak + (αkj + γkj )Aj
Or
00
δAk = Ak − Ak = (αkj + γkj )Aj , (j, k = 1, 2, 3). (2.6)
One of the chief sources of the difficulty that confronts arises from the fact
that the principle of superposition of effects and the independence of the
order of transformations are no longer valid. A transformation of the type
(2.1), in which the coefficients are so small that their products can be
neglected in comparison with the linear terms, is called an infinitesimal
affine transformation.

Contenido
1 Deformation

Infinitesimal Affine Deformations
In this section we shall be concerned with the problem of separating the
infinitesimal affine transformation defined by Eq.(2.3),
0
δi = Ai − Ai = αij Aj , (3.1)
into two component transformations: one these corresponds to a rigid
body motion; the other, which we have termed pure deformation, will be
investigated in detail in the next section. We seek first the conditions on
the coefficients αi , if the deformation is to be one of rigid body motion
(that is, one consisting of rotation and translation) alone. A rigid body
motion is characterized by the fact that the length
p
A = |A| = Ai Ai .
Of any vector A is unchanged by the transformation. If we replace the Ai
in this formula by Ai + δAi and denote the change in length A by δA, we
get
AδA = Ai + δAi (3.2)
plus terms of higher order in δAi , which are neglected, since we are
concerned with the infinitesimal affine transformation.When the
expressions for δAi , given by (3.1) are inserted in (3.2), one finds that
AδA = αij Ai Aj
or when written out in full,
AδA = α11 A21 + α22 A22 + α33 A23 + (α12 + α21 )A1 A2
+(α23 + α32 )A2 A3 + (α31 + α13 )A3 A1

Since for a rigid body transformation δA vanishes for all values of

A1 , A2 , A3 , we must have
α11 = α22 = α33 = 0

α12 + α21 = α23 + α32 = α31 + α13 = 0
Hence a necessary and sufficient condition that the infinitesimal

transformation (3.1) represent a rigid body motion is
αij = −αji (i, j = 1, 2, 3). (3.3)

In this case, the set of quantities αij is said to be skew-symmetric. when

the coefficients αij are skew-symmetric, the transformation (3.1) takes the
form
δA1 = −α21 A2 + α13 A3 ,
δA2 = α21 A1 − α32 A3 ,
δA3 = −α13 A1 + α32 A2
This transformation can be written as the vector product of the

infinitesimal rotation vector ω = ei ωj and the vector A, namely

e1 e 2 33

δA = ω × A = ω1
ω2 ω3
x1 − x 0 x2 − x 0 x3 − x 0
1 2 3

if we take
w1 ≡ α32 = −α23 = 21 (α32 − α23 ),


w ≡ α13 = −α31 = 12 (α13 − α31 ), (3.4)

 2
w3 ≡ α21 = −α12 = 12 (α21 − α12 ),
The equations representing the rigid body motion can be obtained by
observing that Ai = xi − xi0 , and that
0 0 0
δA1 = Ai − Ai = (xi − xi0 ) − (xi − x10 )
0 0
= (xi − xi ) − (xi0 − xi0 ) = δxi − δxi0
δxi = δxi0 + δAi = δxi0 + (ωXA)i (1)

Then the rigid body portion of the infinitesimal affine transformation (2.1)
can be written as
0
− ω3 (x2 − x20 ) + ω2 (x3 − x30 )

δx1 = δx1

δx2 = δx20 + ω3 (x1 − x10 ) − ω1(x3 − x30 )

δx3 = δx30 − ω2(x1 − x10 ) + ω1 (x2 − x20 )

(3.5)

0
The quantities δx30 ≡ xi0 − xi0 are the components of the displacement
vector representing the translation of the point P 0 (x 0 ) (see Fig. 1), while
the remaining term (3.5) represent rotation about the point P0.
At the beginning of the this section, we proposed the problem of
separating the infinitesimal affine transformation δA = αij Aj into two
component transformations, one of which is to represent rigid body motion
alone; we have seen that this rigid body motion correspond to a
transformation in which coefficients are skew-symmetric; that is αij . Now
any set of quantities αij may be discompose into a symmetric and a
skew-symmetric set in one, and only one, way.

