Psychological Science http://pss.sagepub.

com/

Positive Affect and Cognitive Control: Approach-Motivation Intensity Influences the Balance Between
Cognitive Flexibility and Stability
Ya Liu and Zhenhong Wang
Psychological Science 2014 25: 1116 originally published online 26 March 2014
DOI: 10.1177/0956797614525213

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/5/1116

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

Association for Psychological Science

Additional services and information for Psychological Science can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://pss.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://pss.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

>> Version of Record - May 8, 2014

OnlineFirst Version of Record - Mar 26, 2014

What is This?

Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014

525213
research-article2014
PSSXXX10.1177/0956797614525213Liu, WangPositive Affect and Cognitive Flexibility-Stability Balance

Research Article

Psychological Science

Positive Affect and Cognitive Control: 2014, Vol. 25(5) 1116­–1123

© The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permissions:
Approach-Motivation Intensity Influences sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0956797614525213

the Balance Between Cognitive Flexibility pss.sagepub.com

and Stability

Ya Liu and Zhenhong Wang

Shaanxi Normal University

Abstract
In most prior research, positive affect has been consistently found to promote cognitive flexibility. However, the
motivational dimensional model of affect assumes that the influence of positive affect on cognitive processes is
modulated by approach-motivation intensity. In the present study, we extended the motivational dimensional model
to the domain of cognitive control by examining the effect of low- versus high-approach-motivated positive affect on
the balance between cognitive flexibility and stability in an attentional-set-shifting paradigm. Results showed that low-
approach-motivated positive affect promoted cognitive flexibility but also caused higher distractibility, whereas high-
approach-motivated positive affect enhanced perseverance but simultaneously reduced distractibility. These results
suggest that the balance between cognitive flexibility and stability is modulated by the approach-motivation intensity
of positive affective states. Therefore, it is essential to incorporate motivational intensity into studies on the influence
of affect on cognitive control.

Keywords
positive affect, approach-motivation intensity, cognitive flexibility, cognitive processes, cognitive stability,
attentional-set-shifting paradigm, emotions, motivation

Received 8/29/13; Revision accepted 1/29/14

Ample evidence in the literature on affect and cognitive 1984; Talarico, Berntsen, & Rubin, 2009), whereas high-
control suggests that positive affect, compared with nega- approach-motivated positive affect has the opposite effect
tive or neutral affect, has a robust beneficial effect on (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008, 2010a, 2010b, 2011; Price &
cognitive flexibility (for reviews, see Ashby, Isen, & Harmon-Jones, 2010).
Turken, 1999; Fredrickson, 2001; Isen, 2009). Previous Given the motivational dimensional model and relevant
researchers examining the role of affect in cognitive flex- empirical studies, it seems plausible that positive affective
ibility have focused mainly on the valence dimension of states of varying approach-motivation intensity have differ-
affective states and have rarely examined the underlying ent influences on cognitive flexibility. Initial support
dimension of motivation. for this hypothesis has come from Price and Harmon-
In the motivational dimensional model of affect recently Jones (2010), whose results showed that low-approach-
proposed by Gable and Harmon-Jones (2010c; Harmon- motivated positive affect increased cognitive broadening
Jones, Gable, & Price, 2012, 2013), the effects of positive and flexibility, as measured by cognitive categorization
affect on cognitive processing are assumed to be modu-
lated by approach-motivation intensity. Converging with
this theoretical view, a growing number of studies have
Corresponding Author:
demonstrated that low-approach-motivated positive affect Zhenhong Wang, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University,
broadens attentional and cognitive scope (Fredrickson & 199 South Chang’an Rd., Xi’an 710062, China
Branigan, 2005; Gasper & Clore, 2002; Isen & Daubman, E-mail: wangzhenhong@snnu.edu.cn

Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014

Positive Affect and Cognitive Flexibility-Stability Balance 1117
tasks, whereas high-approach-motivated positive affect
decreased cognitive broadening and flexibility. In a similar
vein, Wang, Liu, and Jiang (2013) found that low-approach-
motivated positive affect facilitated response inhibition
and task switching, whereas high-approach-motivated
positive affect impaired task switching.
Higher flexibility may lead to higher distractibility (i.e.,
lower stability), especially when new information is irrel-
evant to the ongoing task. Some studies (Dreisbach, 2006;
Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Marien, Aarts, & Custers,
2012) have investigated the impact of positive affect on
the balance between cognitive flexibility and stability,
which is critical for goal-directed behavior in humans.
These studies have consistently shown that positive affect
enhances cognitive flexibility but also increases distracti-
bility (Dreisbach, 2006; Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004),
especially when participants’ responses are represented
in terms of goals (Marien et al., 2012). However, these
studies have primarily examined the impact of low- rather
than high-approach-motivated positive affect on the flex-
ibility-stability balance, because the induced affect has
been a relatively passive state not associated with goal
pursuit. The aim of the present research was therefore to
investigate whether the influences of positive affect on
the cognitive flexibility-stability balance are modulated
by approach-motivation intensity.
To systematically examine this issue, we conducted
two experiments using the attentional-set-shifting para-
digm originally developed by Dreisbach and Goschke
(2004). This paradigm, designed to identify the costs and
benefits of increased cognitive flexibility, consists of two
phases: the preswitch and postswitch phases. In the pre-
switch phase, participants are instructed to respond to
target stimuli appearing in a prespecified color (e.g., red)
and to ignore distractor stimuli, which appear in a differ-
ent color (e.g., blue). Then, in the postswitch phase, par-
ticipants are given instructions for the perseveration or
distraction condition. In the perseveration condition
(Experiment 1), targets are in a new color (e.g., green),
and distractors appear in the formerly relevant color
(e.g., red). In the distraction condition (Experiment 2),
targets are in the formerly ignored color (e.g., blue), and
distractors appear in a new color (e.g., green). The two
switching conditions are widely used to assess the degree
of flexibility and stability of cognitive control (Dreisbach
& Goschke, 2004; Dreisbach et al., 2005; Müller et al.,
2007).
More precisely, the attentional-set-shifting paradigm
assesses reactivity toward new stimuli, a main aspect of
cognitive control (Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Dreisbach
et al., 2005; Müller et al., 2007). In the perseveration con-
dition, flexible cognitive control facilitates disengage-
ment from the previous target color and a bias toward the
novel color, which identifies new targets. Thus, flexibility
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
should decrease switch costs. In the distraction condi-
tion, flexible cognitive control should again bias partici-
pants’ attention toward stimuli in the novel color, but
because these are the distractors, flexibility should
increase distractibility and therefore increase switch costs.
The opposite pattern is expected in the stable-cognitive-
control mode, in which reactivity toward new informa-
tion is inhibited: Stable cognitive control should increase
switch costs in the perseveration condition and decrease
switch costs in the distraction condition.
We hypothesized that in previous studies (Dreisbach,
2006; Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Müller et al., 2007),
low-approach-motivated positive affect increased reactiv-
ity toward novel stimuli, thereby enhancing cognitive
flexibility, presumably because low-approach-motivated
positive affect occurs after a goal has been achieved or
when there is no goal (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2010c). In
such a positive affective state, a flexible control mode can
assist organisms in exploring new goals or opportunities.
The flexible control mode should reduce perseverance
when new information identifies targets but increase dis-
tractibility when new information identifies distractors.
Thus, low-approach-motivated positive affect should
facilitate cognitive flexibility, reducing switch costs in the
perseveration condition and increasing switch costs in
the distraction condition.
High-approach-motivated positive affect, which often
occurs during goal pursuit, should reduce reactivity
toward novel stimuli and promote cognitive stability
(Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2010c). Enhancing flexibility
during goal pursuit might prove maladaptive, because it
might lead one away from the current goal. Conversely, a
stable control mode can assist organisms in shielding
goal pursuit from irrelevant stimuli, perceptions, and cog-
nitions. The stable control mode should enhance perse-
veration, even in the case of relevant new changes in the
environment, but simultaneously reduce distractibility
caused by irrelevant new stimuli. Thus, high-approach-
motivated positive affect should enhance cognitive stabil-
ity, increasing switch costs in the perseveration condition
and reducing switch costs in the distraction condition. In
sum, we hypothesized that the influence of positive affect
on the balance between cognitive flexibility and stability
is modulated by approach-motivation intensity.
Experiment 1
Method
Thirty-two undergraduate students (19 women, 13 men)
participated in Experiment 1 in return for 10 Chinese
yuan. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal
vision and were not red-green color-blind. They all pro-
