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Filesystem Hierarchy Standard: LSB Workgroup, The Linux Foundation
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard: LSB Workgroup, The Linux Foundation
Abstract
This standard consists of a set of requirements and guidelines for file and directory placement under UNIX-like
operating systems. The guidelines are intended to support interoperability of applications, system administration tools,
development tools, and scripts as well as greater uniformity of documentation for these systems.
All trademarks and copyrights are owned by their owners, unless specifically noted otherwise. Use of a term in this document should not be regarded
as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this standard provided the copyright and this permission notice are preserved on
all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this standard under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the title
page is labeled as modified including a reference to the original standard, provided that information on retrieving the original standard is included,
and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this standard into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved by the copyright holder.
Dedication
This release is dedicated to the memory of Christopher Yeoh, a long-time friend and colleague, and one
of the original editors of the FHS. Without his dedication this work would not have been possible.
i
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Purpose ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Conventions ......................................................................................................... 1
2. The Filesystem ................................................................................................................ 2
3. The Root Filesystem ........................................................................................................ 3
3.1. Purpose ............................................................................................................... 3
3.2. Requirements ....................................................................................................... 4
3.3. Specific Options ................................................................................................... 4
3.4. /bin : Essential user command binaries (for use by all users) ......................................... 5
3.4.1. Purpose ..................................................................................................... 5
3.4.2. Requirements ............................................................................................. 5
3.4.3. Specific Options ......................................................................................... 6
3.5. /boot : Static files of the boot loader ......................................................................... 7
3.5.1. Purpose ..................................................................................................... 7
3.5.2. Specific Options ......................................................................................... 7
3.6. /dev : Device files ................................................................................................. 7
3.6.1. Purpose ..................................................................................................... 7
3.6.2. Specific Options ......................................................................................... 7
3.7. /etc : Host-specific system configuration .................................................................... 7
3.7.1. Purpose ..................................................................................................... 7
3.7.2. Requirements ............................................................................................. 7
3.7.3. Specific Options ......................................................................................... 8
3.7.4. /etc/opt : Configuration files for /opt ............................................................... 9
3.7.5. /etc/X11 : Configuration for the X Window System (optional) ............................. 9
3.7.6. /etc/sgml : Configuration files for SGML (optional) ......................................... 10
3.7.7. /etc/xml : Configuration files for XML (optional) ............................................ 10
3.8. /home : User home directories (optional) ................................................................. 10
3.8.1. Purpose ................................................................................................... 10
3.8.2. Requirements ........................................................................................... 10
3.8.3. Home Directory Specifications and Conventions ............................................. 11
3.9. /lib : Essential shared libraries and kernel modules .................................................... 11
3.9.1. Purpose ................................................................................................... 11
3.9.2. Requirements ........................................................................................... 11
3.9.3. Specific Options ....................................................................................... 11
3.10. /lib<qual> : Alternate format essential shared libraries (optional) .............................. 11
3.10.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 11
3.10.2. Requirements .......................................................................................... 12
3.11. /media : Mount point for removable media ............................................................. 12
3.11.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 12
3.11.2. Specific Options ...................................................................................... 12
3.12. /mnt : Mount point for a temporarily mounted filesystem .......................................... 12
3.12.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 12
3.13. /opt : Add-on application software packages ........................................................... 13
3.13.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 13
3.13.2. Requirements .......................................................................................... 13
3.14. /root : Home directory for the root user (optional) .................................................... 14
3.14.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 14
3.15. /run : Run-time variable data ................................................................................ 14
3.15.1. Purpose ................................................................................................. 14
3.15.2. Requirements .......................................................................................... 14
3.16. /sbin : System binaries ........................................................................................ 15
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Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
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Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
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Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
v
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Purpose
This standard enables:
We do this by:
• Independent software suppliers to create applications which are FHS compliant, and work with
distributions which are FHS compliant,
• Local placement of local files is a local issue, so FHS does not attempt to usurp system administrators.
• FHS addresses issues where file placements need to be coordinated between multiple parties such as
local sites, distributions, applications, documentation, etc.
1.2. Conventions
We recommend that you read a typeset version of this document rather than the plain text version. In the
typeset version, the names of files and directories are displayed in a constant-width font.
Components of filenames that vary are represented by a description of the contents enclosed in "<" and
">" characters, <thus>. Electronic mail addresses are also enclosed in "<" and ">" but are shown in the
usual typeface.
Optional components of filenames are enclosed in "[" and "]" characters and may be combined with the
"<" and ">" convention. For example, if a filename is allowed to occur either with or without an extension,
it might be represented by <filename>[.<extension>].
The sections of the text marked as Rationale are explanatory and are non-normative.
1
Chapter 2. The Filesystem
This standard assumes that the operating system underlying an FHS-compliant file system supports the
same basic security features found in most UNIX filesystems.
It is possible to define two independent distinctions among files: shareable vs. unshareable and variable
vs. static. In general, files that differ in either of these respects should be located in different directories.
This makes it easy to store files with different usage characteristics on different filesystems.
"Shareable" files are those that can be stored on one host and used on others. "Unshareable" files are those
that are not shareable. For example, the files in user home directories are shareable whereas device lock
files are not.
"Static" files include binaries, libraries, documentation files and other files that do not change without
system administrator intervention. "Variable" files are files that are not static.
Rationale
Shareable files can be stored on one host and used on several others. Typically, however, not all
files in the filesystem hierarchy are shareable and so each system has local storage containing at
least its unshareable files. It is convenient if all the files a system requires that are stored on a
foreign host can be made available by mounting one or a few directories from the foreign host.
Static and variable files should be segregated because static files, unlike variable files, can be
stored on read-only media and do not need to be backed up on the same schedule as variable files.
Historical UNIX-like filesystem hierarchies contained both static and variable files under both
/usr and /etc. In order to realize the advantages mentioned above, the /var hierarchy was
created and all variable files were transferred from /usr to /var. Consequently /usr can now
be mounted read-only (if it is a separate filesystem). Variable files have been transferred from /
etc to /var over a longer period as technology has permitted.
shareable unshareable
static /usr /etc
/opt /boot
variable /var/mail /var/run
/var/spool/news /var/lock
2
Chapter 3. The Root Filesystem
3.1. Purpose
The contents of the root filesystem must be adequate to boot, restore, recover, and/or repair the system.