We can thus write
1 1
αij = (αij + αji ) + (αij − αji )
2 2
then Eq.(3.1) can be written as
1 1
δAi = αij Aj = [ (αij + αji ) + (αij − αji )]Aj ,
2 2
or
δAi = eij + Aj ωij Aj , (3.6)
where
1
eij = eji ≡ (aij + aji )
2
1
ωij = −ωji ≡ (aij − aji ),
2

The skew-symmetric coefficient ωij correspond to a rigid body motion, and
from (3.4) it can be seen that they are connected with the components of
rotation,ω1 ω2 ,ω3 , by the relations
ω32 = ω1 ω13 = ω2 , ω21 = ω3
It is clear from Eqs.(3.6) for the transformation of the components of a

vector that an infinitesimal affine transformation of the vector Ai can be
descomposed into transformation δAi = ωij Aj , representing rigid body
motion, and into transformation
δA = eij Aj , (3.7)
representing pure deformation.

The symmetric coefficients eij are called components of the strain tensor,
and they characterize pure deformation. we shall investigate the properties
of the strain tensor in the next section.
Contenido
1 Deformation

A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain
The geometrical significance of the components of strain eij entering into

(3.7)can be readily determined by inserting the expressions (3.7) in the
formula (3.2), which then takes the form AδA = Ai δAi = eij Ai Aj , or
δA eij Ai Aj
= (4.1)
A A2
If initially the vector A is parallel to the X1 − axis, so that A = A1 , and
A2 = A2 = 0, then it follows from (4.1) that
δA
= e11 (4.2)
A
Thus, the component e11 of the strain tensor represent the extension, or
change in length per unit length, of a vector originally parallel to the
a1 − axis.

Figure: 2

Hence,if all component of the strain tensor with the exception of e11
vanish, then all unit vectors parallel to the x1 − axis will be extended by an
amount e11 if the strain component is positive and contracted by the same
amount if e11 is negative. In this event, one has homogeneous deformation
of material in the direction of the x1 − axis.
A cube of material whose edges before deformation are l units long will
become a rectangular parallelepiped whose dimensions in the
x1 − direction are l(1 + e11 ) units and whose dimensions in the directions
of the x2 − and x3 − axes are unaltered.

A cube of material whose edges before deformation are l units long will
become a rectangular parallelepiped whose dimensions in the
x1 − direction are l(1 + e11 ) units and whose dimensions in the directions
of the x2 − and x3 − axes are unaltered.
A similar significance can be described to the components e22 and e33 . In
order to interpret geometrically such strain components as e23 , consider
two vectors A = e2 A2 and B = e3 b3 (Figure 2),initially directed along the
x2 − and x3 − axes respectively. Upon deformation, these vectors become
A0 = e1 δA1 + e2 (A2 + δA2 ) + e3 δA3

B 0 = e1 δB1 + e2 δB2 ) + e3 (B3 + δA3 )

0 0
We denote the angle between A and B by θ and consider the change of
0 0
the scalar product of A and B , have
0 0 0 0
A B cosθ ≡ A · B = δA1 δB1 + (A2 + δA2 )δB2 + (B3 + δB3 )δA3
.
= A2 δB2 + B3 δA3

If neglect the products of the changes in the components of the vectors A

and B. To the same approximation, we have
0 0
A ·B
cosθ = 0 0 (4.3)
AB
A2 + δB2 + B3 δA3
=q p
(δA1 )2 + (A2 + δA2 )2 + (δB2 )2 (δB1 )2 + (δB2 )2 + (B3 + δB3 )2
.
= (A2 δB2 + B3 δA3 )(A2 + δA2 )−1 (B3 + δB3 )−1
. A2 δB2 + B3 δA3 δB2 δB2
= = +
A2 B3 B3 A2

Since all increments int the components of A and B have been neglected
except δA3 and δB2 , the deformation can be represent as shown in Fig.3.
If we remember that
A1 = A3 = B1 = 0
the Eqs.(3.7) yield
δB2 = e23 B3 , δA3 = e23 A2 . (4.4)
From (4.3) we have

π
cosθ = cos( − α23 ) = sin α23
2
. δB2 δB3
= α23 = +
B3 B2
or
α23 = 2e
Figure: 3

Hence a positive value of 2e23 represent a decrease in the right angle
between the vectors A and B, which were initially directed along the
positive x2 − axes and x3 − axes.
Again, from (4.4) and Fig. 3 we see that
0 . 0 δA3
∠POP = tan POP = = e23 ,
A2
0 . 0 δB2
∠ROR = tan ROR = = e23 ,
B3
0 0
Since the angles POP and ROR are equal, it follows that,by rotating the
0 0 0
parallelogram R OP Q through and angle e23 about the orgin, one can
obtain the configuration showm in Fig. 4. Obviusly it represents a slide or
a shear of the element parallel to the x1 x2 − plane, where the amount of
slide is proportional to the distance X3 of the eleent from the x1 x2 − plane.
A similar interpretation can obviously be made in regard to the
components e1 2 and e31 .
Figure: 4