vided informed consent and were debriefed after the
1118 Liu, Wang
experiment. In order to control the possible confounding
effect of hunger on the effectiveness of the dessert pic-
tures we used to elicit high-approach-motivated positive
affect, we allowed only participants who had eaten 2 to
4 hr before the experiment to take part.
The perseveration condition of the attentional-set-
shifting paradigm was used in this experiment to assess
flexibility and stability of cognitive control. Participants
performed a digit-categorization task in which they cat-
egorized digits of the target color as odd or even. In this
task, the imperative stimuli consisted of two simultane-
ously presented digits, randomly selected from a set of
eight (2–9); the digits appeared one above the other in
the center of the screen. The selection of stimuli was
completely randomized on each trial, the only constraint
being that the target and distractor digits were always
mapped to different responses (i.e., if the target digit was
odd, the distractor digit was even, and vice versa). The
location of the target (above or below the distractor) was
determined at random. The digits were always presented
in two different colors selected from a pool of three col-
ors: red, blue, and green.
There were three experimental blocks: neutral, low-
approach-motivated positive affect, and high-approach-
motivated positive affect. The order of these three blocks
was counterbalanced across participants. Each 60-trial
block consisted of two phases: a preswitch phase (40 tri-
als) and a postswitch phase (20 trials). Low-approach-
motivated positive affect was elicited using 30 pictures of
beautiful landscapes; high-approach-motivated positive
affect was elicited using 30 pictures of delicious desserts.
In addition, 30 pictures of household objects were used
in the neutral block. The experimental blocks were pre-
ceded by a 20-trial practice block in which 10 other pic-
tures of household objects were shown. Each picture was
presented twice per block. These pictures were validated
in previous studies (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008, 2010a,
2010b; Gable & Poole, 2012; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert,
2005; Wang et al., 2013).
The experimental program was administered to each
participant individually. Participants were informed that
the target color would be switched during the experiment.
The assignment of relevant color (i.e., the preswitch target
color), irrelevant color (i.e., the preswitch distractor color),
and new color (i.e., not used in the preswitch phase)
remained constant for a given participant but was counter-
balanced across participants. At the beginning of each
block, a 3,000-ms cue informed participants of the target
color. Then, the trials began. On each trial, participants
saw a picture of a landscape (low-approach-motivation
block), a dessert (high-approach-motivation block), or a
household object (neutral block) for 2,000 ms. This was
followed by a fixation cross for 500 ms. Then, the impera-
tive stimulus was presented: Two numbers appeared on
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
the screen, one above the other, until a response was
given (maximum of 1,500 ms). One number was shown in
the target color (e.g., red), and the other was shown in the
distractor color (e.g., blue). Participants were asked to
indicate whether the target digit was odd or even by press-
ing either the left “ALT” key or the right “ALT” key on a
computer keyboard with the corresponding index finger.
Assignment of responses to these keys was counterbal-
anced across participants. Participants were instructed to
respond as quickly as possible while avoiding errors. After
a response, a blank screen appeared for 500 ms, and a
new trial began.
At the end of the preswitch phase (i.e., after the 40th
trial), a 3,000-ms cue informed participants of the new
target color (e.g., green). The procedure for the post-
switch trials was otherwise the same as that for the pre-
switch trials, except that the new distractor color was the
former target color (e.g., red). Participants rested for 1
min between blocks. Figure 1a presents a diagram depict-
ing the course of trials in the preswitch and postswitch
phases.
After completing the experiment, participants viewed
the pictures again (3,000 ms each) and rated each for
how pleasant it was (1 = very unpleasant, 9 = very pleas-
ant), how arousing it was (1 = calm, 9 = exciting), and
how intense their approach motivation was (1 = do not
want to approach, 9 = really want to approach).
Results
Affective picture ratings.  The ratings for pleasantness
(i.e., valence), arousal, and approach-motivation inten-
sity were subjected to three separate within-subjects
repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with
picture type as a within-participants factor. For valence
ratings, a significant effect of picture type was observed,
F(2, 62) = 59.20, p < .001, ηp2 = .66. Post hoc Bonferroni
tests demonstrated that both the dessert pictures (M =
6.22, SD = 0.91; p < .001) and the landscape pictures
(M = 6.44, SD = 0.79; p < .001) had significantly higher
valence ratings than the neutral pictures (M = 4.64, SD =
0.84). The difference between the dessert pictures and
the landscape pictures was far from reliable, p = .62.
Likewise, for arousal ratings, there was a significant effect
of picture type, F(2, 62) = 16.73, p < .001, ηp2 = .35. Both
the dessert pictures (M = 5.35, SD = 1.42; p < .001) and
the landscape pictures (M = 4.93, SD = 1.25; p = .002) had
significantly higher arousal ratings than the neutral pic-
tures (M = 3.95, SD = 0.88); there was no difference
between the dessert and landscape pictures, p = .30. Rat-
ings of approach-motivation intensity also showed a sig-
nificant effect of picture type, F(2, 62) = 45.69, p < .001,
ηp2 = .60. Average motivational-intensity ratings were sig-
nificantly higher for dessert pictures (M = 6.09, SD = 0.83)
Positive Affect and Cognitive Flexibility-Stability Balance 1119