• To boot a system, enough software and data must be present on the root partition to mount other
filesystems. This includes utilities, configuration, boot loader information, and other essential start-
up data. /usr, /opt, and /var are designed such that they may be located on other partitions or
filesystems.
• To enable recovery and/or repair of a system, those utilities needed by an experienced maintainer to
diagnose and reconstruct a damaged system must be present on the root filesystem.
• To restore a system, those utilities needed to restore from system backups (on floppy, tape, etc.) must
be present on the root filesystem.
Rationale
The minimum requirements for the root filesystem should be as small as reasonably possible, but
no smaller. While many users may not want the extra complexity of a partitioned system, the
option to keep the root small should be preserved for several reasons:
• The root filesystem contains many system-specific configuration files. Possible examples
include a kernel that is specific to the system, a specific hostname, etc. This means that the root
filesystem isn't always shareable between networked systems. Keeping it small on servers in
networked systems minimizes the amount of lost space for areas of unshareable files. It also
allows workstations with smaller local hard drives.
• While you may have the root filesystem on a large partition, and may be able to fill it to your
heart's content, there will be people with smaller partitions. If you have more files installed,
you may find incompatibilities with other systems using root filesystems on smaller partitions.
If you are a developer then you may be turning your assumption into a problem for a large
number of users.
• Disk errors that corrupt data on the root filesystem are a greater problem than errors on any
other partition. A small root filesystem is less prone to corruption as the result of a system crash.
These considerations must be balanced against the need for a minimally useful operating
environment, for the sake of the boot process as well as in failure recovery situations.
Applications must never create or require special files or subdirectories in the root directory. Other
locations in the FHS hierarchy provide more than enough flexibility for any package.
Rationale
There are several reasons why creating a new subdirectory of the root filesystem is prohibited:
• It demands space on a root partition which the system administrator may want kept small and
simple for either performance or security reasons.
3
The Root Filesystem
• It evades whatever discipline the system administrator may have set up for distributing standard
file hierarchies across mountable volumes.
Distributions should not create new directories in the root hierarchy without extremely careful
consideration of the consequences including for application portability.
3.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, are required in /.
Directory Description
bin Essential command binaries
boot Static files of the boot loader
dev Device files
etc Host-specific system configuration
lib Essential shared libraries and kernel modules
media Mount point for removable media
mnt Mount point for mounting a filesystem temporarily
opt Add-on application software packages
run Data relevant to running processes
sbin Essential system binaries
srv Data for services provided by this system
tmp Temporary files
usr Secondary hierarchy
var Variable data
Each directory listed above is specified in detail in separate subsections below. /usr and /var each has
a complete section in this document due to the complexity of those directories.
Directory Description
home User home directories (optional)
lib<qual> Alternate format essential shared libraries
(optional)
root Home directory for the root user (optional)
4
The Root Filesystem
3.4.2. Requirements
There must be no subdirectories in /bin.
Command Description
cat Utility to concatenate files to standard output
chgrp Utility to change file group ownership
chmod Utility to change file access permissions
chown Utility to change file owner and group
cp Utility to copy files and directories
date Utility to print or set the system data and time
dd Utility to convert and copy a file
df Utility to report filesystem disk space usage
dmesg Utility to print or control the kernel message buffer
echo Utility to display a line of text
false Utility to do nothing, unsuccessfully
hostname Utility to show or set the system's host name
kill Utility to send signals to processes
ln Utility to make links between files
login Utility to begin a session on the system
ls Utility to list directory contents
mkdir Utility to make directories
mknod Utility to make block or character special files
more Utility to page through text
mount Utility to mount a filesystem
mv Utility to move/rename files
ps Utility to report process status
pwd Utility to print name of current working directory
rm Utility to remove files or directories
1
Command binaries that are not essential enough to place into /bin must be placed in /usr/bin, instead. Items that are required only by non-
root users (the X Window System, chsh, etc.) are generally not essential enough to be placed into the root partition.
5
The Root Filesystem
Command Description
rmdir Utility to remove empty directories
sed The `sed' stream editor
sh POSIX compatible command shell
stty Utility to change and print terminal line settings
su Utility to change user ID
sync Utility to flush filesystem buffers
true Utility to do nothing, successfully
umount Utility to unmount file systems
uname Utility to print system information
If /bin/sh is not the POSIX compatible shell command itself, it must be a hard or symbolic link to the
real shell command.
The [ and test commands must be placed together in either /bin or /usr/bin.
Rationale
Various shells behave differently when called as sh, so as to preserve POSIX compatibility while
allowing changes or extensions to POSIX when desired.
The requirement for the [ and test commands to be included as binaries (even if implemented
internally by the shell) is shared with the POSIX.1-2008 standard.
Rationale
The tar, gzip and cpio commands have been added to make restoration of a system possible
(provided that / is intact).
Conversely, if no restoration from the root partition is ever expected, then these binaries might
be omitted (e.g., a ROM chip root, mounting /usr through NFS). If restoration of a system
6
The Root Filesystem
is planned through the network, then ftp or tftp (along with everything necessary to get an ftp
connection) must be available on the root partition.
Programs necessary to arrange for the boot loader to be able to boot a file must be placed in /sbin.
Configuration files for boot loaders that are not required at boot time must be placed in /etc.
Certain architectures may have other requirements for /boot related to limitations or expectations
specific to that architecture. These requirements are not enumerated here; distributions are allowed to add
requirements as needed to enable system startup on these architectures.
If required, MAKEDEV must have provisions for creating any device that may be found on the system, not
just those that a particular distribution installs.
It is recommended that files be stored in subdirectories of /etc rather than directly in /etc.
3.7.2. Requirements
No binaries may be located under /etc.
2
To be clear, /etc may contain executable scripts, such as the command scripts commonly called by init to start and shut down the system
and start daemon processes. "Executable binary" in this context refers to direct machine code or pseudocode not in a human-readable format, such
as native ELF executables.
