Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55

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Construction and Building Materials

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Reuse of incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes for manufacturing

lightweight aggregate
How-Ji Chen a, Shun-Yuan Wang a, Chao-Wei Tang b,*
a
Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Informatics, Cheng-Shiu University, No. 840, Chengcing Road, Niaosong Township, Kaohsiung County, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reports the result of the investigation on manufacturing lightweight aggregate by incorporat-
Received 6 April 2009 ing municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes with reservoir sediments. The
Received in revised form 28 July 2009 investigation was first performed in a laboratory scale to assess the effects of the composition and the
Accepted 5 August 2009
firing conditions on the properties of the resulting aggregate. Afterward, a big amount of aggregates
Available online 8 September 2009
was manufactured in a pilot scale using a commercially available rotary kiln. Physical properties of the
synthetic aggregates were subsequently assessed. In addition, compressive strength of the concrete made
Keywords:
from the manufactured aggregates was experimentally measured. The investigation shows that the anal-
Lightweight aggregate
Incinerator fly ash
ysis results for the MSW incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes are not in the limits of the expandable
Reaction ashes region of Riley’s ternary diagram due to the low content of SiO2. Therefore, they can only be used as addi-
tives. The proper content for MSW incineration ashes should not exceed 30%, except compositional
adjustment using oxide constituents. The particle density of the manufactured aggregates using a com-
mercially available rotary kiln was 0.99 g/cm3, which is significantly lower than normal density aggre-
gate. Moreover, its dry loose bulk density is 593 kg/m3, which meets the requirements of ASTM C 330
with bulk density less than 880 kg/m3 for coarse aggregate. On the other hand, the results of toxicity test
meet the Taiwan Environmental Regulatory requirements, which demonstrate that the aggregate thus
fabricated is non-hazardous for construction use.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Due to the lack of space for new landfills, refuse incineration is
playing an increasingly important role in municipal solid waste
(MSW) management in Taiwan. According to a December 2007 sta-
tistic from the Department of Waste Management under the Tai-
wan Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), a total of 22
refuse incineration plants are currently operating with a daily
treatment capacity of 22,220 tons. By the end of 2007, the refuse
incineration rate accounted for 99.98% of total garbage disposal,
up from 76.97% in 1997. Although incineration is an efficient
way to reduce the original volume of MSW by 80–95% and pro-
vides energy to generate electric power, these incinerators produce
over two million tons of solid residues every year. Therefore, there
is an urgent need to develop novel reuse applications for MSW in
Taiwan, which will best provide social, economic, and environmen-
tal benefits.
In most modern incinerators, several individual ash streams are
produced, such as grate ash, siftings, boiler ash, scrubber ash, and
precipitator or baghouse ash. The ashes from combustion of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 7 7310606x3107; fax: +886 7 7334731.
E-mail address: tangcw@csu.edu.tw (C.-W. Tang).
MSW are routinely classified into three categories: bottom ash,
air pollution control (APC) residues, and combined (i.e., the combi-
nation of bottom ash and APC residues) [1]. However, to comply
with the commonly used terms in Taiwan, in the present study
the term fly ash refers to the ash collected in the APC system usu-
ally from cyclone dust collectors while the term reaction ash in-
cludes the scrubber ash and precipitator or baghouse ash. Among
the incinerated ashes, residual incineration fly ashes and reaction
ashes contain hazardous materials such as heavy metals which ex-
ceed the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) stan-
dard. According to Taiwan’s Environmental Law [2], these
confirmed hazardous industrial wastes should be handled and
treated in a particular and scrupulous way.
At present, the common treatment for incineration fly ashes and
reaction ashes used in Taiwan is the cement-based solidification
technique, but this method cannot stabilize the toxic substances
effectively. By contrast, it has been proved in the literature that
the high temperature solid solution method can stabilize most
toxic substances and the produced consolidation matters can be
safely treated or recycled as construction materials [3–11].
Wunsch et al. reported that the use of thermal treatment enables
the inertization of heavy metals in residues of waste against leach-
ing [3]. Sakai and Hiraoka pointed out that thermal treatments