It is clear that the areas of the rectangle and the parallelogram in Fig. 4.
is equal. Likewise an element if volume originally cubical is deformed into
a parallelepiped, and the volumes of the cube and parallelepiped are equal
if one disregard the products of the changes in the linear elements. Such
deformation is called pure shear.
The characterization of strain presented in secs. 3 and 4 is essentially due
to cauchy. It should be noted that the strain components eij refer to the
chosen set of coordinate axes; if the axes ares changed, the eij will, in
general,assume different values.

Contenido
1 Deformation

Strain Quadratic of Cauchy
0
With each point P x of a continuous medium, we shall associate a quadric
surface, the quadric of deformation, which enable once to determine the
elongation of any vector
A = ei (xi − xi0 )
that runs from the point P 0 (x 0 ) to some point P(x). Now if a local
system of axes Xi , is introduced with origin at the initial point P0(x0 ) of
the vector A and with axes parallel to the space-fixed axes,then
formula(4.1) characterizing the extension e = δA/A of A can be written as
eA2 = eij xi xj . (5.1)
we consider the quadratic function
2G (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ≡ eij xi xj (5.2)
and constrain the end point P(x) of the vector A, as yet unspecified, to lie
on the quadric surface
2G (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ±k 2 (5.3)
Where k is any real constant and the sign is chosen so as to make the
surface real. Comparison of (5.3) with (5.1) leads to the relation
k2
e=± , (5.4)
A2
and the strain quadric takes the form
eij xi xj = ±k2. (5.5)

We refer the quadric surface of deformation (5.5) to a new coordinate

0 0 0
system x1 , x2 , x3 , obtained from the old by a rotation of axes. Let the
0
directions of the new coordinate axes x1 be specified relative to the old
0
system x1 by the table of direction cosines
x1 x2 x3
0
x1 ι11 ι12 ι13
0
x2 ι21 ι22 ι23
0
x3 ι31 ι32 ι33
0
in which l1 , is the cosine of the angle between the x1 −and the x,−axes.

The old and the new coordinates are related by the equations
0 0 0
x1 = l11 x1 + l21 x2 + l31 x3 ,
0 0 0
x2 = l12 x1 + l22 x2 + l32 x3 ,
0 0 0
x3 = l13 x1 + l23 x2 + l33 x3
Or, more compactly,

x1 = lα1 xα0 (5.6)
It is readily shown that the inverse transformation is of the form
0
xi = II α xα
The well-known orthogonality relations between the direction cosines can

be written in the form
liα ljα = δ1j , lδ ilδ j = δ1j (5.7)

0
When the quadric surface is referred to the x1 coordinate system, a new
0
set of strains e1 , is determined and is replaced by the new equation of the
surface,namely,
0 0 0
eij xi xj = ±k 2 .
Has a geometrical meaning that is independent of the choice of coordinate
system (±k 2 = eA2 ); consequently
0 0 0 0 0
eij , xi xj = e1 , xi xj (5.8)
In other words, the quadratic form eij xi xj is invariant with respect to an

orthogonal transformation of coordinates. Equations (5.6) and (5.8)
together yield
0 0 0 0 0
eij lαi lβj x αx β = e αβ, x αxβ ,

and since the xα0 are arbitrary,

0
eαβ = lαi lβj eij (5.9)
Similarly it can be shown that

0
eαβ = lαi lβj eij (5.10)
A set of quantities eij transforming according to the law is said to represent

a Cartesian tensor of rank 2. Differentiating 2G (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = eij , xi , xj and
noting from that for a pure deformation δAi = eij , Aj = eij , xi , we find that
∂G
= eij xj = δAi . (5.11)
∂xi

Figure: 5

But ∂G
∂xi are the direction rations of the normal v to the quadric surface at
the point (xi ), and it follows that the vector δA is directed along the
normal to the plane tangent to the surface eij , xi , xj = ±k 2 . This property
of the strain quadric will prove useful in the next section, where we discuss
the principal axes of the quadric surface and their significance for the
deformation.