7
The Root Filesystem
Directory Description
opt Configuration for /opt
Directory Description
X11 Configuration for the X Window system (optional)
sgml Configuration for SGML (optional)
xml Configuration for XML (optional)
The following files, or symbolic links to files, must be in /etc if the corresponding subsystem is installed:
3
File Description
csh.login Systemwide initialization file for C shell logins
(optional)
exports NFS filesystem access control list (optional)
fstab Static information about filesystems (optional)
ftpusers FTP daemon user access control list (optional)
gateways File which lists gateways for routed (optional)
gettydefs Speed and terminal settings used by getty
(optional)
group User group file (optional)
host.conf Resolver configuration file (optional)
hosts Static information about host names (optional)
hosts.allow Host access file for TCP wrappers (optional)
hosts.deny Host access file for TCP wrappers (optional)
hosts.equiv List of trusted hosts for rlogin, rsh, rcp (optional)
hosts.lpd List of trusted hosts for lpd (optional)
inetd.conf Configuration file for inetd (optional)
inittab Configuration file for init (optional)
issue Pre-login message and identification file (optional)
ld.so.conf List of extra directories to search for shared
libraries (optional)
motd Post-login message of the day file (optional)
mtab Dynamic information about filesystems (optional)
mtools.conf Configuration file for mtools (optional)
3
Systems that use the shadow password suite will have additional configuration files in /etc (/etc/shadow and others) and programs in /
usr/sbin (useradd, usermod, and others).
8
The Root Filesystem
File Description
networks Static information about network names (optional)
passwd The password file (optional)
printcap The lpd printer capability database (optional)
profile Systemwide initialization file for sh shell logins
(optional)
protocols IP protocol listing (optional)
resolv.conf Resolver configuration file (optional)
rpc RPC protocol listing (optional)
securetty TTY access control for root login (optional)
services Port names for network services (optional)
shells Pathnames of valid login shells (optional)
syslog.conf Configuration file for syslogd (optional)
mtab does not fit the static nature of /etc: it is excepted for historical reasons. 4
3.7.4.2. Requirements
No structure is imposed on the internal arrangement of /etc/opt/<subdir>.
If a configuration file must reside in a different location in order for the package or system to function
properly, it may be placed in a location other than /etc/opt/<subdir>.
Rationale
Refer to the rationale for /opt.
9
The Root Filesystem
File Description
xorg.conf The configuration file for X.org versions 7 and
later (optional)
Xmodmap Global X11 keyboard modification file (optional)
Subdirectories of /etc/X11 may include those for xdm and for any other programs (some window
managers, for example) that need them. 5
3.8.2. Requirements
User specific configuration files for applications are stored in the user's home directory in a file that starts
with the '.' character (a "dot file"). If an application needs to create more than one dot file then they should
be placed in a subdirectory with a name starting with a '.' character, (a "dot directory"). In this case the
configuration files should not start with the '.' character. 8
5
/etc/X11/xdm holds the configuration files for xdm. These are most of the files previously found in /usr/lib/X11/xdm. Some local
variable data for xdm is stored in /var/lib/xdm.
6
Different people prefer to place user accounts in a variety of places. This section describes only a suggested placement for user home directories;
nevertheless we recommend that all FHS-compliant distributions use this as the default location for user home directories. Non-login accounts
created for administrative purposes often have their home directories elsewhere.
On smaller systems, each user's home directory is typically implemented as a subdirectory directly under /home, for example /home/smith,
/home/torvalds, /home/operator, etc. On large systems (especially when the /home directories are shared amongst many hosts using
NFS) it is useful to subdivide user home directories. Subdivision may be accomplished by using subdirectories such as /home/staff, /home/
guests, /home/students, etc.
7
To find a user's home directory, use a library function such as getpwent, getpwent_r of fgetpwent rather than relying on /etc/passwd
because user information may be stored remotely using systems such as NIS.
8
It is recommended that, apart from autosave and lock files, programs should refrain from creating non dot files or directories in a home directory
without user consent.
10
The Root Filesystem
3.9.2. Requirements
At least one of each of the following filename patterns are required (they may be files, or symbolic links):
File Description
libc.so.* The dynamically-linked C library (optional)
ld* The execution time linker/loader (optional)
11
The Root Filesystem
3.10.2. Requirements
If one or more of these directories exist, the requirements for their contents are the same as the normal /
lib directory, except that /lib<qual>/cpp is not required. 14
Rationale
Historically there have been a number of other different places used to mount removable media
such as /cdrom, /mnt or /mnt/cdrom. Placing the mount points for all removable media
directly in the root directory would potentially result in a large number of extra directories in
/. Although the use of subdirectories in /mnt as a mount point has recently been common, it
conflicts with a much older tradition of using /mnt directly as a temporary mount point.
Directory Description
floppy Floppy drive (optional)
cdrom CD-ROM drive (optional)
cdrecorder CD writer (optional)
zip Zip drive (optional)
On systems where more than one device exists for mounting a certain type of media, mount directories can
be created by appending a digit to the name of those available above starting with '0', but the unqualified
name must also exist. 15
12
The Root Filesystem
This directory must not be used by installation programs: a suitable temporary directory not in use by the
system must be used instead.
A package to be installed in /opt must locate its static files in a separate /opt/<package> or /
opt/<provider> directory tree, where <package> is a name that describes the software package
and <provider> is the provider's LANANA registered name.
3.13.2. Requirements
Directory Description
<package> Static package objects
<provider> LANANA registered provider name
Package files that are variable (change in normal operation) must be installed in /var/opt. See the
section on /var/opt for more information.
Host-specific configuration files must be installed in /etc/opt. See the section on /etc for more
information.
No other package files may exist outside the /opt, /var/opt, and /etc/opt hierarchies except for
those package files that must reside in specific locations within the filesystem tree in order to function
properly. For example, device lock files must be placed in /var/lock and devices must be located in
/dev.
Distributions may install and otherwise manage software in /opt under an appropriately registered
subdirectory.
Rationale
The use of /opt for add-on software is a well-established practice in the UNIX community. The
System V Application Binary Interface [AT&T 1990], based on the System V Interface Definition
(Third Edition), provides for an /opt structure very similar to the one defined here.
The Intel Binary Compatibility Standard v. 2 (iBCS2) also provides a similar structure for /opt.
13
The Root Filesystem
Generally, all data required to support a package on a system must be present within /opt/
<package>, including files intended to be copied into /etc/opt/<package> and /var/
opt/<package> as well as reserved directories in /opt.