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.08.008
 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55
such as melting or sintering technology could reduce the volume of
incinerator residues, making the melted slag stable and non-toxic
[5]. Mangialardi studied the sintering process of MSW fly ash to
manufacture sintered products for reuse as concrete aggregates
[8]. He concluded that a preliminary washing treatment of MSW
fly ash with water greatly improved the chemical and mechanical
characteristics of sintered products, which could be used as nor-
mal-weight aggregates to produce ordinary concrete products.
Wang et al. studied the effects of particle size on the sintering char-
acteristics by using size fractioned incinerator fly ash sintered at
400–1000 °C for 1 and 4 h [9]. They concluded that the compres-
sive strength of the sintered specimens decreased with increasing
particle size.
On the other hand, the development of lightweight aggregate
(LWA) has been focused on the use of industrial wastes or MSW
as raw materials to limit the use of irreplaceable natural resources
and to still satisfy the growing demand for aggregates [12–23].
There are numerous studies on production LWA using incinerator
bottom ash. However, there are relatively few published studies
on the use of MSW incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes in
manufacturing LWA. With this in view, this research aimed at con-
ducting an investigation on the development of LWA using MSW
incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes. The investigation was
first performed in a laboratory scale to assess the effects of the
composition and the firing conditions on the properties of the
resulting aggregate. Afterward, a big amount of aggregates was
manufactured in a pilot scale using a commercially available rotary
kiln. The research findings for this new type of construction mate-
rial, reported here, should be beneficial to the safe treatment and
disposal of the MSW incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes. Fur-
thermore, it could provide reference information for the govern-
ment officials and transfer the large-scale production technology
to the industrial circles in Taiwan.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials
The main materials used in the study included MSW incineration fly ashes and
reaction ashes as well as reservoir sediments. The MSW incineration fly ashes and
reaction ashes were collected from a large-scale refuse incineration plant located in
northern Taiwan. The reservoir sediments were collected from the Wushe Reservoir
located in central Taiwan, which had similar characteristics to expansive clay.
2.2. Mixture and preparation of aggregate pellets
Four series of mixture (i.e. incineration fly ashes (Series-F), reaction ashes (Ser-
ies-R), mixed ashes (Series-M) at a ratio of incineration fly ashes: reaction
Table 1
Proportions of MSW incineration ashes and reservoir sediments for different mixes.
Sample code Mixture proportion (wt.%)
Incineration fly ash Reaction ash
Series-F
F10 10 – –
F20 20 – –
F30 30 – –
Series-R
R10 – 10
R20 – 20
R30 – 30
Series-M
M10 – –
M20 – –
M30 – –
Series-S
S – – –
47
ashes = 1:3, and reservoir sediments (Series-S)) were prepared. In Series-F, Series-
R, and Series-M, three different ratios of MSW incineration ashes to reservoir sedi-
ments were used (i.e. 10%, 20%, and 30%), while Series-S without MSW incineration
ashes were prepared as the reference. A total of 10 proportions of the two types of
ashes and reservoir sediments used in the present study are shown in Table 1.
Samples of various materials were dried prior to use in the graining process.
Then each sample was crushed and milled using a Leading-Coming-Air Type crush-
ing machine or a Dry Ball mill. According to the designed proportions, the resulting
fine powders were thoroughly mixed to ensure homogeneity. Then a controlled
amount of water (20–28%) was added to the mixture to give a mix consistency that
allowed formation of approximately spherical pellets with a 12 mm diameter. The
formed pellets were dried at 105 °C in an oven for 24 h prior to firing in an electric
laboratory kiln.
2.3. Aggregate firing
Firing of the synthetic aggregate consisted of presintering and sintering. The
main apparatus used in this research is a self-designed electric laboratory kiln.
The dried pellets were placed in the preheating chamber of the kiln and heated
at 500 °C for different duration. Then the preheated pellets were placed in sintering
chamber of the kiln and heated at several maximum temperatures for different
duration. The overall experiment comprised three major stages: sintering behavior,
expanding capacity, and aggregate property, as highlighted in Section 3.
2.4. Methods
The characteristics of the materials used were determined, including the spe-
cific gravity (ASTM D854), particle distribution, pH value, chemical composition
(CNS 10896), combustible content, ignition loss (NIEA R216.01C), and the TCLP test
(NIEA R201.13C). As for the manufactured aggregates, their characteristics were
determined, including ignition loss, bulk density (CNS 1163), water absorption
(CNS 488), bloating index, and the TCLP test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of materials
3.1.1. Physical property
Table 2 presents the results of physical tests of the materials
used in the study. Generally speaking, the particle size of the ashes
has great influence upon the production method of aggregate. In
the present study the sedimentation analysis (i.e. hydrometer anal-
ysis) was conducted to establish particle size distribution charac-
teristics for the ashes with particles less than 75 lm in size. Then
the complete particle size distributions of selected materials were
done by combining the results of sieve analysis and hydrometer
analysis, as shown in Fig. 1. From the theoretical aspect of sinter-
ing, the driving force required to reach the sintered state is propor-
tional to the surface area of the as powder particles [9,24]. As can
be observed from Fig. 1 that the D50 particle sizes for the MSW
reaction ashes and the reservoir sediments were both within
Mixed ash Reservoir sediment
90
80
70
– 90
– 80
– 70
10 90
20 80
30 70
100
48 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55

