Romeo and Juliet

For other uses, see Romeo and Juliet (disambiguation).
editions corrected the text to conform more closely with
Shakespeare’s original.
Shakespeare’s use of his poetic dramatic structure (es-
pecially effects such as switching between comedy and
tragedy to heighten tension, his expansion of minor char-
acters, and his use of sub-plots to embellish the story) has
been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The
play ascribes different poetic forms to different charac-
ters, sometimes changing the form as the character devel-
ops. Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet
over the course of the play.
Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times
for stage, film, musical and opera venues. During the
English Restoration, it was revived and heavily revised
by William Davenant. David Garrick's 18th-century ver-
sion also modified several scenes, removing material then
considered indecent, and Georg Benda's Romeo und Julie
omitted much of the action and added a happy ending.
Performances in the 19th century, including Charlotte
Cushman's, restored the original text and focused on
greater realism. John Gielgud's 1935 version kept very
close to Shakespeare’s text and used Elizabethan cos-
tumes and staging to enhance the drama. In the 20th and
into the 21st century, the play has been adapted in ver-
sions as diverse as George Cukor's 1935 film Romeo and
Juliet, Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 version Romeo and Juliet,
and Baz Luhrmann's 1996 MTV-inspired Romeo + Juliet.

An 1870 oil painting by Ford Madox Brown depicting the play’s

famous balcony scene 1 Characters
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shake- Main article: Characters in Romeo and Juliet
speare early in his career about two young star-crossed
lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding
families. It was among Shakespeare’s most popular plays
during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his
most frequently performed plays. Today, the title charac- 2 Synopsis
ters are regarded as archetypal young lovers.
Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances The play, set in Verona, Italy, begins with a street brawl
stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an Ital- between Montague and Capulet servants who, like their
ian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of masters, are sworn enemies. Prince Escalus of Verona
Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 and retold in intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace
prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567. will be punishable by death. Later, Count Paris talks to
Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but expanded Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet, but Capulet
the plot by developing a number of supporting charac- asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to
ters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have attend a planned Capulet ball. Lady Capulet and Juliet’s
been written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Paris’s courtship.
published in a quarto version in 1597. The text of the Meanwhile, Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo, Mon-
first quarto version was of poor quality, however, and later tague’s son, about Romeo’s recent depression. Benvolio

1
2 3 SOURCES

discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a
girl named Rosaline, one of Capulet’s nieces. Persuaded
by Benvolio and Mercutio, Romeo attends the ball at the
Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. However,
Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet. Juliet’s
cousin, Tybalt, is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the
ball but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliet’s fa-
ther, who doesn't wish to shed blood in his house. After
the ball, in what is now called the “balcony scene”, Romeo
sneaks into the Capulet orchard and overhears Juliet at her
window vowing her love to him in spite of her family’s
hatred of the Montagues. Romeo makes himself known
to her and they agree to be married. With the help of
Friar Laurence, who hopes to reconcile the two families
through their children’s union, they are secretly married
the next day.
ever returns. Romeo secretly spends the night in Juliet’s
chamber, where they consummate their marriage. Ca-
pulet, misinterpreting Juliet’s grief, agrees to marry her
to Count Paris and threatens to disown her when she re-
fuses to become Paris’s “joyful bride”.[2] When she then
pleads for the marriage to be delayed, her mother rejects
her.
Juliet visits Friar Laurence for help, and he offers her a
potion that will put her into a deathlike coma for “two and
forty hours”.[3] The Friar promises to send a messenger
to inform Romeo of the plan so that he can rejoin her
when she awakens. On the night before the wedding, she
takes the drug and, when discovered apparently dead, she
is laid in the family crypt.
The messenger, however, does not reach Romeo and,
instead, Romeo learns of Juliet’s apparent death from
his servant Balthasar. Heartbroken, Romeo buys poison
from an apothecary and goes to the Capulet crypt. He
encounters Paris who has come to mourn Juliet privately.
Believing Romeo to be a vandal, Paris confronts him and,
in the ensuing battle, Romeo kills Paris. Still believing
Juliet to be dead, he drinks the poison. Juliet then awak-
ens and, finding Romeo dead, stabs herself with his dag-
ger. The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb
to find all three dead. Friar Laurence recounts the story of
the two “star-cross’d lovers”. The families are reconciled
by their children’s deaths and agree to end their violent
feud. The play ends with the Prince’s elegy for the lovers:
“For never was a story of more woe/Than this of Juliet
and her Romeo.”[4]

3 Sources
Romeo and Juliet borrows from a tradition of tragic love
stories dating back to antiquity. One of these is Pyramus
and Thisbe, from Ovid's Metamorphoses, which contains
parallels to Shakespeare’s story: the lovers’ parents de-
spise each other, and Pyramus falsely believes his lover
Thisbe is dead.[5] The Ephesiaca of Xenophon of Eph-
esus, written in the 3rd century, also contains several sim-
ilarities to the play, including the separation of the lovers,
L’ultimo bacio dato a Giulietta da Romeo by Francesco Hayez. and a potion that induces a deathlike sleep.[6]
Oil on canvas, 1823.
One of the earliest references to the names Montague and
Tybalt, meanwhile, still incensed that Romeo had Capulet is from Dante's Divine Comedy, who mentions the
sneaked into the Capulet ball, challenges him to a duel. Montecchi (Montagues)[7]and the Cappelletti (Capulets) in
Romeo, now considering Tybalt his kinsman, refuses to canto six of Purgatorio:
fight. Mercutio is offended by Tybalt’s insolence, as well
as Romeo’s “vile submission”,[1] and accepts the duel Come and see, you who are negligent,
on Romeo’s behalf. Mercutio is fatally wounded when Montagues and Capulets, Monaldi and Fil-
Romeo attempts to break up the fight. Grief-stricken and ippeschi
wracked with guilt, Romeo confronts and slays Tybalt. One lot already grieving, the other in fear.[1]
Montague argues that Romeo has justly executed Ty- 1. ^ Higgins (1998: 223).
balt for the murder of Mercutio. The Prince, now hav-
ing lost a kinsman in the warring families’ feud, ex- However, the reference is part of a polemic against the
iles Romeo from Verona, under penalty of death if he moral decay of Florence, Lombardy and the Italian Penin-
3.1 Modern form 3