The minor restrictions on distributions using /opt are necessary because conflicts are possible
between distribution-installed and locally-installed software, especially in the case of fixed
pathnames found in some binary software.
The purposes of this directory were once served by /var/run. In general, programs may continue to
use /var/run to fulfill the requirements set out for /run for the purposes of backwards compatibility.
Programs which have migrated to use /run should cease their usage of /var/run, except as noted in
the section on /var/run.
Programs may have a subdirectory of /run; this is encouraged for programs that use more than one run-
time file. Users may also have a subdirectory of /run, although care must be taken to appropriately limit
access rights to prevent unauthorized use of /run itself and other subdirectories. 17
3.15.2. Requirements
Process identifier (PID) files, which were originally placed in /etc, must be placed in /run. The naming
convention for PID files is <program-name>.pid. For example, the crond PID file is named /run/
crond.pid.
16
If the home directory of the root account is not stored on the root partition it will be necessary to make certain it will default to / if it cannot
be located.
We recommend against using the root account for tasks that can be performed as an unprivileged user, and that it be used solely for system
administration. For this reason, we recommend that subdirectories for mail and other applications not appear in the root account's home directory,
and that mail for administration roles such as root, postmaster, and webmaster be forwarded to an appropriate user.
17
/run should not be writable for unprivileged users; it is a major security problem if any user can write in this directory. User-specific
subdirectories should be writable only by each directory's owner.
14
The Root Filesystem
The internal format of PID files remains unchanged. The file must consist of the process identifier in
ASCII-encoded decimal, followed by a newline character. For example, if crond was process number 25,
/run/crond.pid would contain three characters: two, five, and newline.
Programs that read PID files should be somewhat flexible in what they accept; i.e., they should ignore extra
whitespace, leading zeroes, absence of the trailing newline, or additional lines in the PID file. Programs
that create PID files should use the simple specification located in the above paragraph.
System programs that maintain transient UNIX-domain sockets must place them in this directory or an
appropriate subdirectory as outlined above.
3.16.2. Requirements
There must be no subdirectories in /sbin.
Command Description
shutdown Command to bring the system down.
Command Description
fastboot Reboot the system without checking the disks
(optional)
fasthalt Stop the system without checking the disks
(optional)
18
Originally, /sbin binaries were kept in /etc.
19
Deciding what things go into "sbin" directories is simple: if a normal (not a system administrator) user will ever run it directly, then it must be
placed in one of the "bin" directories. Ordinary users should not have to place any of the sbin directories in their path.
For example, files such as chfn which users only occasionally use must still be placed in /usr/bin. ping, although it is absolutely necessary for
root (network recovery and diagnosis) is often used by users and must live in /bin for that reason.
We recommend that users have read and execute permission for everything in /sbin except, perhaps, certain setuid and setgid programs. The
division between /bin and /sbin was not created for security reasons or to prevent users from seeing the operating system, but to provide a good
partition between binaries that everyone uses and ones that are primarily used for administration tasks. There is no inherent security advantage in
making /sbin off-limits for users.
15
The Root Filesystem
Command Description
fdisk Partition table manipulator (optional)
fsck File system check and repair utility (optional)
fsck.* File system check and repair utility for a specific
filesystem (optional)
getty The getty program (optional)
halt Command to stop the system (optional)
ifconfig Configure a network interface (optional)
init Initial process (optional)
mkfs Command to build a filesystem (optional)
mkfs.* Command to build a specific filesystem (optional)
mkswap Command to set up a swap area (optional)
reboot Command to reboot the system (optional)
route IP routing table utility (optional)
swapon Enable paging and swapping (optional)
swapoff Disable paging and swapping (optional)
update Daemon to periodically flush filesystem buffers
(optional)
Rationale
This main purpose of specifying this is so that users may find the location of the data files for
a particular service, and so that services which require a single tree for readonly data, writable
data and scripts (such as cgi scripts) can be reasonably placed. Data that is only of interest to a
specific user should go in that users' home directory. If the directory and file structure of the data
is not exposed to consumers, it should go in /var/lib.
Distributions must take care not to remove locally placed files in these directories without
administrator permission. 20
20
This is particularly important as these areas will often contain both files initially installed by the distributor, and those added by the
administrator.
16
The Root Filesystem
Programs must not assume that any files or directories in /tmp are preserved between invocations of the
program.
Rationale
IEEE standard POSIX.1-2008 lists requirements similar to the above section.
Although data stored in /tmp may be deleted in a site-specific manner, it is recommended that
files and directories located in /tmp be deleted whenever the system is booted.
FHS added this recommendation on the basis of historical precedent and common practice, but did
not make it a requirement because system administration is not within the scope of this standard.
17
Chapter 4. The /usr Hierarchy
4.1. Purpose
/usr is the second major section of the filesystem. /usr is shareable, read-only data. That means
that /usr should be shareable between various FHS-compliant hosts and must not be written to. Any
information that is host-specific or varies with time is stored elsewhere.
Large software packages must not use a direct subdirectory under the /usr hierarchy.
4.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, are required in /usr.
Directory Description
bin Most user commands
lib Libraries
local Local hierarchy (empty after main installation)
sbin Non-vital system binaries
share Architecture-independent data
An exception is made for the X Window System because of considerable precedent and widely-accepted
practice.
The following symbolic links to directories may be present. This possibility is based on the need to preserve
compatibility with older systems until all distribution can be assumed to use the /var hierarchy.
Once a system no longer requires any one of the above symbolic links, the link may be removed, if desired.
18
The /usr Hierarchy
4.4.2. Requirements
There must be no subdirectories in /usr/bin.
Command Description
perl The Practical Extraction and Report Language
(optional)
python The Python interpreted language (optional)
tclsh Simple shell containing Tcl interpreter (optional)
wish Simple Tcl/Tk windowing shell (optional)
expect Program for interactive dialog (optional)
Rationale
In many executable scripts, the interpreter to be invoked to execute the script is specified using
#!path_to_interpreter on the first line of a script. To make such scripts portable among
different systems, it is advantageous to standardize the interpreter locations. The shell interpreter
is already fixed in /bin by this specification, but interpreters for Perl, Python, Tcl and expect
may be installed in various places. The locations specified here may be implemented as symbolic
links to the physical location of the interpreters.