Table 2 SiO2
Physical property and chemical composition of the materials used. 100%
Item Incineration Reaction Reservoir
fly ash ash sediment
D50 (lm) 110 <1 4
Plastic index (%) 4 9 12
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.80 2.96 2.75
pH value 12.1 11.5 5.36
Reservoir
Chemical compositions (wt.%) Sediment
SiO2 19.58 2.33 61.86 FeO , Fe 2 O3
Al2O3 15.87 1.87 23.82 CaO , MgO
Fe2O3 3.00 0.50 7.91 Na 2 O , K 2 O
Al 2 O3
CaO 30.96 41.79 2.24
50% 50%
MgO 3.98 1.01 1.75
Na2O 0.20 0.35 0.17
K2O 2.41 4.91 0.007 Fig. 2. Ternary diagram of bloating materials and composition of reservoir
Cl 8.28 28.02 – sediments.
SO4 9.19 3.93 0.01
Organic matter 0.43 1.58 2.24
LOI (750 °C) 2.87 9.43 –
Total 96.77 95.72 100.00
at which a glassy phase forms. The presence of fluxes (Fe2O3, CaO,
MgO, K2O, and Na2O) in the sample would ensure the development
Note: LOI = Loss of ignition. of a highly viscous liquid phase at high temperature, which could
entrap the gases. By contrast, the analysis results for the MSW
incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes were not in the limits of
100 the expandable region of the ternary diagram due to the low con-
tent of SiO2. Therefore, they cannot provide a liquid phase of en-
90 ough viscosity while sintering at high temperature. In addition,
80 both the MSW incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes had high
CaO content (>30%), while the preferred content (CaO + MgO) is
70
normally not more than 7%.
60 Overall, the reservoir sediments had high content of glass for-
Passing (%)

mer oxides (i.e. SiO2 + Al2O3 > 85%) and low level of modifying or
50
fluxing oxides (Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, and Na2O) in its composition.
40 Therefore, the fine sediments from the Wushe Reservoir can be
30 used as a feasible raw material for sintering lightweight aggre-
Reservoir sediment gates, while the MSW incineration ashes can only be used as
20 Incineration fly ash
additives.
reaction ash
10

0 3.2. Sintering behavior

10000 1000 100
Grain Size (μm)
Fig. 1. Grain size distributions of the materials used in the study.
4 lm, but the MSW incineration fly ashes had larger portion of
coarse particles. This indicates that the MSW incineration fly ashes
should be milled prior to mixing with other materials to satisfy the
requirements for graining and sintering. On the other hand, Table 2
shows that the plasticity indexes (PI) for the MSW incineration fly
ashes and reaction ashes were 4% and 9%, respectively. This indi-
cates the MSW incineration ashes had a lower plasticity. By con-
trast, the reservoir sediments had better plasticity with a PI of
12%, which are inorganic clays according to the Unified Soil Classi-
fication System. In general, the higher the PI, the more plastic the
ash is, and thus making the graining process much easier. This is
one of the major reasons that a large proportion of the designed
mixture was the reservoir sediments.
3.1.2. Chemical composition
The chemical composition of the materials used is also pre-
sented in Table 2. The main ingredient of the reservoir sediments
is SiO2 (61.86%), followed by Al2O3 (23.82%), Fe2O3 (7.91%), and
other ingredients. The analysis results were in the area of the
expandable region of the ternary diagram produced by Riley [25]
(see Fig. 2). The presence of CaO and MgO in the sample indicates
that it consists of materials that will liberate CO2 at a temperature
10 1
The specimens representing the nine mixes were heated in the
self-designed kiln at different temperatures for 10 min into light-
weight aggregate. Upon heating, the deformation of the samples
was carefully measured and recorded to evaluate their initial and
final sintering temperature as well as softening temperature. As
expected, the raw aggregate pellets would experience temperature
increase, both internal and external, during firing. Fig. 3 shows the
appearance and profile of the sintered pellets for various series.
The sintering temperature required for the thermal treatment
mainly depended on the gas formation reaction and the smelting
behavior of the constitution of the pellets. In fact, the chemical
composition of each mix plays an important role on its firing
behavior [25]. Accordingly, Table 3 summarizes the chemical com-
position of each mix. A comparison between Table 3 and Fig. 3
shows that the higher the (SiO2 + Al2O3)/fluxing ratio was, the
higher the sintering temperature and softening temperature were.
The reason is a high (SiO2 + Al2O3)/fluxing ratio will bring about a
viscous liquid phase. On the other hand, a low (SiO2 + Al2O3)/flux-
ing ratio will involve a lower melting temperature and a lower vis-
cosity of the liquid phase, which is unable to entrap a significant
amount of gas and thus to expand during firing. Generally speak-
ing, (SiO2 + Al2O3)/fluxing ratio between 3.5 and 10.0 should be
used to ensure to get a suitable expanded material. Among the nine
mixes, F30, R30, and M30 had lower (SiO2 + Al2O3)/fluxing ratio
(<3.5). As seen in Fig. 4, it is evident that the chemical composition
of R30 and M30 did not lie within the area of bloating. This indi-
cates that mix incorporating with high content of MSW incinera-
 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55 49