3.1 Modern form

Luigi da Porto (1485–1529) adapted the story as Giulietta

e Romeo[11] and included it in his Historia novellamente
ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti, written in 1524 and pub-
lished posthumously in 1531 in Venice.[12][13] Da Porto
drew on Pyramus and Thisbe, Boccacio's Decameron,
and Salernitano’s Mariotto e Ganozza, but it is likely
that his story is also autobiographical: present as a sol-
dier at a ball on 26 February 1511 at a residence of the
Savorgnan clan in Udine, following a peace ceremony
with the opposite Strumieri, Da Porta fell in love with
Lucina, the daughter of the house, but relationships of
their mentors prevented advances. The next morning,
the Savorgnans led an attack on the city, and many mem-
bers of the Strumieri were murdered. When years later,
half-paralyzed from a battle-wound, he wrote Giulietta e
Romeo in Montorso Vicentino (from where he could see
the “castles” of Verona), he dedicated the novella to bel-
lisima e leggiadra madonna Lucina Savorgnan.[11][14] Da
Porto presented his tale as historically true and claimed
it took place a century earlier than Salernitano had it, in
the days Verona was ruled by Bartolomeo II della Scala
(anglicized as Prince Escalus).
Da Porto gave Romeo and Juliet most of its modern form,
including the names of the lovers, the rival families of
Title page of Arthur Brooke's poem, Romeus and Juliet. Montecchi and Capuleti, and the location in Verona.[9]
He named the friar Laurence (frate Lorenzo) and in-
troduced the characters Mercutio (Marcuccio Guertio),
Tybalt (Tebaldo Cappelleti), Count Paris (conti (Paride)
sula as a whole; Dante, through his characters, chastises di Lodrone), the faithful servant, and Giulietta’s nurse.
German King Albert I for neglecting his responsibilities Da Porto originated the remaining basic elements of the
towards Italy (“you who are negligent”), and successive story: the feuding families, Romeo -left by his mistress-
popes for their encroachment from purely spiritual af- meeting Giulietta at a dance at her house, the love scenes
fairs, thus leading to a climate of incessant bickering and (including the balcony scene), the periods of despair,
warfare between rival political parties in Lombardy. His- Romeo killing Giulietta’s cousin (Tebaldo), and the fam-
ilies’ reconciliation after the lovers’ suicides.[15] In da
tory records the name of the family Montague as being
lent to such a political party in Verona, but that of the Ca- Porto’s version, Romeo takes poison and Giulietta stabs
herself with his dagger.[16]
pulets as from a Cremonese family, both of whom play out
their conflict in Lombardy as a whole rather than within In 1554, Matteo Bandello published the second volume
the confines of Verona.[8] Allied to rival political factions,
of his Novelle, which included his version of Giuletta
the parties are grieving (“One lot already grieving”) be- e Romeo,[13] probably written between 1531 and 1545.
cause their endless warfare has led to the destruction of Bandello lengthened and weighed down the plot while
both parties,[8] rather than a grief from the loss of their leaving the storyline basically unchanged (though he did
ill-fated offspring as the play sets forth, which appears to introduce Benvolio).[15] Bandello’s story was translated
be a solely poetic creation within this context. into French by Pierre Boaistuau in 1559 in the first vol-
The earliest known version of the Romeo and Juliet tale ume of his Histories Tragiques. Boaistuau adds much
akin to Shakespeare’s play is the story of Mariotto and moralising and sentiment,[17]
and the characters indulge in
Gianozza by Masuccio Salernitano, in the 33rd novel of rhetorical outbursts.
his Il Novellino published in 1476.[9] Salernitano sets the In his 1562 narrative poem The Tragical History of
story in Siena and insists its events took place in his own Romeus and Juliet, Arthur Brooke translated Boaistuau
lifetime. His version of the story includes the secret mar- faithfully but adjusted it to reflect parts of Chaucer’s
riage, the colluding friar, the fray where a prominent cit- Troilus and Criseyde.[18] There was a trend among writ-
izen is killed, Mariotto’s exile, Gianozza’s forced mar- ers and playwrights to publish works based on Italian
riage, the potion plot, and the crucial message that goes novelles—Italian tales were very popular among theatre-
astray. In this version, Mariotto is caught and beheaded goers—and Shakespeare may well have been familiar
and Gianozza dies of grief.[10] with William Painter's 1567 collection of Italian tales ti-
4 4 DATE AND TEXT
tled Palace of Pleasure.[19] This collection included a ver-
sion in prose of the Romeo and Juliet story named “The
goodly History of the true and constant love of Romeo and
Juliett”. Shakespeare took advantage of this popularity:
The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, All’s
Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, and Romeo
and Juliet are all from Italian novelle. Romeo and Juliet is
a dramatisation of Brooke’s translation, and Shakespeare
follows the poem closely but adds extra detail to both
major and minor characters (in particular the Nurse and
Mercutio).[20][21][22]
Christopher Marlowe's Hero and Leander and Dido,
Queen of Carthage, both similar stories written in Shake-
speare’s day, are thought to be less of a direct influence,
although they may have helped create an atmosphere in
which tragic love stories could thrive.[18]
4 Date and text
Title page of the first edition
It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo
and Juliet. Juliet’s nurse refers to an earthquake she says
occurred 11 years ago.[23] This may refer to the Dover
Straits earthquake of 1580, which would date that par-
ticular line to 1591. Other earthquakes—both in Eng-
land and in Verona—have been proposed in support of
the different dates.[24] But the play’s stylistic similarities
with A Midsummer Night’s Dream and other plays con-
ventionally dated around 1594–95, place its composition
sometime between 1591 and 1595.[25] One conjecture is
that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591, which
he completed in 1595.[26]
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet was published in two
quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Fo-
lio of 1623. These are referred to as Q1 and Q2. The
first printed edition, Q1, appeared in early 1597, printed
by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous dif-
ferences from the later editions, it is labelled a so-called
'bad quarto'; the 20th-century editor T. J. B. Spencer de-
scribed it as “a detestable text, probably a reconstruc-
tion of the play from the imperfect memories of one or
two of the actors”, suggesting that it had been pirated for
publication.[27] An alternative explanation for Q1’s short-
comings is that the play (like many others of the time)
may have been heavily edited before performance by the
playing company.[28] However, 'the theory, formulated
by [Alfred] Pollard,” that the 'bad quarto' was “recon-
structed from memory by some of the actors is now un-
der attack. Alternative theories are that some or all of
'the bad quartos’ are early versions by Shakespeare or ab-
breviations made either for Shakespeare’s company or for
other companies.”[29] In any event, its appearance in early
1597 makes 1596 the latest possible date for the play’s
composition.[24]
The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and
Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet. It was printed
in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert
Burby. Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1.[28] Its ti-
tle page describes it as “Newly corrected, augmented and
amended”. Scholars believe that Q2 was based on Shake-
speare’s pre-performance draft (called his foul papers),
since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for
characters and “false starts” for speeches that were pre-
sumably struck through by the author but erroneously
preserved by the typesetter. It is a much more com-
plete and reliable text and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3),
1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5).[27] In effect, all later Quartos
and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2, as are
all modern editions since editors believe that any devia-
tions from Q2 in the later editions (whether good or bad)
are likely to arise from editors or compositors, not from
Shakespeare.[28]
The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3,
with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a
theatrical promptbook or Q1.[27][30] Other Folio editions
of the play were printed in 1632 (F2), 1664 (F3), and
1685 (F4).[31] Modern versions—that take into account
several of the Folios and Quartos—first appeared with
Nicholas Rowe's 1709 edition, followed by Alexander
Pope's 1723 version. Pope began a tradition of editing the
play to add information such as stage directions missing in
Q2 by locating them in Q1. This tradition continued late
5.1 Love 5

communication recommended by many etiquette authors

in Shakespeare’s day: metaphor. By using metaphors of
saints and sins, Romeo was able to test Juliet’s feelings
for him in a non-threatening way. This method was rec-
ommended by Baldassare Castiglione (whose works had
been translated into English by this time). He pointed
out that if a man used a metaphor as an invitation, the
woman could pretend she did not understand him, and
he could retreat without losing honour. Juliet, however,
participates in the metaphor and expands on it. The reli-
gious metaphors of “shrine”, “pilgrim” and “saint” were
fashionable in the poetry of the time and more likely to
be understood as romantic rather than blasphemous, as
the concept of sainthood was associated with the Catholi-
The title page from the First Folio, printed in 1623.
cism of an earlier age.[37] Later in the play, Shakespeare
removes the more daring allusions to Christ’s resurrec-
into the Romantic period. Fully annotated editions first tion in the tomb he found in his source work: Brooke’s
appeared in the Victorian period and continue to be pro- Romeus and Juliet.[38]
duced today, printing the text of the play with footnotes
describing the sources and culture behind the play.[32]

5 Themes and motifs

Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one
specific, overarching theme to the play. Proposals for a
main theme include a discovery by the characters that hu-
man beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil, but
instead are more or less alike,[33] awaking out of a dream
and into reality, the danger of hasty action, or the power
of tragic fate. None of these have widespread support.
However, even if an overall theme cannot be found it is
clear that the play is full of several small, thematic ele-
ments that intertwine in complex ways. Several of those
most often debated by scholars are discussed below.[34]