a
Preswitch Phase Postswitch Phase
(Trials 1–40) (Trials 41–60)

Target 4 Switch 2
+ +
Is Red 7 to Green 9

3,000 ms 2,000 ms 500 ms 1,500 ms 500 ms 3,000 ms 2,000 ms 500 ms 1,500 ms 500 ms

Time

b Preswitch Phase Postswitch Phase

(Trials 1–40) (Trials 41–60)

Target 4 Switch 3
+ +
Is Red 5 to Blue 8

3,000 ms 2,000 ms 500 ms 1,500 ms 500 ms 3,000 ms 2,000 ms 500 ms 1,500 ms 500 ms

Time
Fig. 1.  Schematic diagrams illustrating trial sequences in (a) Experiment 1, the perseverance condition, and (b) Experiment 2, the distraction
condition. Each block began with a cue indicating the target color. During the preswitch phase, each trial began with a picture, which was fol-
lowed by a fixation cross and then two digits, one in the target color (e.g., red) and the other in the distractor color (e.g., blue). The task was
to indicate whether the digit in the target color was odd or even. In separate blocks, landscape pictures, illustrated in (a), were used to induce
low-approach-motivation positive affect, and dessert pictures, illustrated in (b), were used to induce high-approach-motivation positive affect.
After 40 trials, participants were informed of the new target color. In the perseveration condition (a), the former target color (e.g., red) became
the new distractor color, and a new color (e.g., green) became the target color. In the distraction condition (b), the former distractor color (e.g.,
blue) became the new target color, and a new color (e.g., green) became the new distractor color. Otherwise, the procedure for the trials in
this postswitch phase was the same as that for the preswitch trials.