tion ashes (i.e. >30%) is unable for bloating except compositional
adjustment using oxide constituents.
Based on the above analysis, Table 4 summarizes the initial and
final sintering temperature as well as softening temperature for
each mix. It should be noted that all mixes had a very narrow tem-
perature range for sintering (see the last column in Table 4). Taking
F10 for example, the difference between initial sintering tempera-
ture and softening temperature was 50 °C. Furthermore, with the
increased content of the MSW incineration ashes, the temperature
range was reduced to 25 °C, which might affect a substantial pro-
gress in the sintering process.
3.3. Expanding capacity
To further examine the bloating characteristics of various mixes
and the effects of different duration of preheating, the dried pellets
were preheated at 500 °C for different soaking time and then
heated at designed sintering temperature for 10 min. But the max-
imum sintering temperature should be maintained lower than the
above-described softening temperatures (see Table 5). The results
show that mix with low ash content, no matter what its type,
had better expanding capacity. Therefore, the proper content for
MSW incineration ashes should not exceed 30%. On the other hand,

Fig. 3. Appearance and profile of sintered pellets at Stage 1.

50 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55

Table 3
Chemical composition of different mixes (in laboratory scale).

Item Series-F Series-R Series-M

F10 F20 F30 R10 R20 R30 M10 M20 M30
SiO2 (%) 57.7 53.5 49.4 55.9 50.0 44.0 56.4 50.9 45.4
Al2O3 (%) 23.1 22.3 21.6 21.6 19.4 17.3 22.0 20.2 18.3
Fe2O3 (%) 7.4 6.9 6.5 7.2 6.4 5.7 7.2 6.6 5.9
CaO (%) 5.2 8.2 11.2 6.4 10.5 14.7 6.1 9.9 13.8
MgO (%) 2.0 2.2 2.5 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
Na2O (%) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
K2O (%) 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 0.9 1.3
Cl- (%) 0.9 1.7 2.6 2.9 5.9 8.8 2.4 4.8 7.2
SO4 (%) 1.0 1.9 2.9 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.6 1.1 1.6
Organic matter (%) 2.1 1.9 1.7 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0
LOI (750 °C) (%) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.8 1.6 2.4
Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Fluxing (%) 15.1 18.0 21.2 16.0 19.7 23.6 15.8 19.4 23.0
CaO + MgO (%) 7.2 10.4 13.7 8.1 12.1 16.2 7.9 11.7 15.6
(S + A)/F 5.4 4.2 3.3 4.8 3.5 2.6 5.0 3.7 2.8

Note: Fluxing = Fe2O3 + CaO + MgO + K2O + Na2O; (S + A)/F = (SiO2 + Al2O3)/fluxing.

a SiO2 system of porous cellular structure for preheating duration of

5 min, which was coarsening from the center to the surface of
100%
the aggregate, whereas porous cellular structure formed only in
the central part of the aggregate for preheating duration of 10 min.

F20
3.4. Aggregate properties

F10
Based on the above results, the sintering temperature and dura-
tion were carefully designed at this stage. The dried pellets were
FeO
FeO,,Fe Fe22O 3 preheated at 500 °C for 5 and 10 min, respectively. Then based
F30
CaO
CaO,,MgOMg on the observed softening temperatures, the preheated pellets
Al 2 O3 (K2 ,ONa
Na , K)O2 O were heated at several maximum temperatures for 10 and
50% 50
50%% 15 min, respectively. Then, the properties of the synthetic aggre-
gates were measured. The results are listed in Table 6 and analyzed
b SiO2
100%
in the following sections.