5.1 Love
"Romeo
If I profane with my unworthiest hand
This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this:
My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand
To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss.
Juliet
Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much,
Which mannerly devotion shows in this;
For saints have hands that pilgrims’ hands do touch,
And palm to palm is holy palmers’ kiss.”
—Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene V[35]
Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no uni-
fying theme, save that of young love.[33] Romeo and Juliet
have become emblematic of young lovers and doomed
love. Since it is such an obvious subject of the play, sev-
eral scholars have explored the language and historical
context behind the romance of the play.[36]
On their first meeting, Romeo and Juliet use a form of
Watercolor by John Massey Wright of Act II, Scene ii (the balcony
scene).
In the later balcony scene, Shakespeare has Romeo over-
hear Juliet’s soliloquy, but in Brooke’s version of the
story, her declaration is done alone. By bringing Romeo
into the scene to eavesdrop, Shakespeare breaks from the
normal sequence of courtship. Usually, a woman was re-
quired to be modest and shy to make sure that her suitor
was sincere, but breaking this rule serves to speed along
the plot. The lovers are able to skip courting and move
on to plain talk about their relationship— agreeing to be
married after knowing each other for only one night.[36]
In the final suicide scene, there is a contradiction in the
message—in the Catholic religion, suicides were often
6 5 THEMES AND MOTIFS
thought to be condemned to hell, whereas people who die
to be with their loves under the "Religion of Love" are
joined with their loves in paradise. Romeo and Juliet’s
love seems to be expressing the “Religion of Love” view
rather than the Catholic view. Another point is that al-
though their love is passionate, it is only consummated in
marriage, which keeps them from losing the audience’s
sympathy.[39]
The play arguably equates love and sex with death.
Throughout the story, both Romeo and Juliet, along with
the other characters, fantasise about it as a dark being, of-
ten equating it with a lover. Capulet, for example, when
he first discovers Juliet’s (faked) death, describes it as
having deflowered his daughter.[40] Juliet later erotically
compares Romeo and death. Right before her suicide she
grabs Romeo’s dagger, saying “O happy dagger! This is
thy sheath. There rust, and let me die.”[41][42]
5.2 Fate and chance
“O, I am fortune’s fool!"
—Romeo, Act III Scene I[43]
Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play. No
consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated
to die together or whether the events take place by a series
of unlucky chances. Arguments in favour of fate often re-
fer to the description of the lovers as "star-cross’d". This
phrase seems to hint that the stars have predetermined
the lovers’ future.[44] John W. Draper points out the par-
allels between the Elizabethan belief in the four humours
and the main characters of the play (for example, Tybalt
as a choleric). Interpreting the text in the light of hu-
mours reduces the amount of plot attributed to chance
by modern audiences.[45] Still, other scholars see the play
as a series of unlucky chances—many to such a degree
that they do not see it as a tragedy at all, but an emo-
tional melodrama.[45] Ruth Nevo believes the high degree
to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo
and Juliet a “lesser tragedy” of happenstance, not of char-
acter. For example, Romeo’s challenging Tybalt is not
impulsive; it is, after Mercutio’s death, the expected ac-
tion to take. In this scene, Nevo reads Romeo as being
aware of the dangers of flouting social norms, identity,
and commitments. He makes the choice to kill, not be-
cause of a tragic flaw, but because of circumstance.[46]
5.3 Duality (light and dark)
“O brawling love, O loving hate,
O any thing of nothing first create!
O heavy lightness, serious vanity,
Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms,
Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health,
Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!"
—Romeo, Act I Scene I[47]
Scholars have long noted Shakespeare’s widespread use
of light and dark imagery throughout the play. Caroline
Spurgeon considers the theme of light as “symbolic of
the natural beauty of young love” and later critics have
expanded on this interpretation.[46][48] For example, both
Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surround-
ing darkness. Romeo describes Juliet as being like the
sun,[49] brighter than a torch,[50] a jewel sparkling in
the night,[51] and a bright angel among dark clouds.[52]
Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb, he says
her “beauty makes This vault a feasting presence full of
light.”[53] Juliet describes Romeo as “day in night” and
“Whiter than snow upon a raven’s back.”[54][55] This con-
trast of light and dark can be expanded as symbols—
contrasting love and hate, youth and age in a metaphoric
way.[46] Sometimes these intertwining metaphors create
dramatic irony. For example, Romeo and Juliet’s love
is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around
them, but all of their activity together is done in night and
darkness, while all of the feuding is done in broad day-
light. This paradox of imagery adds atmosphere to the
moral dilemma facing the two lovers: loyalty to family or
loyalty to love. At the end of the story, when the morning
is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow, light and
dark have returned to their proper places, the outward
darkness reflecting the true, inner darkness of the fam-
ily feud out of sorrow for the lovers. All characters now
recognise their folly in light of recent events, and things
return to the natural order, thanks to the love and death of
Romeo and Juliet.[48] The “light” theme in the play is also
heavily connected to the theme of time since light was a
convenient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of
time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars.[56]
5.4 Time
“These times of woe afford no time to woo.”
—Paris, Act III Scene IV[57]
Time plays an important role in the language and plot
of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet struggle to main-
tain an imaginary world void of time in the face of the
harsh realities that surround them. For instance, when
Romeo swears his love to Juliet by the moon, she protests
“O swear not by the moon, th'inconstant moon, / That
monthly changes in her circled orb, / Lest that thy love
prove likewise variable.”[58] From the very beginning, the
lovers are designated as “star-cross’d”[59] referring to an
astrologic belief associated with time. Stars were thought
to control the fates of humanity, and as time passed, stars
would move along their course in the sky, also charting
the course of human lives below. Romeo speaks of a
foreboding he feels in the stars’ movements early in the
play, and when he learns of Juliet’s death, he defies the
stars’ course for him.[45][60]
Another central theme is haste: Shakespeare’s Romeo and
Juliet spans a period of four to six days, in contrast to
6.2 Dramatic structure 7

Brooke’s poem’s spanning nine months.[56] Scholars such him in the third Act, to prevent being killed by him.”[64]
as G. Thomas Tanselle believe that time was “especially Criticism of the play in the 18th century was less sparse,
important to Shakespeare” in this play, as he used ref- but no less divided. Publisher Nicholas Rowe was the
erences to “short-time” for the young lovers as opposed first critic to ponder the theme of the play, which he saw
to references to “long-time” for the “older generation” to as the just punishment of the two feuding families. In
highlight “a headlong rush towards doom”.[56] Romeo and mid-century, writer Charles Gildon and philosopher Lord
Juliet fight time to make their love last forever. In the end,Kames argued that the play was a failure in that it did not
the only way they seem to defeat time is through a death follow the classical rules of drama: the tragedy must oc-
that makes them immortal through art.[61] cur because of some character flaw, not an accident of
Time is also connected to the theme of light and dark. In fate. Writer and critic Samuel Johnson, however, consid-
ered it one of Shakespeare’s “most pleasing” plays.[65]
Shakespeare’s day, plays were most often performed at
noon or in the afternoon in broad daylight.[62] This forced In the later part of the 18th and through the 19th cen-
the playwright to use words to create the illusion of day tury, criticism centred on debates over the moral mes-
and night in his plays. Shakespeare uses references to the sage of the play. Actor and playwright David Garrick's
night and day, the stars, the moon, and the sun to create 1748 adaptation excluded Rosaline: Romeo abandoning
this illusion. He also has characters frequently refer to her for Juliet was seen as fickle and reckless. Critics such
days of the week and specific hours to help the audience as Charles Dibdin argued that Rosaline had been pur-
understand that time has passed in the story. All in all, no posely included in the play to show how reckless the hero
fewer than 103 references to time are found in the play, was, and that this was the reason for his tragic end. Oth-
adding to the illusion of its passage.[63] ers argued that Friar Laurence might be Shakespeare’s
spokesman in his warnings against undue haste. With the
advent of the 20th century, these moral arguments were
disputed by critics such as Richard Green Moulton: he
6 Criticism and interpretation argued that accident, and not some character flaw, led to
the lovers’ deaths.[66]
6.1 Critical history
6.2 Dramatic structure
In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare employs several dra-
matic techniques that have garnered praise from critics;
most notably the abrupt shifts from comedy to tragedy (an
example is the punning exchange between Benvolio and
Mercutio just before Tybalt arrives). Before Mercutio’s
death in Act three, the play is largely a comedy.[67] After
his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes seri-
ous and takes on a tragic tone. When Romeo is banished,
rather than executed, and Friar Laurence offers Juliet a
plan to reunite her with Romeo, the audience can still
hope that all will end well. They are in a “breathless state
of suspense” by the opening of the last scene in the tomb:
If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive, he
and Juliet may yet be saved.[68] These shifts from hope to
despair, reprieve, and new hope, serve to emphasise the
tragedy when the final hope fails and both the lovers die
at the end.[69]
Shakespeare also uses sub-plots to offer a clearer view of
the actions of the main characters. For example, when
the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has
Portrait of the earliest recorded critic of the play, Samuel Pepys, refused all of his advances. Romeo’s infatuation with her
by John Hayls. Oil on canvas, 1666. stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This
provides a comparison through which the audience can
The earliest known critic of the play was diarist Samuel see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet’s love and mar-
Pepys, who wrote in 1662: “it is a play of itself the worst riage. Paris’ love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between
that I ever heard in my life.”[64] Poet John Dryden wrote Juliet’s feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The
10 years later in praise of the play and its comic character formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way
Mercutio: “Shakespear show'd the best of his skill in his she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings
Mercutio, and he said himself, that he was forc'd to kill clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the sub-plot of the
8 6 CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION

Montague–Capulet feud overarches the whole play, pro- adult world and his hypothetical childhood at stages oral,
viding an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor phallic and oedipal” – while acknowledging that a dra-
to the play’s tragic end.[69] matic character is not a human being with mental pro-
cesses separate from those of the author.[83] Critics such
as Julia Kristeva focus on the hatred between the fami-
6.3 Language lies, arguing that this hatred is the cause of Romeo and
Juliet’s passion for each other. That hatred manifests it-
Shakespeare uses a variety of poetic forms throughout self directly in the lovers’ language: Juliet, for example,
the play. He begins with a 14-line prologue in the form speaks of “my only love sprung from my only hate”[84]
of a Shakespearean sonnet, spoken by a Chorus. Most and often expresses her passion through an anticipation
of Romeo and Juliet is, however, written in blank verse, of Romeo’s death.[85] This leads on to speculation as to
and much of it in strict iambic pentameter, with less the playwright’s psychology, in particular to a consid-
rhythmic variation than in most of Shakespeare’s later eration of Shakespeare’s grief for the death of his son,
plays.[70] In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the Hamnet.[86]
poetry to the character who uses it. Friar Laurence,
for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the
Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches 6.5 Feminist criticism
colloquial speech.[70] Each of these forms is also moulded
and matched to the emotion of the scene the character oc- Feminist literary critics argue that the blame for the fam-
cupies. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline ily feud lies in Verona’s patriarchal society. For Coppélia
earlier in the play, he attempts to use the Petrarchan son- Kahn, for example, the strict, masculine code of violence
net form. Petrarchan sonnets were often used by men imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy
to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossi- to its end. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, Romeo shifts into
ble for them to attain, as in Romeo’s situation with Ros- this violent mode, regretting that Juliet has made him so
aline. This sonnet form is used by Lady Capulet to de- “effeminate”.[87] In this view, the younger males “become
scribe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man.[71] When men” by engaging in violence on behalf of their fathers,
Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from or in the case of the servants, their masters. The feud is
the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shake- also linked to male virility, as the numerous jokes about
speare’s day) to a then more contemporary sonnet form, maidenheads aptly demonstrate.[88] Juliet also submits to
using “pilgrims” and “saints” as metaphors.[72] Finally, a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the
when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to Friar, to solve her problems for her. Other critics, such
use the sonnet form to pledge his love, but Juliet breaks as Dympna Callaghan, look at the play’s feminism from
it by saying “Dost thou love me?"[73] By doing this, she a historicist angle, stressing that when the play was writ-
searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exagger- ten the feudal order was being challenged by increasingly
ation of their love.[74] Juliet uses monosyllabic words with centralised government and the advent of capitalism. At
Romeo, but uses formal language with Paris.[75] Other the same time, emerging Puritan ideas about marriage
forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a were less concerned with the “evils of female sexuality”
rhapsody in Mercutio’s Queen Mab speech, and an elegy than those of earlier eras, and more sympathetic towards
by Paris.[76] Shakespeare saves his prose style most of- love-matches: when Juliet dodges her father’s attempt to
ten for the common people in the play, though at times force her to marry a man she has no feeling for, she is
he uses it for other characters, such as Mercutio.[77] Hu- challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not
mour, also, is important: scholar Molly Mahood identifies have been possible at an earlier time.[89]
at least 175 puns and wordplays in the text.[78] Many of
these jokes are sexual in nature, especially those involv-
ing Mercutio and the Nurse.[79] 6.6 Queer theory
A number of critics have found the character of Mer-
6.4 Psychoanalytic criticism cutio to have unacknowledged homoerotic desire for
Romeo.[90] Jonathan Goldberg examined the sexuality of
Early psychoanalytic critics saw the problem of Romeo Mercutio and Romeo utilising "queer theory" in Queer-
and Juliet in terms of Romeo’s impulsiveness, deriv- ing the Renaissance, comparing their friendship with sex-
ing from “ill-controlled, partially disguised aggression”, ual love. Mercutio, in friendly conversation, mentions
which leads both to Mercutio’s death and to the double Romeo’s phallus, suggesting traces of homoeroticism.[91]
suicide.[80] Romeo and Juliet is not considered to be ex- An example is his joking wish “To raise a spirit in his
ceedingly psychologically complex, and sympathetic psy- mistress’ circle ... letting it there stand / Till she had laid
choanalytic readings of the play make the tragic male ex- it and conjured it down.”[92][93] Romeo’s homoeroticism
perience equivalent with sicknesses.[81] Norman Holland, can also be found in his attitude to Rosaline, a woman
writing in 1966, considers Romeo’s dream[82] as a re- who is distant and unavailable and brings no hope of off-
alistic “wish fulfilling fantasy both in terms of Romeo’s spring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by some-

The playbill from a 1753 production at the Theatre Royal in
Drury Lane starring David Garrick
one who will reciprocate. Shakespeare’s procreation son-
nets describe another young man who, like Romeo, is
having trouble creating offspring and who may be seen as
being a homosexual. Goldberg believes that Shakespeare
may have used Rosaline as a way to express homosex-
ual problems of procreation in an acceptable way. In this
view, when Juliet says "...that which we call a rose, by any
other name would smell as sweet”,[94] she may be raising
the question of whether there is any difference between
the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman.[95]
6.7 The Balcony Scene
The balcony scene was introduced by Da Porto in 1524.
He had Romeo walk frequently by her house, “sometimes
climbing to her chamber window” and wrote “It happened
one night, as love ordained, when the moon shone un-
usually bright, that whilst Romeo was climbing the bal-
cony, the young lady ... opened the window, and look-
ing out saw him”.[96] After this they have a conversation
in which they declare eternal love to each other. A few
decades later, Bandello greatly expanded this scene, di-
verging from the familiar one: Julia has her nurse deliver
a letter asking Romeo to come to her window with a rope
ladder, and he climbs the balcony with the help of his ser-
9
vant, Julia and the nurse (the servants discreetly withdraw
after this).[15]
Nevertheless, in October 2014, Lois Leveen speculated
in The Atlantic that the original Shakespeare play did not
contain a balcony.[97] The word, balcone, did not exist in
the English language until two years after Shakespeare’s
death.[98] The balcony was certainly used in Thomas Ot-
way's 1679 play, The History and Fall of Caius Marius,
which had borrowed much of its story from Romeo and
Juliet and placed the two lovers in a balcony reciting a
speech similar to that between Romeo and Juliet. Lev-
een suggested that during the 18th century, David Gar-
rick chose to use a balcony in his adaptation and revival
of Romeo and Juliet and modern adaptations have contin-
ued this tradition.[97]
7 Legacy
7.1 Shakespeare’s day
Richard Burbage, probably the first actor to portray Romeo[99]
Romeo and Juliet ranks with Hamlet as one of Shake-
speare’s most performed plays.[100] Its many adaptations
have made it one of his most enduring and famous
stories.[100] Even in Shakespeare’s lifetime it was ex-
tremely popular. Scholar Gary Taylor measures it as the
sixth most popular of Shakespeare’s plays, in the period
after the death of Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd
but before the ascendancy of Ben Jonson during which
Shakespeare was London’s dominant playwright.[101] The
date of the first performance is unknown. The First
10 7 LEGACY