than for landscape pictures (M = 5.54, SD = 0.87; p = .01)
and were significantly higher for landscape pictures
than for neutral pictures (M = 4.22, SD = 0.92; p < .001).
Consistent with results from previous studies (Gable
& Harmon-Jones, 2008, 2010a, 2010b; Gable & Poole,
2012; Wang et al., 2013), our results indicate that the
landscape and dessert pictures we used to evoke low-
and high-approach-motivated positive affect, respec-
tively, were effective.
Reaction times.  Incorrect responses (7.92% of the
total) and responses with a reaction time more than 3
standard deviations from the mean (1.67%) were excluded
from further analyses. Following the method of previous
studies (Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Dreisbach et al.,
2005; Müller et al., 2007), we calculated switch costs by
subtracting the mean reaction time of the last five pre-
switch trials from the mean reaction time of the first five
postswitch trials. In practice, this method is commonly
used in this type of attentional-set-shifting paradigm. As
described earlier, cognitive flexibility is reflected in
decreased switch costs in the perseveration condition.
Reaction times were submitted to a 3 (block: neutral,
low-approach-motivated positive affect, high-approach-
motivated positive affect) × 2 (phase: preswitch, post-
switch) repeated measures ANOVA. Results revealed
significant main effects of both block, F(2, 62) = 3.63, p =
.03, ηp2 = .10, and phase, F(1, 31) = 72.61, p < .001, ηp2 =
.70. Moreover, these two main effects were qualified by a
significant interaction, F(2, 62) = 37.85, p < .001, ηp2 = .55.
Relative to the neutral block (M = 61 ms, SD = 57), switch
costs were lower in the low-approach-motivation block
(M = 14 ms, SD = 61; p = .002) but higher in the high-
approach-motivation block (M = 120 ms, SD = 58; p <
.001). The mean reaction times for each block and phase
are presented in Figure 2.
Simple-effects analyses revealed that in the preswitch
phase, there was no simple main effect of block, F(2, 62) =
0.15, p = .86, ηp2 = .005. Conversely, in the postswitch
phase, the simple main effect of block was significant, F(2,
62) = 13.36, p < .001, ηp2 = .30. A post hoc Bonferroni test
demonstrated that, compared with reaction times in the
neutral block (M = 709 ms, SD = 107), reaction times were
lower in the low-approach-motivation block (M = 664 ms,

Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014

1120 Liu, Wang
Preswitch
Postswitch
800
750
Mean Reaction Time (ms)
700
650
600
Neutral Low Approach
Motivation
Fig. 2.  Experiment 1 (perseveration condition) results: mean reaction
time as a function of block and phase. Error bars represent within-
subjects 95% confidence interval.
SD = 113; p = .042) but higher in the high-approach-
motivation block (M = 761 ms, SD = 114; p = .036). These
results suggest that the opposite effects of low- and high-
approach-motivated positive affect on reaction time switch
costs were driven by postswitch rather than preswitch
trials.
Error rates.  Error data were entered into an analogous
3 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. Neither the main effects
of block, F(2, 62) = 0.18, p = .83, ηp2 = .006, and phase,
F(1, 31) = 1.95, p = .17, ηp2 = .06, nor their interaction,
F(2, 62) = 1.28, p = .28, ηp2 = .04, reached statistical
significance.
Discussion
Experiment 1 revealed that in the perseveration condition,
low-approach-motivated positive affect reduced switch
costs, whereas high-approach-motivated positive affect
increased switch costs. These results provided initial sup-
port for our hypothesis that the impact of positive affect on
the balance of cognitive flexibility and stability is modu-
lated by approach-motivation intensity. Previous studies
have confirmed that higher cognitive flexibility goes along
with increased distractibility, whereas increased cognitive
stability can reduce distractibility caused by irrelevant
novel stimuli (Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004; Dreisbach et
al., 2005; Müller et al., 2007). Thus, it seems reasonable to
assume that positive affective states varying in approach-
motivation intensity have different effects on distractibility.
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
In hopes of providing more compelling evidence for our
hypothesis, we conducted Experiment 2, the distraction
condition.
Experiment 2
Method
Thirty-six undergraduate students (24 women, 12 men)
participated in Experiment 2 in exchange for 10 yuan.
Experiment 2 was identical to Experiment 1 with one
exception: The perseveration condition was replaced
with the distraction condition (Fig. 1b). The difference
between the two conditions is that in the postswitch
phase of the distraction condition, the former distractor
color becomes the new target color, and a new color
becomes the distractor color. For example, in the pre-
switch phase, the target color might be red and the dis-
tractor color blue; in the postswitch phase, the target
High Approach color would then be blue and the distractor color green.
Motivation
Results
Affective picture ratings.  Results of affective picture
ratings were similar to those in Experiment 1. There were
significant effects of picture type on ratings of valence,
F(2, 70) = 65.58, p < .001, ηp2 = .65; arousal, F(2, 70) =
13.85, p < .001, ηp2 = .28; and approach-motivation inten-
sity, F(2, 70) = 32.56, p < .001, ηp2 = .48. Results again
suggested that the affective pictures used in this study
could effectively evoke low- and high-approach-moti-
vated positive affect.
Reaction times.  Incorrect responses (7.13% of the
total) and responses with a reaction time more than 3
standard deviations from the mean (1.11%) were excluded
from the analyses. As mentioned earlier, cognitive stabil-
ity is reflected in decreased switch costs in the distraction
condition, unlike the perseveration condition.
Reaction times were subjected to a 3 (block: neutral,
low-approach-motivated positive affect, high-approach-
motivated positive affect) × 2 (phase: preswitch, post-
switch) repeated measures ANOVA. The analysis yielded
significant main effects of block, F(2, 70) = 7.27, p = .001,
ηp2 = .17, and phase, F(1, 35) = 49.49, p < .001, ηp2 = .59.
Furthermore, the two main effects were qualified by a
significant interaction of block and phase, F(2, 70) =
18.63, p < .001, ηp2 = .35. Relative to the neutral block
(M = 58 ms, SD = 70), switch costs were higher in the
low-approach-motivation block (M = 97 ms, SD = 70; p =
.008) but lower in the high-approach-motivation block
(M = 16 ms, SD = 61; p = .01). The mean reaction times
for each block and phase are presented in Figure 3.
Simple-effects analyses revealed that the simple main
effect of block was nonsignificant for the preswitch
 Positive Affect and Cognitive Flexibility-Stability Balance 1121
Preswitch
Postswitch
800
750
Mean Reaction Time (ms)
700
650
600
Neutral Low Approach High Approach
Motivation Motivation
Fig. 3.  Results from Experiment 2 (distraction condition): mean reac-
tion time as a function of block and phase. Error bars represent within-
subjects 95% confidence interval.
phase, F(2, 70) = 0.86, p = .43, ηp2 = .02, but highly sig-
nificant for the postswitch phase, F(2, 70) = 14.43, p <
.001, ηp2 = .29. A post hoc Bonferroni test demonstrated
that, compared with postswitch reaction times in the neu-
tral block (M = 692 ms, SD = 95), postswitch reaction
times were higher in the low-approach-motivation block
(M = 741 ms, SD = 113; p = .01) but lower in the high-
approach-motivation block (M = 639 ms, SD = 111; p =
.02). These results suggest that the opposite effects of
low- and high-approach-motivated positive affect on
switch costs in the distraction condition were driven by
postswitch rather than preswitch trials. Thus, the findings
of Experiment 2 conceptually replicated the findings of
Experiment 1 in a different switching condition.
Error rates.  Error data were entered into an analogous
3 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. A marginal main effect