3.4.1. Ignition loss

In the study, the weight loss percentage during the process of
sintering dried pellets into lightweight aggregates was defined as
R20 the ignition loss. It can be observed that the ignition loss of aggre-
R30 gates increased with the increasing ash content, no matter what its
R10 type (see Table 6).
FeO
FeO,,Fe Fe22O O33
CaO
CaO,,MgOMgO 3.4.2. Particle density
Al 2 O3 (K2 ,ONa
Na , K)O2 O
2
The variation in particle density of sample fired at different sin-
50% 50
50%% tering temperatures under constant duration was 1.02–1.86 g/cm3,
0.94–1.78 g/cm3, and 1.10–1.78 g/cm3, for Series-F, Series-R, and
c SiO2 Series-M, respectively, whereas the variation for Series-S was from
100% 1.94 to 2.09. This indicates that incorporating MSW incineration
ashes with reservoir sediments led to a significant reduction in
particle density of the resulting aggregate (Fig. 6). Substantially
lower particle density was associated with F10 and R10 samples,
M20 under the sintering condition of 1175 °C/10 min. Overall, the parti-
cle densities of the resulting aggregates range from 0.94 to 1.86,
M30
which are significantly lower than normal density aggregates.
M10
Therefore, they fit the primary requirement for lightweight aggre-
FeO
FeO, ,Fe
Fe22O
O3
gate intended for use in structural concrete.
CaO
CaO,,MgO
MgO
Al 2 O3 (K2 O
Na , K)O
, Na 2O

50
50%%
3.4.3. Water absorption
50%
Table 6 shows that under different sintering temperatures and
Fig. 4. Ternary diagram of bloating materials and composition of various mixes. duration, the 24-h water absorptions of sample of the Series-F, Ser-
ies-R, and Series-M was 0.4–3.6%, 0.6–10.1%, and 0.3–4.0%, respec-
tively. On the whole, the water absorption figures followed the
expanding capacity decreased with the increasing duration of pre- expected trend of high absorption corresponding to low parti-
heating. Taking F10 and F30 for example, Fig. 5 shows an internal cle density. For example, R10 had lowest particle density
 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55 51

Table 4
Sintering temperatures and softening temperature of various mixes.

Sample code Sintering temperature range (°C) Softening temperature (°C) Temperature range for sintering (°C)
F10 1150–1200 1200 50
F20 1150–1175 1175 25
F30 1150–1175 1175 25
R10 1150–1200 1200 50
R20 1150–1175 1175 25
R30 1150–1175 1175 25
M10 1150–1200 1200 50
M20 1150–1175 1175 25
M30 1150–1175 1175 25

Table 5
Designed sintering temperatures for various mixes.

Item Sample code

F10 F20 F30 R10 R20 R30 M10 M20 M30
Softening temperature (°C) 1200 1175 1175 1200 1175 1175 1200 1175 1175
Designed sintering temperature (°C) 1175 1150 1150 1175 1150 1150 1175 1150 1150

Fig. 5. Appearance and profile of sintered pellets at Stage 2 (F10 and F30).

(0.94 g/cm3) and relatively highest absorption value (10.1%), when
compared with other mixes and the reference mix.
3.4.4. Bloating index
In the study, to assess the effect of different thermal treat-
ments on the bloating behavior, bloating index was expressed as
volume change after firing. From Table 6, it can be seen that sam-
ples F10, R10, and M10 showed a significant volume expansion,
under the sintering condition of 1175 °C/10 min, while a petty
volume contraction, under the sintering condition of 1175 °C/
15 min. Overall, there was a clear inverse relationship between
bloating index and particle density. In addition, sample showed
52 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55

Table 6
Physical properties of aggregates (in laboratory scale).

Sample code Preheating condition Sintering condition LOI Particle density Water absorption Bloating index Note
(%) (g/cm3) (%) (%)
Temp. Soaking time Temp. Soaking time
(°C) (min) (°C) (min)

F10 500 5 1175 10 9.3 1.02 2.7 69
10 15 9.1 1.83 0.5 3

F20 5 1150 15 11.2 1.29 3.6 29
10 15 11.4 1.86 0.4 7

F30 5 1150 10 12.1 1.49 0.7 16
10 15 12.7 1.78 0.5 3

R10 500 5 1175 10 13.0 0.94 10.1 67
10 15 12.8 1.78 0.6 3

R20 5 1150 15 17.0 1.55 1.3 5
10 10 17.2 1.59 0.7 3

R30 5 1150 15 24.0 1.17 5.3 33
10 15 24.1 1.54 3.8 1

M10 500 5 1175 10 11.0 1.10 2.1 54
10 15 11.3 1.78 0.3 3

M20 5 1150 15 15.0 1.32 3.0 23
10 10 14.8 1.49 1.5 11

M30 5 1150 10 21.0 1.29 4.0 27
10 15 21.1 1.41 1.7 20
S 500 5 1150 10 7.0 1.94 1.7 8
10 1175 15 7.3 2.09 0.9 14

Note: LOI = Loss of ignition;  = As the TCLP test samples.