Quarto, printed in 1597, says that “it hath been often (and
Thomas Otway's The History and Fall of Caius Marius,
with great applause) plaid publiquely”, setting the firstone of the more extreme of the Restoration adaptations
performance before that date. The Lord Chamberlain’s of Shakespeare, debuted in 1680. The scene is shifted
Men were certainly the first to perform it. Besides theirfrom Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is
strong connections with Shakespeare, the Second Quarto Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians
actually names one of its actors, Will Kemp, instead of and plebeians; Juliet/Lavinia wakes from her potion be-
Peter in a line in Act five. Richard Burbage was probablyfore Romeo/Marius dies. Otway’s version was a hit, and
the first Romeo, being the company’s actor, and Master was acted for the next seventy years.[105] His innovation in
Robert Goffe (a boy) the first Juliet.[99] The premiere isthe closing scene was even more enduring, and was used
likely to have been at "The Theatre", with other early pro-
in adaptations throughout the next 200 years: Theophilus
ductions at "The Curtain".[102] Romeo and Juliet is one Cibber's adaptation of 1744, and David Garrick's of 1748
of the first Shakespearean plays to have been performed both used variations on it.[107] These versions also elimi-
outside England: a shortened and simplified version was nated elements deemed inappropriate at the time. For ex-
performed in Nördlingen in 1604.[103] ample, Garrick’s version transferred all language describ-
ing Rosaline to Juliet, to heighten the idea of faithfulness
and downplay the love-at-first-sight theme.[108] In 1750
7.2 Restoration and 18th-century theatre a “Battle of the Romeos” began, with Spranger Barry
and Susannah Maria Arne (Mrs. Theophilus Cibber) at
All theatres were closed down by the puritan government Covent Garden versus David Garrick and George Anne
on 6 September 1642. Upon the restoration of the monar- Bellamy at Drury Lane.[109]
chy in 1660, two patent companies (the King’s Company
and the Duke’s Company) were established, and the ex- The earliest known production in North America was
isting theatrical repertoire divided between them.[104] an amateur one: on 23 March 1730, a physician named
Joachimus Bertrand placed an advertisement in the
Gazette newspaper in New York, promoting a production
in which he would play the apothecary.[110] The first pro-
fessional performances of the play in North America were
those of the Hallam Company.[111]

7.3 19th-century theatre

Mary Saunderson, probably the first woman to play Juliet pro-
fessionally
Sir William Davenant of the Duke’s Company staged a
1662 adaptation in which Henry Harris played Romeo,
Thomas Betterton Mercutio, and Betterton’s wife Mary
Saunderson Juliet: she was probably the first woman to
play the role professionally.[105] Another version closely
followed Davenant’s adaptation and was also regularly
performed by the Duke’s Company. This was a tragi-
comedy by James Howard, in which the two lovers
survive.[106]
Garrick’s altered version of the play was very popular,
and ran for nearly a century.[105] Not until 1845 did
Shakespeare’s original return to the stage in the United
States with the sisters Susan and Charlotte Cushman as
Juliet and Romeo, respectively,[112] and then in 1847 in
Britain with Samuel Phelps at Sadler’s Wells Theatre.[113]
Cushman adhered to Shakespeare’s version, beginning
a string of eighty-four performances. Her portrayal of
Romeo was considered genius by many. The Times wrote:
“For a long time Romeo has been a convention. Miss
Cushman’s Romeo is a creative, a living, breathing, an-
imated, ardent human being.”[114] Queen Victoria wrote
in her journal that “no-one would ever have imagined she
was a woman”.[115] Cushman’s success broke the Garrick
tradition and paved the way for later performances to re-
turn to the original storyline.[105]
Professional performances of Shakespeare in the mid-
19th century had two particular features: firstly, they
were generally star vehicles, with supporting roles cut
or marginalised to give greater prominence to the cen-
tral characters. Secondly, they were “pictorial”, placing
the action on spectacular and elaborate sets (requiring
lengthy pauses for scene changes) and with the frequent
use of tableaux.[116] Henry Irving's 1882 production at
the Lyceum Theatre (with himself as Romeo and Ellen
Terry as Juliet) is considered an archetype of the pictorial
style.[117] In 1895, Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson took
7.4 20th-century theatre
The American Cushman sisters, Charlotte and Susan, as Romeo
and Juliet in 1846
over from Irving, and laid the groundwork for a more nat-
ural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today.
Forbes-Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and in-
stead portrayed a down-to-earth Romeo, expressing the
poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodra-
matic flourish.[118]
American actors began to rival their British counterparts.
Edwin Booth (brother to John Wilkes Booth) and Mary
McVicker (soon to be Edwin’s wife) opened as Romeo
and Juliet at the sumptuous Booth’s Theatre (with its
European-style stage machinery, and an air condition-
ing system unique in New York) on 3 February 1869.
Some reports said it was one of the most elaborate pro-
ductions of Romeo and Juliet ever seen in America; it was
certainly the most popular, running for over six weeks
and earning over $60,000[119] (equal to about $1,068,000
today).[120] The programme noted that: “The tragedy
will be produced in strict accordance with historical pro-
priety, in every respect, following closely the text of
Shakespeare.”[121]
The first professional performance of the play in Japan
may have been George Crichton Miln’s company’s
production, which toured to Yokohama in 1890.[122]
Throughout the 19th century, Romeo and Juliet had been
Shakespeare’s most popular play, measured by the num-
ber of professional performances. In the 20th cen-
tury it would become the second most popular, behind
Hamlet.[123]
11
7.4 20th-century theatre
In 1933, the play was revived by actress Katharine Cor-
nell and her director husband Guthrie McClintic and was
taken on a seven-month nationwide tour throughout the
United States. It starred Orson Welles, Brian Aherne and
Basil Rathbone. The production was a modest success,
and so upon the return to New York, Cornell and Mc-
Clintic revised it and for the first time, the play was pre-
sented with almost all the scenes intact, including the Pro-
logue. The new production opened in December 1934
with Ralph Richardson as Mercutio and Maurice Evans as
Romeo. Critics wrote that Cornell was “the finest Juliet of
her time”, “endlessly haunting”, and “the most lovely and
enchanting Juliet our present-day theatre has seen”.[124]
John Gielgud, who was among the more famous 20th-century
actors to play Romeo, Friar Laurence and Mercutio on stage
John Gielgud's New Theatre production in 1935 fea-
tured Gielgud and Laurence Olivier as Romeo and Mer-
cutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with Peggy
Ashcroft as Juliet.[125] Gielgud used a scholarly combina-
tion of Q1 and Q2 texts, and organised the set and cos-
tumes to match as closely as possible to the Elizabethan
period. His efforts were a huge success at the box of-
fice, and set the stage for increased historical realism in
later productions.[126] Olivier later compared his perfor-
mance and Gielgud’s: “John, all spiritual, all spiritual-
ity, all beauty, all abstract things; and myself as all earth,
blood, humanity ... I've always felt that John missed the
lower half and that made me go for the other ... But what-
ever it was, when I was playing Romeo I was carrying a
torch, I was trying to sell realism in Shakespeare.”[127]
12 7 LEGACY