of phase was observed, F(1, 35) = 3.23, p = .08, ηp2 = .08;
there was a tendency for error-rate switch costs to be reli-
able. Neither the main effect of block, F(2, 70) = 2.12, p =
.13, ηp2 = .06, nor the interaction of phase and block, F(2,
70) = 0.38, p = .69, ηp2 = .01, proved reliable.
Discussion
In Experiment 2, low- and high-approach-motivated pos-
itive affect clearly had opposite effects on distractibility.
In particular, low-approach-motivated positive affect
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
increased distractibility, as reflected in higher switch
costs, whereas high-approach-motivated positive affect
reduced distractibility, as reflected in lower switch costs.
This pattern of results is fully compatible with our
hypothesis that low-approach-motivated positive affect
enhances cognitive flexibility but also incurs a comple-
mentary cost in the form of increased distractibility. In
contrast, positive affect high in approach motivation
enhances perseverance but also reduces distractibility.
General Discussion
The present results indicate that the influence of positive
affect on the balance between cognitive flexibility
and stability is modulated by approach-motivation
intensity. Specifically, low-approach-motivated positive
affect enhanced cognitive flexibility but simultaneously
increased distractibility, whereas high-approach-moti-
vated positive affect enhanced perseveration but also
reduced distractibility.
The finding that low-approach-motivated positive
affect promoted cognitive flexibility is well in line with
much previous research (Dreisbach, 2006; Dreisbach &
Goschke, 2004; Müller et al., 2007; Price & Harmon-Jones,
2010; Wang et al., 2013). The presence of low-approach-
motivated positive affect suggests that there is a stable
and comfortable environment or that things are going
well (Carver, 2003; Fredrickson, 2001; Gable & Harmon-
Jones, 2010c). Such a free-floating positive state allows
organisms to be open to new information and thereby
enhances their cognitive flexibility. This increased flexi-
bility promotes free and full engagement with the envi-
ronment, which might build enduring personal resources
and ultimately improve well-being (Fredrickson, 2001).
However, the flexible control mode may cause distracti-
bility when novel stimuli are irrelevant for the ongoing
task, which in turn impedes goal pursuit.
The finding that high-approach-motivated positive
affect enhances perseverance, or reduces flexibility, con-
verges with results from some prior studies (Price &
Harmon-Jones, 2010; Wang et al., 2013). High-approach-
motivated positive affect is very relevant to biologically
important outcomes such as reproduction, social attach-
ment, and eating and drinking (Gable & Harmon-Jones,
2010c; Harmon-Jones et al., 2012). Such an appetitive
state encourages tenacious goal pursuit. During goal pur-
suit, a flexible control mode might prove maladaptive,
because it might increase distractibility caused by irrele-
vant new stimuli and consequently delay or hinder acqui-
sition of the desired goal. So, high-approach-motivated
positive affect should reduce flexibility or, rather, enhance
perseverance, so that organisms are less distracted or
even not distracted by irrelevant new information. This
enhanced stability might assist organisms in achieving
1122 Liu, Wang
desired goals by shutting out irrelevant distractors.
However, the stable control mode might cause rigid
behavior when novel stimuli are critical for completing a
task.
The opposite patterns of effects observed for low- and
high-approach-motivated positive affect fit exactly with
the motivational dimensional model, according to which
approach-motivation intensity modulates the influences
of positive affect on cognitive processing. Low-approach-
motivated positive affect broadens attentional and cogni-
tive scope to better enable perception of novel stimuli. In
turn, this enhances flexibility when novel stimuli serve as
new targets but increases distractibility when novel stim-
uli serve as distractors. In contrast, high-approach-moti-
vated positive affect narrows attentional and cognitive
scope to shield perception of the chosen target from
irrelevant novel stimuli. In turn, this reduces flexibility
and enhances perseverance when novel stimuli serve as
new targets but reduces distractibility when novel stimuli
serve as distractors. Accordingly, the motivational dimen-
sional model could well explain the increased flexibility
and higher distractibility associated with low-approach-
motivated positive affect and the enhanced perseverance
and lower distractibility associated with high-approach-
motivated positive affect.
In summary, the current research provides further sup-
port for the motivational dimensional model of affect and
extends this model to the cognitive-control domain.
Along with previous work on cognitive scope, this
research suggests that positive affect should not be
regarded as a unitary construct that is beneficial only to
cognitive broadening and flexibility. Positive affect can
broaden or narrow cognitive scope and can make for
flexible or stable cognitive control, depending on the
approach-motivation intensity of the positive affect. Thus,
the present research highlights the importance of incor-
porating motivational intensity into studies on the influ-
ence of affect on cognitive control.
Author Contributions
Z. Wang developed the study concept. Both authors contrib-
uted to the study design. Y. Liu conducted the experiments and
analyzed and interpreted the data under the supervision of
Z. Wang. Y. Liu drafted the manuscript, and Z. Wang provided