incineration ashes under high temperature, only trace amounts of

2.6
Pb, Cu, Cd, and Cr were detected except Zn. Especially, the Pb con-
Soaking time = 5min
2.4 Soaking time = 10min centration of TCLP ranged from 0.21 to 2.52 mg/L, which was sig-
nificantly lower than that of the MSW reaction ashes. In other
2.2
Reservoir sed iment LWA , Soaking time = 10min words, the concentrations of heavy metal in the specimens had
2.0 Reservoir sed iment LWA , Soaking time = 5min mostly been reduced to an acceptable value after high temperature
Particle density (g/cm )
3

sintering. Moreover, at sintering temperatures of 1150 °C and

1.8
1175 °C, the concentration of Cu in sintering products despite ser-
1.6 ies of mixture generally increased with the increasing weight per-
centage of MSW incineration ashes. This indicates that the proper
1.4
weight percentage of MSW incineration ashes to that of total dried
1.2 solid should be less than 30%. In brief, the results of TCLP leaching
met the Taiwan Environmental Regulatory requirements. This
1.0
demonstrates that the aggregate thus fabricated is non-hazardous
0.8 for construction use.
To sum up, as previously stated, it is suggested that the fine res-
0.6
ervoir sediments can be used as a major raw material for sintering
F10 F20 F30 R10 R20 R30 M10 M20 M30
Samples lightweight aggregates, while the MSW incineration ashes can only
be used as additives. Considering the chemical characteristics of
Fig. 6. Comparison between particle densities of various mixes. the MSW incineration ashes, Table 8 presents the feasible range
of chemical composition for mixed materials.

a volume contraction and thus its particle density was greater

3.5. Feasibility of large-scale production and application in concrete
than 1.54 g/cm3.

After the laboratory investigations were completed, the feasibil-

3.4.5. TCLP test
MSW is considered a hazardous material because of its high
content and leachability of heavy metals and soluble salts. In this
study, leaching of five selected heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd and
Cr) found in the MSW incineration (i.e. fly ashes and reaction
ashes) and the produced aggregates were investigated. Table 7
shows the TCLP results of the MSW incineration ashes and nine
types of the synthetic aggregates selected from Table 6, together
with the limits for each of the regulated elements. As far as the
MSW reaction ashes are concerned, the Pb concentration in the
TCLP leaching was much higher than the current regulatory thresh-
old established by the EPA of Taiwan government. However, for the
synthetic aggregates, due to the decomposition of polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in the MSW
ity of large-scale production of aggregate using MSW incineration
fly ashes and reaction ashes was evaluated. A larger amount of
aggregates was manufactured in a pilot scale using a commercially
available rotary kiln. The results of the laboratory scale investiga-
tion show that the properties of the synthetic aggregates using
mix M10 were better than those using other mixes. In addition,
in order to simplify the process for the treatment of incineration
ashes, fly ashes and reaction ashes were usually mixed together
and treated as a single residue in Taiwan. For the above reasons,
a proportion of the two types of ashes and reservoir sediments
were selected. Table 9 shows the chemical composition of the
mix used. In the study the sampling of incineration and reaction
ashes was conducted on different dates. As a result, the chemical
composition and the quantity of heavy metals in incineration and
 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55 53

Table 7
TCLP result in MSW incineration ashes and aggregates produced (in laboratory scale).

Sample code Heavy metals (mg/L) Note

Zn Pb Cu Cd Cr
Incineration fly ash 0.01 0.02 N.D. 0.01 3.85 Raw materials
Reacted ash 3.44 32.01 0.16 N.D. 0.07
F10 6.67 0.35 0.22 N.D. 0.02 Aggregate
F20 3.75 0.25 0.23 N.D. 0.01
F30 4.24 0.65 1.34 0.01 0.01
R10 7.03 1.34 0.64 0.03 0.04
R20 3.90 0.21 0.50 0.02 0.01
R30 12.89 1.57 2.41 0.13 0.05
M10 5.05 0.37 0.10 0.01 N.D.
M20 11.59 2.52 1.72 0.11 0.16
M30 8.94 1.25 2.06 0.1 0.05
EPA regulation NIEA R201.13C – <5 <15 <1 <5 The standard for hazardous industrial wastes, EPA, Taiwan

Note: N.D. = Non-detected.