Directory Description
bsd BSD compatibility include files (optional)
19
The /usr Hierarchy
Applications may use a single subdirectory under /usr/lib. If an application uses a subdirectory, all
architecture-dependent data exclusively used by the application must be placed within that subdirectory. 3
Applications which use /usr/libexec in this way must not also use /usr/lib to store internal
binaries, though they may use /usr/lib for the other purposes documented here.
Rationale
Some previous versions of this document did not support /usr/libexec, despite it being
standard practice in a number of environments. 6 To accomodate this restriction, it became
common practice to use /usr/lib instead. Either practice is now acceptable, but each
application must choose one way or the other to organize itself.
1
Miscellaneous architecture-independent application-specific static files and subdirectories must be placed in /usr/share.
2
See below, in the /usr/libexec section, for a discussion of /usr/lib vs. /usr/libexec for executable binaries.
3
For example, the perl5 subdirectory for Perl 5 modules and libraries.
4
Some executable commands such as makewhatis and sendmail have also been traditionally placed in /usr/lib. makewhatis is an internal
binary and must be placed in a binary directory; users access only catman. Newer sendmail binaries are now placed by default in /usr/sbin.
Additionally, systems using a sendmail-compatible mail transfer agent must provide /usr/sbin/sendmail as the sendmail command, either as the
executable itself or as a symlink to the appropriate executable.
5
Host-specific data for the X Window System must not be stored in /usr/lib/X11. Host-specific configuration files such as xorg.conf
must be stored in /etc/X11. This includes configuration data such as system.twmrc even if it is only made a symbolic link to a more global
configuration file (probably in /usr/lib/X11).
6
See, for example, the "GNU Coding Standards" from the Free Software Foundation.
20
The /usr Hierarchy
Locally installed software must be placed within /usr/local rather than /usr unless it is being
installed to replace or upgrade software in /usr. 8
4.9.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, must be in /usr/local
Directory Description
bin Local binaries
etc Host-specific system configuration for local
binaries
games Local game binaries
include Local C header files
lib Local libraries
man Local online manuals
sbin Local system binaries
share Local architecture-independent hierarchy
src Local source code
No other directories, except those listed below, may be in /usr/local after first installing a FHS-
compliant system.
21
The /usr Hierarchy
Rationale
The consistency of /usr/local/etc is beneficial to installers, and is already used in other
systems. As all of /usr/local needs to be backed up to reproduce a system, it introduces no
additional maintenance overhead, but a symlink to /etc/local is suitable if systems want all
their configuration under one hierarchy.
Note that /usr/etc is still not allowed: programs in /usr should place configuration files in
/etc.
If the directory /usr/share/color exists as specified in this document, then the directory /usr/
local/share/color must also exist, governed by the same rules as /usr/share/color.
Rationale
This usage allows the sysadmin a place to install color profiles manually when necessary.
4.10.2. Requirements
There must be no subdirectories in /usr/sbin.
22
The /usr Hierarchy
This hierarchy is intended to be shareable among all architecture platforms of a given OS; thus, for
example, a site with i386, Alpha, and PPC platforms might maintain a single /usr/share directory
that is centrally-mounted. Note, however, that /usr/share is generally not intended to be shared by
different OSes or by different releases of the same OS.
Any program or package which contains or requires data that doesn't need to be modified should store
that data in /usr/share (or /usr/local/share, if installed locally). It is recommended that a
subdirectory be used in /usr/share for this purpose. Applications using a single file may use /usr/
share/misc.
Game data stored in /usr/share/games must be purely static data. Any modifiable files, such as score
files, game play logs, and so forth, should be placed in /var/games.
4.11.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, must be in /usr/share
Directory Description
man Online manuals
misc Miscellaneous architecture-independent data
Directory Description
color Color management information (optional)
dict Word lists (optional)
doc Miscellaneous documentation (optional)
games Static data files for /usr/games (optional)
info Primary directory for GNU Info system (optional)
locale Locale information (optional)
nls Message catalogs for Native language support
(optional)
ppd Printer definitions (optional)
sgml SGML data (optional)
terminfo Directories for terminfo database (optional)
tmac troff macros not distributed with groff (optional)
xml XML data (optional)
zoneinfo Timezone information and configuration (optional)
23
The /usr Hierarchy
Directory Description
icc ICC color profiles (optional)
The top-level directory /usr/share/color must not contain any files; all files should be in
subdirectories of /usr/share/color.
Rationale
The reason that only word lists are located here is that they are the only files common to all spell
checkers.
File Description
words List of English words (optional)
Sites that require both American and British spelling may link words to -/usr/share/dict/
american-english or -/usr/share/dict/british-english.
Word lists for other languages may be added using the English name for that language, e.g., /usr/
share/dict/french, /usr/share/dict/danish, etc. These should, if possible, use a character
set based on Unicode, with the UTF-8 character set being the preferred option.
24
The /usr Hierarchy
• man1: User programs Manual pages that describe publicly accessible commands are contained in this
chapter. Most program documentation that a user will need to use is located here.
• man2: System calls This section describes all of the system calls (requests for the kernel to perform
operations).
• man3: Library functions and subroutines Section 3 describes program library routines that are not direct
calls to kernel services. This and chapter 2 are only really of interest to programmers.
• man4: Special files Section 4 describes the special files, related driver functions, and networking support
available in the system. Typically, this includes the device files found in /dev and the kernel interface
to networking protocol support.
• man5: File formats The formats for many data files are documented in the section 5. This includes
various include files, program output files, and system files.
• man6: Games This chapter documents games, demos, and generally trivial programs. Different people
have various notions about how essential this is.
• man7: Miscellaneous Manual pages that are difficult to classify are designated as being section 7. The
troff and other text processing macro packages are found here.
• man8: System administration Programs used by system administrators for system operation and
maintenance are documented here. Some of these programs are also occasionally useful for normal users.
Directory Description
man1 User programs (optional)
man2 System calls (optional)
man3 Library calls (optional)
man4 Special files (optional)
man5 File formats (optional)
man6 Games (optional)
man7 Miscellaneous (optional)
man8 System administration (optional)
25
The /usr Hierarchy
Provisions must be made in the structure of /usr/share/man to support manual pages which
are written in different (or multiple) languages. These provisions must take into account the storage
and reference of these manual pages. Relevant factors include language (including geographical-based
differences), and character code set.