Peter Brook's 1947 version was the beginning of a differ- its founding production in New York City in 1977, which
ent style of Romeo and Juliet performances. Brook was used the 1968 film of Franco Zeffirelli's production as its
less concerned with realism, and more concerned with inspiration.[142]
translating the play into a form that could communicate In 2013, Romeo and Juliet ran on Broadway at Richard
with the modern world. He argued, “A production is only Rodgers Theatre from 19 September to 8 December for
correct at the moment of its correctness, and only good 93 regular performances after 27 previews starting on 24
at the moment of its success.”[128] Brook excluded the fi- August with Orlando Bloom and Condola Rashad in the
nal reconciliation of the families from his performance starring roles.[143]
text.[129]
Throughout the century, audiences, influenced by the cin-
ema, became less willing to accept actors distinctly older 7.4.1 Ballet
than the teenage characters they were playing.[130] A sig-
nificant example of more youthful casting was in Franco The best-known ballet version is Prokofiev's Romeo and
Zeffirelli's Old Vic production in 1960, with John Stride Juliet.[144] Originally commissioned by the Kirov Ballet, it
and Judi Dench, which would serve as the basis for his was rejected by them when Prokofiev attempted a happy
1968 film.[129] Zeffirelli borrowed from Brook’s ideas, ending, and was rejected again for the experimental na-
altogether removing around a third of the play’s text to ture of its music. It has subsequently attained an “im-
make it more accessible. In an interview with The Times, mense” reputation, and has been choreographed by John
he stated that the play’s “twin themes of love and the total Cranko (1962) and Kenneth MacMillan (1965) among
breakdown of understanding between two generations” others.[145]
had contemporary relevance.[131] In 1977, Michael Smuin's production of one of the play’s
Recent performances often set the play in the contempo- most dramatic and impassioned dance interpretations was
rary world. For example, in 1986 the Royal Shakespeare debuted in its entirety by San Francisco Ballet. This pro-
Company set the play in modern Verona. Switchblades duction was the first full-length ballet to be broadcast by
replaced swords, feasts and balls became drug-laden rock the PBS series "Great Performances: Dance in America";
parties, and Romeo committed suicide by hypodermic it aired in 1978.[146]
needle.[132] In 1997, the Folger Shakespeare Theatre pro-
duced a version set in a typical suburban world. Romeo
7.5 Music
sneaks into the Capulet barbecue to meet Juliet, and Juliet
[133]
discovers Tybalt’s death while in class at school.
“Romeo loved Juliet
The play is sometimes given a historical setting, en- Juliet, she felt the same
abling audiences to reflect on the underlying conflicts. When he put his arms around her
For example, adaptations have been set in the midst of He said Julie, baby, you're my flame
the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,[134] in the apartheid era Thou givest fever ...”
in South Africa,[135] and in the aftermath of the Pueblo
—Peggy Lee's rendition of "Fever".[147]
Revolt.[136] Similarly, Peter Ustinov's 1956 comic adap-
tation, Romanoff and Juliet, is set in a fictional mid- At least 27 operas have been based on Romeo and
[148]
European country in the depths of the Cold War.[137] A Juliet. The earliest, Romeo und Julie in 1776, a
mock-Victorian revisionist version of Romeo and Juliet's Singspiel by Georg Benda, omits much of the action of
final scene (with a happy ending, Romeo, Juliet, Mer- the play and most of its characters, and has a happy
cutio and Paris restored to life, and Benvolio revealing ending. It is occasionally revived. The best-known is
that he is Paris’s love, Benvolia, in disguise) forms part of Gounod's 1867 Roméo et Juliette (libretto by Jules Bar-
the 1980 stage-play The Life and Adventures of Nicholas bier and Michel Carré), a critical triumph when first per-
[149]
Nickleby.[138] Shakespeare’s R&J, by Joe Calarco, spins formed and frequently revived today. Bellini’s I Ca-
the classic in a modern tale of gay teenage awakening. [139] puleti e i Montecchi is also revived from time to time,
A recent comedic musical adaptation was The Second but has sometimes been judged unfavourably because of
City's The Second City’s Romeo and Juliet Musical: The its perceived liberties with Shakespeare; however, Bellini
People vs. Friar Laurence, the Man Who Killed Romeo and his librettist, Felice Romani, worked from Ital-
and Juliet, set in modern times.[140] ian sources—principally Romani’s libretto for Giulietta
e Romeo by Nicola Vaccai—rather than directly adapt-
In the 19th and 20th century, Romeo and Juliet has often
ing Shakespeare’s play.[150] Among later operas there is
been the choice of Shakespeare plays to open a classi-
Heinrich Sutermeister's 1940 work Romeo und Julia.
cal theatre company, beginning with Edwin Booth's in-
augural production of that play in his theatre in 1869, Roméo et Juliette by Berlioz is a “symphonie drama-
the newly reformed company of the Old Vic in 1929 tique”, a large-scale work in three parts for mixed voices,
[151]
with John Gielgud, Martita Hunt and Margaret Web- chorus, and orchestra, which premiered in 1839.
ster,[141]
as well as the Riverside Shakespeare Company in Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet Fantasy-Overture (1869,
revised 1870 and 1880) is a 15-minute symphonic
7.7 Screen 13

poem, containing the famous melody known as the “love

theme”.[152] Tchaikovsky’s device of repeating the same
musical theme at the ball, in the balcony scene, in Juliet’s
bedroom and in the tomb[153] has been used by subse-
quent directors: for example Nino Rota's love theme is
used in a similar way in the 1968 film of the play, as is
Des’ree's Kissing You in the 1996 film.[154] Other classi-
cal composers influenced by the play include Henry Hugh
Pearson (Romeo and Juliet, overture for orchestra, Op.
86), Svendsen (Romeo og Julie, 1876), Delius (A Village
Romeo and Juliet, 1899–1901), Stenhammar (Romeo och
Julia, 1922), and Kabalevsky (Incidental Music to Romeo
and Juliet, Op. 56, 1956).[155]
The play influenced several jazz works, including Peggy
Lee's "Fever".[156] Duke Ellington's Such Sweet Thunder
contains a piece entitled “The Star-Crossed Lovers”[157]
in which the pair are represented by tenor and alto saxo-
phones: critics noted that Juliet’s sax dominates the piece,
rather than offering an image of equality.[158] The play
has frequently influenced popular music, including works
by The Supremes, Bruce Springsteen, Tom Waits, Lou
Reed,[159] and Taylor Swift.[160] The most famous such
track is Dire Straits' "Romeo and Juliet".[161]
Romeo at Juliet’s Deathbed, Henry Fuseli, 1809
The most famous musical theatre adaptation is West Side
Story with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by
Stephen Sondheim. It débuted on Broadway in 1957 Romeo and Juliet is one of Shakespeare’s most-illustrated
and in the West End in 1958 and became a popular film works.[171] The first known illustration was a woodcut of
in 1961. This version updated the setting to mid-20th- the tomb scene,[172] thought to be by Elisha Kirkall, which
century New York City and the warring families to ethnic appeared in Nicholas Rowe's 1709 edition of Shake-
gangs.[162] Other musical adaptations include Terrence speare’s plays.[173] Five paintings of the play were com-
Mann's 1999 rock musical William Shakespeare’s Romeo missioned for the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery in the late
and Juliet, co-written with Jerome Korman,[163] Gérard 18th century, one representing each of the five acts of the
Presgurvic’s 2001 Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour play.[174] The 19th-century fashion for “pictorial” perfor-
and Riccardo Cocciante's 2007 Giulietta & Romeo.[164] mances led to directors drawing on paintings for their in-
spiration, which in turn influenced painters to depict ac-
tors and scenes from the theatre.[175] In the 20th century,
7.6 Literature and art the play’s most iconic visual images have derived from its
popular film versions.[176]
Romeo and Juliet had a profound influence on subse- In 2014, Simon & Schuster will publish Juliet’s Nurse, a
quent literature. Before then, romance had not even novel by historian and former college professor Lois M.
been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[165] In Harold Leveen imagining the fourteen years leading up to the
Bloom’s words, Shakespeare “invented the formula that events in the play from the point of view of the nurse. The
the sexual becomes the erotic when crossed by the nurse has the third largest number of lines in the original
shadow of death”.[166] Of Shakespeare’s works, Romeo play; only the eponymous characters have more lines.[177]
and Juliet has generated the most—and the most varied—
adaptations, including prose and verse narratives, drama,
opera, orchestral and choral music, ballet, film, television 7.7 Screen
and painting.[167] The word “Romeo” has even become
synonymous with “male lover” in English.[168] Main article: Romeo and Juliet on screen
Romeo and Juliet was parodied in Shakespeare’s own
lifetime: Henry Porter's Two Angry Women of Abing- Romeo and Juliet may be the most-filmed play of
don (1598) and Thomas Dekker's Blurt, Master Consta- all time.[178] The most notable theatrical releases
ble (1607) both contain balcony scenes in which a virginal were George Cukor's multi-Oscar-nominated 1936 pro-
heroine engages in bawdy wordplay.[169] The play directly duction, Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 version, and Baz
influenced later literary works. For example, the prepara- Luhrmann's 1996 MTV-inspired Romeo + Juliet. The
tions for a performance form a major plot arc in Charles latter two were both, in their time, the highest-grossing
Dickens' Nicholas Nickleby.[170] Shakespeare film ever.[179] Romeo and Juliet was first
14 7 LEGACY