Table 8 1.5 m and a length of 14.3 m to recover some of the heat contained
Feasible range of chemical composition for mixed materials. in the aggregate discharged from the kiln, the heated air from the
Item Chemical compositions (wt.%)
cooler being re-introduced into the kiln as secondary combustion
air.
Series-F Series-R Series-M
The sintering tests were performed under various operational
SiO2 49–58 44–56 45–56 parameters such as sintering temperature and sintering time. After
Al2O3 21–23 17–22 18–22
a number of trials, Fig. 7 shows the appearance of the sintered
Fe2O3 6–7 5–7 6–7
CaO 5–11 6–15 6–14 aggregates. The test results of the grain size, particle density, water
MgO 2–3 1–2 1–2
Na2O <1 <1 <1
K2O <1 <1.5 <1.5
Cl- 1–3 3–9 2–7
SO4 1–3 <1 0.01
Organic matter 2 2 2
LOI (750 °C) <1 1–3 <3
Total – – –

Note: Mixed ashes (Series-M) at a ratio of incineration fly ashes: reaction

ashes = 1:3.

reaction ashes used in laboratory and pilot scale were different (see
Tables 2 and 9). Furthermore, to study the feasibility of manufac-
turing concrete using the manufactured aggregate, a concrete mix-
ture was tested in this study. The properties of the resulting
aggregate and the engineering properties for the concrete are pre-
sented below.

3.5.1. Physical properties of aggregate

The commercial rotary kiln has an outer diameter of 2 m and a
length of 39 m. This device has a heat exchanger using heavy oil as
a fuel. In addition, it has a rotary cooler having an outer diameter of Fig. 7. Appearance of sintered aggregates.

Table 9
Chemical composition of mix (in pilot scale).

Item Chemical compositions (wt.%)

Incineration fly ash Reaction ash Reservoir sediment CM10
SiO2 24.81 2.09 61.86 56.4
Al2O3 12.69 2.53 23.82 21.9
Fe2O3 3.78 0.91 7.91 7.3
CaO 33.49 46.92 2.24 6.4
MgO 3.31 1.94 1.75 1.8
Na2O 0.11 0.23 0.17 0.2
K2O 2.82 3.93 0.007 0.4
Cl- 4.73 26.07 0 2.1
SO4 10.33 4.95 0.01 0.6
Organic matter 0.98 2.09 2.24 2.2
LOI (750 °C) 2.95 8.34 0 0.7
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100
54 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55

absorption, dry loose bulk density, crushing strength, and chlorine

ion content for the manufactured aggregates are shown in Table
10. The particle density of the manufactured aggregates was
0.99 g/cm3 which is significantly lower than normal density aggre-
gate and the 24-h water absorption was 7.6%. Moreover, its dry
loose bulk density was 593 kg/m3, which meets the requirements
of ASTM C 330 with bulk density less than 880 kg/m3 for coarse
aggregate. On the other hand, aggregates produced were tested
for crushing strength in accordance with GB/T 2842 [26]. The
crushing strength of the manufactured aggregates was 6 MPa (Ta-
ble 10). In addition, the TCLP test shows that concentration in solu-
tion of all pertaining heavy metals is considerably lower than the
regulated limits established by the EPA of Taiwan government (Ta-
ble 11), which demonstrates that the aggregate thus fabricated is
non-hazardous for construction use.