<language>[_<territory>][.<character-set>][,<version>]
The <language> field must be taken from ISO 639 (a code for the representation of names of languages).
It must be two characters wide and specified with lowercase letters only.
The <territory> field must be the two-letter code of ISO 3166 (a specification of representations of
countries), if possible. (Most people are familiar with the two-letter codes used for the country codes in
email addresses.) It must be two characters wide and specified with uppercase letters only. 13
The <character-set> field must represent the standard describing the character set. If the -
<character-set> field is just a numeric specification, the number represents the number of the
international standard describing the character set. It is recommended that this be a numeric representation
if possible (ISO standards, especially), not include additional punctuation symbols, and that any letters
be in lowercase.
A parameter specifying a <version> of the profile may be placed after the <character-set> field,
delimited by a comma. This may be used to discriminate between different cultural needs; for instance,
dictionary order versus a more systems-oriented collating order. This standard recommends not using the
<version> field, unless it is necessary.
Systems which use a unique language and code set for all manual pages may omit the <locale> substring
and store all manual pages in <mandir>. For example, systems which only have English manual pages
coded with ASCII, may store manual pages (the man<section> directories) directly in /usr/share/
man. (That is the traditional circumstance and arrangement, in fact.)
Countries for which there is a well-accepted standard character code set may omit the <character-
set> field, but it is strongly recommended that it be included, especially for countries with several
competing standards.
Various examples:
13
A major exception to this rule is the United Kingdom, which is `GB' in the ISO 3166, but `UK' for most email addresses.
26
The /usr Hierarchy
Similarly, provision must be made for manual pages which are architecture-dependent, such as
documentation on device-drivers or low-level system administration commands. These must be placed
under an <arch> directory in the appropriate man<section> directory; for example, a man page
for the i386 ctrlaltdel(8) command might be placed in /usr/share/man/<locale>/man8/i386/
ctrlaltdel.8.
Manual pages for commands and data under /usr/local are stored in /usr/local/man or /usr/
local/share/man. All manual page hierarchies in the system must have the same structure as /usr/
share/man, as this structure is expected by commands which consume manual page content. 14
The cat page sections (cat<section>) containing formatted manual page entries are also found within
subdirectories of <mandir>/<locale>, but are not required nor may they be distributed in lieu of nroff
source manual pages.
The numbered sections "1" through "8" are traditionally defined. In general, the file name for manual pages
located within a particular section end with .<section>.
In addition, some large sets of application-specific manual pages have an additional suffix appended to the
manual page filename. For example, the MH mail handling system manual pages must have mh appended
to all MH manuals. All X Window System manual pages must have an x appended to the filename.
The practice of placing various language manual pages in appropriate subdirectories of /usr/share/
man also applies to the other manual page hierarchies, such as /usr/local/man. (This portion of the
standard also applies later in the section on the optional /var/cache/man structure.)
27
The /usr Hierarchy
File Description
ascii ASCII character set table (optional)
termcap Terminal capability database (optional)
termcap.db Terminal capability database (optional)
Other (application-specific) files may appear here, but a distributor may place them in /usr/lib at their
discretion. 15 16
Directory Description
docbook docbook DTD (optional)
tei tei DTD (optional)
html html DTD (optional)
mathml mathml DTD (optional)
Other files that are not specific to a given DTD may reside in their own subdirectory.
28
The /usr Hierarchy
Directory Description
docbook docbook XML DTD (optional)
xhtml XHTML DTD (optional)
mathml MathML DTD (optional)
17
Generally, source should not be built within this hierarchy.
29
Chapter 5. The /var Hierarchy
5.1. Purpose
/var contains variable data files. This includes spool directories and files, administrative and logging
data, and transient and temporary files.
Some portions of /var are not shareable between different systems. For instance, /var/log, /var/
lock, and /var/run. Other portions may be shared, notably /var/mail, /var/cache/man, /
var/cache/fonts, and /var/spool/news.
/var is specified here in order to make it possible to mount /usr read-only. Everything that once went
into /usr that is written to during system operation (as opposed to installation and software maintenance)
must be in /var.
If /var cannot be made a separate partition, it is often preferable to move /var out of the root partition
and into the /usr partition. (This is sometimes done to reduce the size of the root partition or when space
runs low in the root partition.) However, /var must not be linked to /usr because this makes separation
of /usr and /var more difficult and is likely to create a naming conflict. Instead, link /var to /usr/
var.
Applications must generally not add directories to the top level of /var. Such directories should only be
added if they have some system-wide implication, and in consultation with the FHS mailing list.
5.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, are required in /var:
Directory Description
cache Application cache data
lib Variable state information
local Variable data for /usr/local
lock Lock files
log Log files and directories
opt Variable data for /opt
run Data relevant to running processes
spool Application spool data
tmp Temporary files preserved between system reboots
Several directories are `reserved' in the sense that they must not be used arbitrarily by some new
application, since they would conflict with historical and/or local practice. They are:
/var/backups
/var/cron
/var/msgs
/var/preserve
30
The /var Hierarchy
Directory Description
account Process accounting logs (optional)
crash System crash dumps (optional)
games Variable game data (optional)
mail User mailbox files (optional)
yp Network Information Service (NIS) database files
(optional)
Files located under /var/cache may be expired in an application specific manner, by the system
administrator, or both. The application must always be able to recover from manual deletion of these files
(generally because of a disk space shortage). No other requirements are made on the data format of the
cache directories.
Rationale
The existence of a separate directory for cached data allows system administrators to set different
disk and backup policies from other directories in /var.
31
The /var Hierarchy
Directory Description
<package> Package specific cache data (optional)
• Allow no caching of formatted man pages, and require formatting to be done each time a man page
is brought up.
The structure of /var/cache/man needs to reflect both the fact of multiple man page hierarchies and
the possibility of multiple language support.
Man pages written to /var/cache/man may eventually be transferred to the appropriate preformatted
directories in the source man hierarchy or expired; likewise formatted man pages in the source man
hierarchy may be expired if they are not accessed for a period of time.