Contenido
1 Deformation

Principal Strains. Invariants
We seek now the direction ratios of the lines through (x 0 ) whose

orientation is left unchanged by the deformation δAi = eij Aj . If the
direction of the vector A is not altered by the strain, the δA and A are
parallel and their components are proportional. Therefore
δAi = eAi .
It should be noted that e = δAAi , is the extension of each component of A

i
and is thus the extension of A itself, or = δA/A. Equation (5.1) the shows
that the extension e is given by the expression e = eij xi xj /A2 . We return
now to Ai = eij Ai , from which it is seen that
eij Ai = eAi = eδA , (6.1)
or
(eij − eδ ij)Aj = 0. (6.2)

This set (6.2) of three homogeneous equations in the unknowns Aj

possesses a nonvanishing solution if, and only if, the determinant of the
coefficients of the Aj is equal to zero; that is,
|eij − eδij | = 0, (6.3)
or
e11 − e e12 e13

e21
e22 − e e23 = 0
e31 e32 e33 − e
We prove next that three roots e1 , e2 , e3 of this cubic equation in the
elongation e are all real. In this notation, formula (6.1) becomes, for any
root e = e1 ,
1 1
e1 Aj = ej k Ak

2
We multiply both side Aj and sum over j, getting
1 2 1 2
e1 Aj Ai = ej k Ak Aj (6.4)
2 2
Similary , from e2 Aj = ej k Ak we have
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e2 Aj Aj = ej k Aj Ak = ekj Ak Aj = ej k Ak Aj (6.5)
where j anda k have been interchanged and the symmetry of ejk exploited.
Comparsion of (6.4) and (6.5) shows that
1 2
(e1 − e2 )Aj Aj = 0 (6.6)

Now if we assume tentatively that (6.3) has complex roots, then these can
be written
e1 = E1 + iE2 , e2 = E1 − iE2 , e3
where E1 , E2 , e3 , are real. If e2 = E1 − iE2 is substituted for e in (6.2), it

2
will be faund that the resulting solutions Aj ≡ aj − ibj are the complex
1
conjugates of Aj, where the latter are obtained by putting
e = e1 = E1 + iE2 . Therefore
1 2
Aj Aj = (aj + ibj )(aj − ibj )
= a12 + a22 + a32 + b12 + b22 + b32 6= 0

Hence it follows from (6.6) that e1 − e2 ≡ 2iE2 = 0, or E2 = 0, and the

roots ei are all real. From (6.6) it follows that, if the roots e1 and e2 are
distinet, then
1 2 1 2
Ai Ai = A ∗ A = 0,
so that the corresponding directions are orthogonal. We have seen that at
1
any point (x 0 ) there are three mutually perpendicular directions A , that
1
are left unaltered by the deformation; consequently the vectors A the
1 1 1
deformed vectors A + δ A and δ A are collinear. But (5.11) shows that δA is
normal to the quadric surface(5.5), and therefore the principal directions
of strain are also normal to the surface and must be the three principal
axes of the quadric eij xi xj = eA2 .

If some of the principal strains ei are equal, then the associated directions
become indeterminate but one can always select three directions that are
mutually orthogonal.mIf the quadric surface is a surface of revolution, then
1
one direction A, say , will be directed along the axis of revolution and any
1
two mutually perpendicular vectors lying in the plane normal to A may be
taken as the other two principal axes.

We recall that e1 , e2 , e3 are the extensions of vectors along the principal
axes, while e11 , e22 , e32 are the extensions of vectors along the coordinate
axes. If the coordinate axes x1 are taken along the principal axes of the
quadric, then the shear strains e12 , e23 , e31 disappear from the equation of
the quadric surface and the latter takes the form
e1 x12 + e2 x22 + e3 x32 = ±k 2
The cubic equation (6.3) can be written in the form
eij − eδij = −e 3 + ϑ1 e 2 − ϑ2 e + ϑ3 = 0

(6.7)
where ϑ1 , ϑ2 , ϑ3 , are the sums of the products of the roots taken one, two,
and three at a time:

ϑ1 = e1 + e2 + e3 = ϑ,

ϑ2 = e2 e3 + e3 e1 + e1 e2 , (6.8)

ϑ3 = e1 e2 e3 .