3.5.2. Property of concrete made from manufactured aggregate

Essentially, the strength of LWA itself is rather low, as compared
with normal-weight aggregates. However, the bond of LWA to the
surrounding matrix is greater than the particle strength. As a re-
sult, it is the strength of the matrix and the extent of its arching ac-
tion over the LWA which really controls the strength of the
concrete [27]. On the basis of fracture mechanism of LWAC, the
Chinese National Standard GB/T 17431 presents a measurement
method of effective LWA strength (fa) and rational concrete
strength (fak) through concrete testing to evaluate the Strength
Grade of LWA [28]. The application of Strength Grade of LWA to
LWAC mix design can well reflect the rational strength of the
resulting concrete and thus having better reliability. Thus Strength
Grade has been regarded as an index of LWA strength in GB/T
17431.
To evaluate the Strength Grade of the synthetic LWA produced
in the commercial rotary kiln, materials used for making concrete
specimens include cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate.
The cement used was Type I Portland cement. The fine aggregate
used was natural river sand. The coarse aggregate used were the
manufactured LWA. As for the mixture proportion of LWAC used
in the present study, according to GB/T 17431, the absolute volume
occupied by LWA was 45%, while the remaining volume was occu-
pied by mortar. In addition, the weight proportions of cement, fine
aggregate, and water is fixed at 1:1:0.4 for the mortar. Cubic spec-
imens (100  100  100 mm) of the mortar and the LWAC were
cast for compressive test. All specimens were cured in a standard
curing room with an average ambient temperature of 23 ± 1.1 °C
and a relative humidity of 100% for 27 days and then taken out
to air dry for 1 day before testing. The experimental results show
Fig. 8. Test result of LWA strength grade.
that the 28-day compressive strength of the mortar and the so pro-
duced LWAC were 63 and 40 MPa, respectively. This indicates that
although the crushing strength of the manufactured aggregates
was only 6 MPa, the strength of the produced LWAC could reach
40 MPa by incorporating a mortar with strength of 63 MPa. It is
attributed to the fact that the interaction between the absolute vol-
ume percentage of LWA and the mortar phase resulted in the pro-
duced LWAC with a strength intermediate between the two
fractions. As a result, the failure surface was through both coarse
aggregate and matrix. Based on the measured values of mortar
strength (fm) and concrete strength (fc), a solid red circle was
sketched between the lines of rational concrete strength (fak) of
25 and 30 MPa, as shown in Fig. 8. According to GB/T 17431, the
manufactured LWA could be classified as Strength Grade 25.
On the other hand, the produced LWAC also satisfied the
strength requirement of ASTM C 330 and ACI 318 code for struc-
tural lightweight concrete (i.e. with a minimum 28-day compres-
sive strength of 17 MPa). Therefore, the manufactured aggregates
can be used as LWA for structural concrete. This result verifies
the feasibility of large-scale production of LWA by incorporating
MSW incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes with reservoir
sediments.

Table 10
Physical properties of aggregates (in pilot scale).

Sample code Grain size range Particle density 24 h water absorption Loose weight Particle cylindrical crushing strengtha Chloride ion content
(mm) (g/cm3) (%) (kg/m3) (MPa) (%)
CM10 8–12 0.99 7.6 593 6 N.D
a
According to the Chinese National Standard CNS 14779.

Table 11
TCLP result in MSW incineration ashes and aggregates produced (in pilot scale).

Sample code Heavy metals (mg/L) Note

Zn Pb Cu Cd Cr
Incineration fly ash 0.02 0.01 N.D. N.D. 1.1 Raw materials
Reacted ash 4.79 10.86 0.23 0.01 0.06
CM10 0.59 0.82 0.09 0.01 0.01 Aggregate
EPA regulation NIEA R201.13C – <5 <15 <1 <5 The standard for hazardous industrial wastes, EPA, Taiwan
 H.-J. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 46–55
4. Conclusion
The feasibility of manufacturing LWA by incorporating munici-
pal solid waste incineration fly ashes and reaction ashes with res-
ervoir sediments has been explored. The results demonstrate that
the aggregate thus fabricated is non-hazardous for construction
use. However, it should be pointed out that in order to reduce en-
ergy consumption and control pollution from carbon-based fuels,
further study is need to assess the use of advanced clean power
system technologies instead of the energy intensive firing and sin-
tering processes traditionally required in the production process of
LWA. Based on the investigation and test carried out above, the fol-
lowing conclusions can be drawn:
1. The reservoir sediments have high content of glass former oxi-
des and low level of fluxing oxides in its composition, and thus
can be used as a feasible raw material for sintering lightweight
aggregates.
2. The analysis results for the MSW incineration fly ashes and
reaction ashes are not in the limits of the expandable region
of the ternary diagram due to the low content of SiO2. Therefore,
they can only be used as additives.
3. Mix with low ash content, no matter what its type, has better
expanding capacity. Therefore, the proper content for MSW
incineration ashes should not exceed 30%, except compositional
adjustment using oxide constituents.
4. The particle density of the manufactured aggregates using a
commercially available rotary kiln was 0.99 g/cm3, which is sig-
nificantly lower than normal density aggregate. Moreover, its
dry loose bulk density is 593 kg/m3, which meets the require-
ments of ASTM C 330 with bulk density less than 880 kg/m3
for coarse aggregate. Moreover, the results of toxicity test meet
the Taiwan Environmental Regulatory requirements.
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