1
This standard does not currently incorporate the TeX Directory Structure (a document that describes the layout TeX files and directories), but it
may be useful reading. It is located at ftp://ctan.tug.org/tex/
2
For example, /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1 is formatted into /var/cache/man/cat1/ls.1, and /usr/X11R6/man/<locale>/
man3/XtClass.3x into /var/cache/man/X11R6/<locale>/cat3/XtClass.3x.
32
The /var Hierarchy
If preformatted manual pages come with a system on read-only media (a CD-ROM, for instance), they must
be installed in the source man hierarchy (e.g. /usr/share/man/cat<section>). /var/cache/
man is reserved as a writable cache for formatted manual pages.
Rationale
Release 1.2 of this standard specified /var/catman for this hierarchy. The path has been
moved under /var/cache to better reflect the dynamic nature of the formatted man pages. The
directory name has been changed to man to allow for enhancing the hierarchy to include post-
processed formats other than "cat", such as PostScript, HTML, or DVI.
Rationale
/var/games has been given a hierarchy of its own, rather than leaving it underneath /var/
lib as in release 1.2 of this standard. The separation allows local control of backup strategies,
permissions, and disk usage, as well as allowing inter-host sharing and reducing clutter in /var/
lib. Additionally, /var/games is the path traditionally used by BSD.
State information is generally used to preserve the condition of an application (or a group of inter-
related applications) between invocations and between different instances of the same application. State
information should generally remain valid after a reboot, should not be logging output, and should not
be spooled data.
An application (or a group of inter-related applications) must use a subdirectory of /var/lib for its data.
There is one required subdirectory, /var/lib/misc, which is intended for state files that don't need
3
Data with exposed filesystem structure should be stored in /srv.
33
The /var Hierarchy
a subdirectory; the other subdirectories should only be present if the application in question is included
in the distribution. 4
/var/lib/<name> is the location that must be used for all distribution packaging support. Different
distributions may use different names, of course.
5.8.2. Requirements
The following directories, or symbolic links to directories, are required in /var/lib:
Directory Description
misc Miscellaneous state data
Directory Description
<editor> Editor backup files and state (optional)
<pkgtool> Packaging support files (optional)
<package> State data for packages and subsystems (optional)
color Color management information (optional)
hwclock State directory for hwclock (optional)
xdm X display manager variable data (optional)
Other editors may not require a directory for crash-recovery files, but may require a well-defined place
to store other information while the editor is running. This information should be stored in a subdirectory
under /var/lib (for example, GNU Emacs would place lock files in /var/lib/emacs/lock).
Future editors may require additional state information beyond crash-recovery files and lock files — this
information should also be placed under /var/lib/<editor>.
Rationale
Previous Linux releases, as well as all commercial vendors, use /var/preserve for vi or its
clones. However, each editor uses its own format for these crash-recovery files, so a separate
directory is needed for each editor.
4
An important difference between this version of this standard and previous ones is that applications are now required to use a subdirectory of
/var/lib.
34
The /var Hierarchy
Editor-specific lock files are usually quite different from the device or resource lock files that are
stored in /var/lock and, hence, are stored under /var/lib.
Rationale
In FHS 2.1, this file was /etc/adjtime, but as hwclock updates it, that was obviously
incorrect.
Lock files for devices and other resources shared by multiple applications, such as the serial device lock
files that were originally found in either /usr/spool/locks or /usr/spool/uucp, must now be
stored in /var/lock. The naming convention which must be used is "LCK.." followed by the base name
of the device. For example, to lock /dev/ttyS0 the file "LCK..ttyS0" would be created. 6
The format used for the contents of such lock files must be the HDB UUCP lock file format. The HDB
format is to store the process identifier (PID) as a ten byte ASCII decimal number, with a trailing newline.
For example, if process 1230 holds a lock file, it would contain the eleven characters: space, space, space,
space, space, space, one, two, three, zero, and newline.
5
This hierarchy should contain files stored in /var/db in current BSD releases. These include locate.database and mountdtab, and the
kernel symbol database(s).
6
Then, anything wishing to use /dev/ttyS0 can read the lock file and act accordingly (all locks in /var/lock should be world-readable).
35
The /var Hierarchy
File Description
lastlog record of last login of each user
messages system messages from syslogd
wtmp record of all logins and logouts
User mailbox files in this location must be stored in the standard UNIX mailbox format.
Rationale
The logical location for this directory was changed from /var/spool/mail in order to bring
FHS in-line with nearly every UNIX distribution. This change is important for inter-operability
since a single /var/mail is often shared between multiple hosts and multiple UNIX distribution
(despite NFS locking issues).
It is important to note that there is no requirement to physically move the mail spool to this
location. However, programs and header files must be changed to use /var/mail.
Rationale
Refer to the rationale for /opt.
7
Note that /var/mail may be a symbolic link to another directory.
36
The /var Hierarchy
5.13.2. Requirements
In general, the requirements for /run shall also apply to /var/run. It is valid to implement /var/
run as a symlink to /run.
The utmp file, which stores information about who is currently using the system, is located in this
directory.
Programs should not access both /var/run and /run directly, except to access /var/run/utmp. 8
Directory Description
lpd Printer spool directory (optional)
mqueue Outgoing mail queue (optional)
news News spool directory (optional)
rwho Rwhod files (optional)
uucp Spool directory for UUCP (optional)
37
The /var Hierarchy
Rationale
Some BSD releases use /var/rwho for this data; given its historical location in /var/spool
on other systems and its approximate fit to the definition of `spooled' data, this location was
deemed more appropriate.
Files and directories located in /var/tmp must not be deleted when the system is booted. Although data
stored in /var/tmp is typically deleted in a site-specific manner, it is recommended that deletions occur
at a less frequent interval than /tmp.
Rationale
/var/yp is the standard directory for NIS (YP) data and is almost exclusively used in NIS
documentation and systems. 10
10
NIS should not be confused with Sun NIS+, which uses a different directory, /var/nis.
38
Chapter 6. Operating System Specific
Annex
This section is for additional requirements and recommendations that only apply to a specific operating
system. The material in this section should never conflict with the base standard.
6.1. Linux
This is the annex for the Linux operating system.
• setserial
/dev/null All data written to this device is discarded. A read from this device will return an EOF
condition.
/dev/zero This device is a source of zeroed out data. All data written to this device is discarded. A
read from this device will return as many bytes containing the value zero as was requested.