filmed in the silent era, by Georges Méliès, although his accompanying soundtrack successfully targeted the
film is now lost.[178] The play was first heard on film in "MTV Generation": a young audience of similar age
The Hollywood Revue of 1929, in which John Gilbert re- to the story’s characters.[191] Far darker than Zeffirelli’s
cited the balcony scene opposite Norma Shearer.[180] version, the film is set in the “crass, violent and superfi-
cial society” of Verona Beach and Sycamore Grove.[192]
Leonardo DiCaprio was Romeo and Claire Danes was
Juliet.
The play has been widely adapted for TV and film. In
1960, Peter Ustinov's cold-war stage parody, Romanoff
and Juliet was filmed.[137] The 1961 film of West Side
Story—set among New York gangs–featured the Jets as
white youths, equivalent to Shakespeare’s Montagues,
while the Sharks, equivalent to the Capulets, are Puerto
Rican.[193] The 1994 film The Punk uses both the rough
plot outline of Romeo and Juliet and names many of
the characters in ways that reflect the characters in the
play. In 2006, Disney’s High School Musical made
use of Romeo and Juliet's plot, placing the two young
lovers in rival high school cliques instead of feuding
families.[194] Film-makers have frequently featured char-
acters performing scenes from Romeo and Juliet.[195] The
conceit of dramatising Shakespeare writing Romeo and
Juliet has been used several times,[196] including John
Madden's 1998 Shakespeare in Love, in which Shake-
speare writes the play against the backdrop of his own
doomed love affair.[197] An anime series produced by
Gonzo and SKY Perfect Well Think, called Romeo x
Juliet, was made in 2007 and the 2013 version is the latest
Leslie Howard as Romeo and Norma Shearer as Juliet, in the English-language film based on the play. In 2013, Sanjay
1936 MGM film directed by George Cukor. Leela Bhansali directed the Bollywood film Goliyon Ki
Raasleela Ram-Leela, a contemporary version of the play
Shearer and Leslie Howard, with a combined age over which starred Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone in
75, played the teenage lovers in George Cukor's MGM leading roles. The film was a commercial and critical
1936 film version. Neither critics nor the public re- success.[198][199][200] In February 2014, BroadwayHD re-
sponded enthusiastically. Cinemagoers considered the leased a filmed version of the 2013 Broadway Revival of
film too “arty”, staying away as they had from Warner’s Romeo and Juliet. The production starred Orlando Bloom
A Midsummer Night Dream a year before: leading to and Condola Rashad.[201] The film was released interna-
Hollywood abandoning the Bard for over a decade.[181] tionally in April 2014.[202]
Renato Castellani won the Grand Prix at the Venice Film
Festival for his 1954 film of Romeo and Juliet.[182] His
Romeo, Laurence Harvey, was already an experienced
screen actor.[183] By contrast, Susan Shentall, as Juliet,
was a secretarial student who was discovered by the di-
rector in a London pub, and was cast for her “pale sweet
skin and honey-blonde hair”.[184] 7.8 Modern social media and virtual world
Stephen Orgel describes Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 Romeo
productions
and Juliet as being “full of beautiful young people, and the
camera and the lush technicolour, make the most of their
In April and May 2010 the Royal Shakespeare Company
sexual energy and good looks”.[185] Zeffirelli’s teenage
and the Mudlark Production Company presented a ver-
leads, Leonard Whiting and Olivia Hussey, had virtu-
sion of the play, entitled Such Tweet Sorrow, as an im-
ally no previous acting experience but performed capably
provised, real-time series of tweets on Twitter. The pro-
and with great maturity.[186] Zeffirelli has been particu-
duction used RSC actors who engaged with the audi-
larly praised,[187] for his presentation of the duel scene
ence as well each other, performing not from a traditional
as bravado getting out-of-control.[188] The film courted
script but a “Grid” developed by the Mudlark production
controversy by including a nude wedding-night scene[189]
team and writers Tim Wright and Bethan Marlow. The
while Olivia Hussey was only fifteen.[190] performers also make use of other media sites such as
Baz Luhrmann's 1996 Romeo + Juliet and its YouTube for pictures and video.[203]
 15

8 Scene by scene

• Act I scene 5

• Title page of the Second Quarto of

Romeo and Juliet published in 1599

• Act I scene 5: Romeo’s first

interview with Juliet

• Act I prologue

• Act II prologue

• Act I scene 1: Quarrel

between Capulets and Montagues

• Act II scene 3

• Act I scene 2

• Act II scene 5: Juliet intreats her

nurse
• Act I scene 3

• Act I scene 4 • Act II scene 6

16 10 REFERENCES

[1] Romeo and Juliet, III.i.73.

[2] Romeo and Juliet, III.v.115.

[3] Romeo and Juliet, IV.i.105.

[4] Romeo and Juliet, V.iii.308–9.

• Act III scene 5: Romeo takes leave [5] Halio (1998: 93).
of Juliet [6] Gibbons (1980: 33).

[7] Moore (1930: 264–77).

[8] Higgins (1998: 585)

[9] Hosley (1965: 168).

[10] Gibbons (1980: 33–34); Levenson (2000: 4).

• Act IV scene 5: Juliet’s fake [11] Luigi da Porto di Vicenza, Giulietta e Romeo, original
death novella with introduction and footnotes (in Italian)

[12] Prunster, Nicole (2000). Romeo and Juliet Before Shake-

speare: Four Early Stories of Star-crossed Love. Toronto:
Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies. pp. 2–
3. ISBN 0-7727-2015-0.

[13] Moore (1937: 38–44).

[14] Muir, Edward (1998). Mad Blood Stirring: Vendetta and

• Act IV scene 5: Another
Factions in Friuli During the Renaissance. Johns Hopkins
depiction University Press. pp. 86–89. ISBN 0-8018-5849-6.

[15] Scarci, Manuela (2015). “From Mariotto and Ganozza

to Romeo and Guilietta: Metamorphoses of a Renais-
sance Tale.”. Scripta Mediterranea. Canadian Institute for
Mediterranean Studies. 14. Retrieved 6 February 2016.

[16] Gibbons (1980: 34–35).

[17] Gibbons (1980: 35–36).

• Act V scene 3: Juliet awakes
to find Romeo dead [18] Gibbons (1980: 37).

[19] Keeble (1980: 18).

[20] Roberts (1902: 41–44).

9 See also [21] Gibbons (1980: 32, 36–37).

[22] Levenson (2000: 8–14).

• Pyramus and Thisbe
[23] Romeo and Juliet: I.iii.23.
• Mem and Zin
[24] Gibbons (1980: 26–27).

[25] Gibbons (1980: 29–31). As well as A Midsummer Night’s

10 References Dream, Gibbons draws parallels with Love’s Labour’s Lost
and Richard II.
10.1 Notes [26] Gibbons (1980: 29).