By expanding the determinant (6.7), we see that these expressions can

also be written as


 ϑ = e11 + e32 + e33 ,
 2 2 2



 ϑ2 = e32 e33 + e33 e11 + e11 e32 − e31 − e12 − e23

 e e e e e e
= 22 23 + 11 31 + 11 12 ,



e23 e33 e31 e33 e12 e22

(6.9)
2 2 2


 ϑ3 =e11 e22 e33 + 2e12 e23 e31 − e11 e23 − e22 e31 − e33 e12 ,



 e11 e12 e31

= e12 e22 e23 .




 e31 e23 e33
The expression for ϑ2 and ϑ3 can be written compactly by introducing the

generalized Kronecker delta.

If the subscripts p,q,r... are distinct and if the superscripts i, j, k, . . .

are the same set of numbers as the subscripts is defined to be +1 or -1.
We can now rewrite the formulas (6.9) in the form

 ϑ = eij , (i = 1, 2, 3),


 1 ij
ϑ2 = δpq epi eqj , (i, j, p, q = 1, 2, 3), (6.10)
2!
1


ϑ3 = δ ijk e e e ,

(i, j, k, p, q, r = 1, 2, 3)
pi qj rk
3! pqr
Since the principal strains, that is, the roots e1 , e2 , e3 , of (6.7), have a
geometrical meaning that is independent of the choice of coordinate
system, it is clear that ϑ, ϑ2 , and ϑ3 are invariant with respect to an
orthogonal transformation of coordinates.

The quantity ϑ has a simple geometrical meaning. Consider as a volume

element a rectangular parallelepiped whose edges are parallel to the
principal directions of strain, and let the lengths of these edges be ι1 , ι2 ,
ι3 . Upon deformation, this element becomes again a rectangular
parallelepiped but with edges of lengths ι1 (ι + e1 ), ι2 (ι + e2 ), ι3 (ι + e3 ).

Hence the change ϑ in the volume V of the element is
δV = ι1 ι2 ι3 (1 + e1 )(1 + e2 )(1 + e3 ) − ι1 ι2 ι3
= ι1 ι2 ι3 (e1 + e2 + e3 )
plus terms of higher order in ei . Thus

δV
e1 + e2 + e3 = ϑ = ,
V
and the first strain invariant ϑ represents the expansion of a unit volume
due to strain produced in the medium. For this reason ϑ is called the
cubical dilatation or simply the dilatation.

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ANALYSIS OF STRAIN

Universidad Autónoma del Carmen

October 21, 2019

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 1 / 60

3 Infinitesimal Affine Deformations

4 A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain

5 Strain Quadratic of Cauchy

6 Principal Strains. Invariants

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 2 / 60

3 Infinitesimal Affine Deformations

4 A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain

5 Strain Quadratic of Cauchy

6 Principal Strains. Invariants

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 3 / 60

The change in the relative position of points is a deformation, and the

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 4 / 60

The coordinates of typical point P of τ in the unstrained state are

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 5 / 60

3 Infinitesimal Affine Deformations

4 A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain

5 Strain Quadratic of Cauchy

6 Principal Strains. Invariants

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 6 / 60

The properties of the general linear transformation of points,

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 7 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 8 / 60

points P 0 (x10 , x20 , x30 ) and P(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is transformed into a rectilinear

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 9 / 60

A = e1 A1 + e2 (A2 + e3 )A3 = ei Ai , (i = 1, 2, 3).

Since the vector A = ei Ai is uniquely determined once its components

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 10 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 11 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 12 / 60

Recalling the definition of the Kronecker delta, we can write (2.4) as

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 13 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 14 / 60

xk00 = γk0 + (δki + γki )[αi0 + (δij + αij )xj ]

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 15 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 16 / 60

The vector Ak = xk − xk0 is thus transformed into the vector

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 17 / 60

3 Infinitesimal Affine Deformations

4 A Geometrical Interpretation of the components of Strain

5 Strain Quadratic of Cauchy

6 Principal Strains. Invariants

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 18 / 60

or when written out in full,

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 20 / 60

Since for a rigid body transformation δA vanishes for all values of

α11 = α22 = α33 = 0

Hence a necessary and sufficient condition that the infinitesimal

αij = −αji (i, j = 1, 2, 3). (3.3)

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 21 / 60

In this case, the set of quantities αij is said to be skew-symmetric. when

This transformation can be written as the vector product of the

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 22 / 60

w1 ≡ α32 = −α23 = 21 (α32 − α23 ),

w ≡ α13 = −α31 = 12 (α13 − α31 ), (3.4)

δxi = δxi0 + δAi = δxi0 + (ωXA)i (1)

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 23 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 24 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 25 / 60

(UNACAR) Presentación October 21, 2019 26 / 60