/dev/tty This device is a synonym for the controlling terminal of a process. Once this device is
opened, all reads and writes will behave as if the actual controlling terminal device had
been opened.
Rationale
Previous versions of the FHS had stricter requirements for /dev. Other devices may also exist
in /dev. Device names may exist as symbolic links to other device nodes located in /dev or
subdirectories of /dev. There is no requirement concerning major/minor number values.
• lilo.conf
39
Operating System Specific Annex
• Static binaries:
• ldconfig
• sln
• ssync
Static ln (sln) and static sync (ssync) are useful when things go wrong. The primary use of sln (to repair
incorrect symlinks in /lib after a poorly orchestrated upgrade) is no longer a major concern now that
the ldconfig program (usually located in /usr/sbin) exists and can act as a guiding hand in upgrading
the dynamic libraries. Static sync is useful in some emergency situations. Note that these need not be
statically linked versions of the standard ln and sync, but may be.
The ldconfig binary is optional for /sbin since a site may choose to run ldconfig at boot time, rather
than only when upgrading the shared libraries. (It's not clear whether or not it is advantageous to run
ldconfig on each boot.) Even so, some people like ldconfig around for the following (all too common)
situation:
2. I can't find out the name of the library because ls is dynamically linked, I'm using a shell that doesn't
have ls built-in, and I don't know about using "echo *" as a replacement.
3. I have a static sln, but I don't know what to call the link.
• Miscellaneous:
• ctrlaltdel
• kbdrate
So as to cope with the fact that some keyboards come up with such a high repeat rate as to be unusable,
kbdrate may be installed in /sbin on some systems.
Since the default action in the kernel for the Ctrl-Alt-Del key combination is an instant hard reboot, it
is generally advisable to disable the behavior before mounting the root filesystem in read-write mode.
Some init suites are able to disable Ctrl-Alt-Del, but others may require the ctrlaltdel program, which
may be installed in /sbin on those systems.
40
Operating System Specific Annex
The only source code that should be placed in a specific location is the Linux kernel source code. It is
located in /usr/src/linux.
If a C or C++ compiler is installed, but the complete Linux kernel source code is not installed, then the
include files from the kernel source code must be located in these directories:
/usr/src/linux/include/asm-<arch>
/usr/src/linux/include/linux
Note
/usr/src/linux may be a symbolic link to a kernel source code tree.
Rationale
It is important that the kernel include files be located in /usr/src/linux and not in /usr/
include so there are no problems when system administrators upgrade their kernel version for
the first time.
41
Chapter 7. Appendix
7.1. The FHS mailing list
The FHS mailing list is located at <fhs-discuss@lists.linuxfoundation.org> (subscription
required as a spam limitation measure). Mailing list subscription information, archives, etc.
are at https://lists.linux-foundation.org/mailman/listinfo/fhs-discuss [https://lists.linux-foundation.org/
mailman/listinfo/fhs-discuss]
In early 1995, the goal of developing a more comprehensive version of FSSTND to address not only Linux,
but other UNIX-like systems was adopted with the help of members of the BSD development community.
As a result, a concerted effort was made to focus on issues that were general to UNIX-like systems. In
recognition of this widening of scope, the name of the standard was changed to Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard or FHS for short.
Volunteers who have contributed extensively to this standard are listed at the end of this document. This
standard represents a consensus view of those and other contributors.
Thanks to Network Operations at the University of California at San Diego, and later to SourceForge, who
allowed us to use their excellent mailing list servers during earlier phases of development.
• Gain the approval of distributors, developers, and other decision-makers in relevant development groups
and encourage their participation.
7.4. Scope
This document specifies a standard filesystem hierarchy for FHS filesystems by specifying the location of
files and directories, and the contents of some system files.
This standard has been designed to be used by system integrators, package developers, and system
administrators in the construction and maintenance of FHS compliant filesystems. It is primarily intended
to be a reference and is not a tutorial on how to manage a conforming filesystem hierarchy.
The FHS grew out of earlier work on FSSTND, a filesystem organization standard for the Linux operating
system. It builds on FSSTND to address interoperability issues not just in the Linux community but in a
42
Appendix
wider arena including 4.4BSD-based operating systems. It incorporates lessons learned in the BSD world
and elsewhere about multi-architecture support and the demands of heterogeneous networking.
Although this standard is more comprehensive than previous attempts at filesystem hierarchy
standardization, periodic updates may become necessary as requirements change in relation to emerging
technology. It is also possible that better solutions to the problems addressed here will be discovered so
that our solutions will no longer be the best possible solutions. Supplementary drafts may be released in
addition to periodic updates to this document. However, a specific goal is backwards compatibility from
one release of this document to the next.
Comments related to this standard are welcome. Any comments or suggestions for changes may be directed
to the FHS mailing list, or filed as bugs, or both. Typographical or grammatical comments should be filed
as bugs. The bugtracker is at http://bugs.linuxfoundation.org - use the category FHS.
Before sending mail to the mailing list it is requested that you first glance at the mailing list archives to
avoid excessive re-discussion of old topics.
Questions about how to interpret items in this document may occasionally arise. If you have need for
a clarification, please contact the FHS mailing list. Since this standard represents a consensus of many
participants, it is important to make certain that any interpretation also represents their collective opinion.
For this reason it may not be possible to provide an immediate response unless the inquiry has been the
subject of previous discussion.
7.5. Acknowledgments
The developers of the FHS wish to thank the developers, system administrators, and users whose input
was essential to this standard. We wish to thank each of the contributors who helped to write, compile,
and compose this standard.
The FHS Group also wishes to thank those Linux developers who supported the FSSTND, the predecessor
to this standard. If they hadn't demonstrated that the FSSTND was beneficial, the FHS could never have
evolved.
7.6. Contributors
Brandon S. Allbery John A. Martin Mike Sangrey
Keith Bostic Ian McCloghrie David H. Silber
Drew Eckhardt Chris Metcalf Thomas Sippel-Dau
Rik Faith Ian Murdock Theodore Ts'o
Karl Goetz David C. Niemi Stephen Tweedie
Stephen Harris Lennart Poettering Fred N. van Kempen
Ian Jackson Daniel Quinlan Bernd Warken
Andreas Jaeger Eric S. Raymond Mats Wichmann
Jeff Licquia Rusty Russell Christopher Yeoh
43