critical revisions. Both authors made revisions to the manu-
script and approved the final version of the manuscript for
submission.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest with
respect to their authorship or the publication of this article.
Funding
This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant 30970912) and by Innovation
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
Funds of Graduate Programs, Shaanxi Normal University (Grant
2013CXB005).
References
Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neuro-
psychological theory of positive affect and its influence on
cognition. Psychological Review, 106, 529–550.
Carver, C. S. (2003). Pleasure as a sign you can attend to some-
thing else: Placing positive feelings within a general model
of affect. Cognition & Emotion, 17, 241–261.
Dreisbach, G. (2006). How positive affect modulates cognitive
control: The costs and benefits of reduced maintenance
capability. Brain and Cognition, 60, 11–19.
Dreisbach, G., & Goschke, T. (2004). How positive affect modu-
lates cognitive control: Reduced perseveration at the cost of
increased distractibility. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 343–353.
Dreisbach, G., Müller, J., Goschke, T., Strobel, A., Schulze, K.,
Lesch, K. P., & Brocke, B. (2005). Dopamine and cognitive
control: The influence of spontaneous eyeblink rate and
dopamine gene polymorphisms on perseveration and dis-
tractibility. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119, 483–490.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in posi-
tive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive
emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions
broaden the scope of attention and thought-action reper-
toires. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 313–332.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2008). Approach-motivated
positive affect reduces breadth of attention. Psychological
Science, 19, 476–482.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010a). The effect of low
vs. high approach-motivated positive affect on memory for
peripherally vs. centrally presented information. Emotion,
10, 599–603.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010b). Late positive poten-
tial to appetitive stimuli and local attentional bias. Emotion,
10, 441–446.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010c). The motivational
dimensional model of affect: Implications for breadth of
attention, memory, and cognitive categorization. Cognition
& Emotion, 24, 322–337.
Gable, P. A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2011). Attentional conse-
quences of pregoal and postgoal positive affects. Emotion,
11, 1358–1367.
Gable, P. A., & Poole, B. D. (2012). Time flies when you’re hav-
ing approach-motivated fun: Effects of motivational intensity
on time perception. Psychological Science, 23, 879–886.
Gasper, K., & Clore, G. (2002). Attending to the big picture:
Mood and global versus local processing of visual informa-
tion. Psychological Science, 13, 34–40.
Harmon-Jones, E., Gable, P. A., & Price, T. F. (2012). The influ-
ence of affective states varying in motivational intensity
on cognitive scope. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience,
6, Article 73. Retrieved from http://www.frontiersin.org/
Journal/10.3389/fnint.2012.00073/full
Harmon-Jones, E., Gable, P. A., & Price, T. F. (2013).
Does negative affect always narrow and positive affect
always broaden the mind? Considering the influence
Positive Affect and Cognitive Flexibility-Stability Balance 1123
of motivational intensity on cognitive scope. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 301–307.
Isen, A. M. (2009). A role for neuropsychology in understanding
the facilitating influence of positive affect on social behav-
ior and cognitive processes. In S. Lopez & C. R. Snyder
(Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed.,
pp. 503–518). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Isen, A. M., & Daubman, K. A. (1984). The influence of affect
on categorization. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 47, 1206–1217.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2005). International
Affective Picture System (IAPS): Digitized photographs,
instruction manual and affective ratings (Technical Report
No. A-6). Gainesville: University of Florida Center for
Research in Psychophysiology.
Marien, H., Aarts, H., & Custers, R. (2012). Being flexible
or rigid in goal-directed behavior: When positive affect
Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com at UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON on July 16, 2014
implicitly motivates the pursuit of goals or means.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 277–
283.
Müller, J., Dreisbach, G., Goschke, T., Hensch, T., Lesch, K. P.,
& Brocke, B. (2007). Dopamine and cognitive control: The
prospect of monetary gains influences the balance between
flexibility and stability in a set-shifting paradigm. European
Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 3661–3668.
Price, T. F., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010). The effect of embod-
ied emotive states on cognitive categorization. Emotion, 10,
934–938.
Talarico, J. M., Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2009). Positive
emotions enhance recall of peripheral details. Cognition &
Emotion, 23, 380–398.
Wang, Z., Liu, Y., & Jiang, C. (2013). The effect of low versus
high approach-motivated positive affect on cognitive con-
trol. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 45, 546–555.