All references to Romeo and Juliet, unless otherwise spec- [27] Spencer (1967: 284).
ified, are taken from the Arden Shakespeare second edi- [28] Halio (1998: 1–2).
tion (Gibbons, 1980) based on the Q2 text of 1599, with
elements from Q1 of 1597.[204] Under its referencing sys- [29] Wells (2013)
tem, which uses Roman numerals, II.ii.33 means act 2,
[30] Gibbons (1980: 21).
scene 2, line 33, and a 0 in place of a scene number refers
to the prologue to the act. [31] Gibbons (1980: ix).
10.1 Notes 17

[32] Halio (1998: 8–9). [66] Scott (1987: 411–412).

[33] Bowling (1949: 208–220). [67] Shapiro (1964: 498–501).

[34] Halio (1998: 65). [68] Bonnard (1951: 319–327).

[35] Romeo and Juliet, I.v.92–99. [69] Halio (1998: 20–30).

[36] Honegger (2006: 73–88). [70] Halio (1998: 51).

[37] Groves (2007: 68–69). [71] Halio (1998: 47–48).

[38] Groves (2007: 61) [72] Halio (1998: 48–49).

[39] Siegel (1961: 371–392). [73] Romeo and Juliet, II.ii.90.

[40] Romeo and Juliet, II.v.38–42. [74] Halio (1998: 49–50).

[41] Romeo and Juliet, V.iii.169–170. [75] Levin (1960: 3–11).

[42] MacKenzie (2007: 22–42). [76] Halio (1998: 51–52).

[43] Romeo and Juliet, III.i.138. [77] Halio (1998: 52–55).

[44] Evans (1950: 841–865). [78] Bloom (1998: 92–93).

[45] Draper (1939: 16–34). [79] Wells (2004: 11–13).

[46] Nevo (1969: 241–258). [80] Halio (1998: 82) quoting Karl A. Meninger’s 1938 Man
Against Himself.
[47] Romeo and Juliet, I.i.167–171.
[81] Appelbaum (1997: 251–272).
[48] Parker (1968: 663–674).
[82] Romeo and Juliet V.i.1–11.
[49] Romeo and Juliet, II.ii.
[83] Halio (1998: 83, 81).
[50] Romeo and Juliet, I.v.42.
[84] Romeo and Juliet I.v.137.
[51] Romeo and Juliet, I.v.44–45.
[85] Halio (1998: 84–85).
[52] Romeo and Juliet, II.ii.26–32.
[86] Halio (1998: 85).
[53] Romeo and Juliet, I.v.85–86.
[87] Romeo and Juliet, III.i.112.
[54] Romeo and Juliet, III.ii.17–19.
[88] Kahn (1977: 5–22); Halio (1998: 87–88).
[55] Halio (1998: 55–56).
[89] Halio (1998: 89–90).
[56] Tanselle (1964: 349–361).
[90] Levenson (2000: 25–26)
[57] Romeo and Juliet, III.iv.8–9.
[91] Halio (1998: 85–86).
[58] Romeo and Juliet, II.ii.109–111
[92] Romeo and Juliet, II.i.24–26
[59] Romeo and Juliet, I.0.6. Levenson (2000: 142) defines
[93] Rubinstein (1989: 54)
“star-cross’d” as “thwarted by a malign star”.
[94] Romeo and Juliet, II.ii.43–44.
[60] Muir (2005: 34–41).
[95] Goldberg (1994: 221–227).
[61] Lucking (2001: 115–126).
[96] "Avenne una notte, come Amor volse, la luna più del solito
[62] When performed in the central yard of an inn and in pub-
rilucendo, che mentre Romeo era per salire sopra il detto
lic theaters such as the Globe Theatre the only source of
balcone, la giovane ..." Pace-Sanfelice, G (1868). The
lighting was daylight. When performed at Court, inside
original story of Romeo and Juliet by Luigi da Porto. From
the stately home of a member of the nobility and in indoor
which Shakespeare evidently drew the subject of his drama.
theaters such as the Blackfriars theatre candle lighting was
Being the Italian text of 1530, and an English translation,
used and plays could be performed even at night.
together with a critical preface, historical and bibliograph-
[63] Halio (1998: 55–58); Driver (1964: 363–370). ical notes and illustrations. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell,
and co.
[64] Scott (1987: 415).
[97] Leveen, Lois (28 October 2014). “Romeo and Juliet Has
[65] Scott (1987: 410). No Balcony”. The Atlantic. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
 18 10 REFERENCES

[98] “Balcony”. Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved 30 January [129] Levenson (2000: 87).

2015.
[130] Holland (2001: 207).
[99] Halio (1998: 97).
[131] The Times 19 September 1960, cited by Levenson (2000:
[100] Halio (1998: ix). 87).

[101] Taylor (2002: 18). The five more popular plays, in de- [132] Halio (1998: 110).
scending order, are Henry VI, Part 1, Richard III, Pericles,
Hamlet and Richard II. [133] Halio (1998: 110–112).

[102] Levenson (2000: 62). [134] Pape (1997: 69).

[103] Dawson (2002: 176) [135] Quince (2000: 121–125).

[104] Marsden (2002: 21). [136] Lujan (2005).

[105] Halio (1998: 100–102). [137] Howard (2000: 297).

[106] Levenson (2000: 71). [138] Edgar (1982: 162).

[107] Marsden (2002: 26–27). [139] Marks (1997).

[108] Branam (1984: 170–179); Stone (1964: 191–206). [140] Houlihan Mary, “Wherefore Art Thou, Romeo? To Make
Us Laugh at Navy Pier”, Chicago Sun-Times (16 May
[109] Pedicord (1954: 14). 2004)
[110] Morrison (2007: 231). [141] Barranger (2004: 47).
[111] Morrison (2007: 232). [142] New York Times (1977).
[112] Gay (2002: 162). [143] Hetrick, Adam & Andrew Gans (2013-11-19).
“Broadway Revival of Romeo and Juliet, Starring
[113] Halliday (1964: 125, 365, 420). Orlando Bloom and Condola Rashad, Will Close Dec.
[114] The Times 30 December 1845, cited by Gay (2002: 162). 8”. Playbill. Retrieved 2014-05-29.

[115] Potter (2001: 194–195). [144] Nestyev (1960: 261).

[116] Levenson (2000: 84) [145] Sanders (2007: 66–67)

[117] Schoch (2002: 62–63). [146] Winn, Steven (24 April 2007). “Michael Smuin: 1938-
2007/Prolific dance director had showy career”. San
[118] Halio (1998: 104–105). Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 14 October 2013.

[119] Winter (1893: 46–47, 57). Booth’s Romeo and Juliet [147] Buhler (2007: 156); Sanders (2007: 187).
was rivalled in popularity only by his own “hundred night
Hamlet" at The Winter Garden of four years before. [148] Meyer (1962: 34–37).

[120] Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Devel- [149] Sadie (1996: 31); Holden (1993: 393).
opment Project. “Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–
[150] Collins (1982: 532–538).
". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved Oc-
tober 21, 2016. [151] Sanders (2007: 43–45).
[121] First page of the program for the opening night perfor- [152] Stites (1995: 5).
mance of Romeo and Juliet at Booth’s Theatre, 3 February
1869. [153] Romeo and Juliet I.v, II.ii, III.v, V.iii.

[122] Holland (2002: 202–203) [154] Sanders (2007: 42–43).

[123] Levenson (2000: 69–70). [155] Sanders (2007: 42).

[124] Tad Mosel, “Leading Lady: The World and Theatre of [156] Sanders (2007: 187).
Katharine Cornell”, Little, Brown & Co., Boston (1978)
[157] Romeo and Juliet I.0.6.
[125] Smallwood (2002: 102).
[158] Sanders (2007: 20).
[126] Halio (1998: 105–107).
[159] Sanders (2007: 187-8)
[127] Smallwood (2002: 110).
[160] “Interview with Taylor Swift”. Time. Time Warner. 23
[128] Halio (1998: 107–109). April 2009. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
 10.2 Secondary sources 19

[161] Buhler (2007: 157) [195] McKernan and Terris (1994: 141–56) list 39 instances of
uses of Romeo and Juliet, not including films of the play
[162] Sanders (2007: 75–76). itself.
[163] Ehren (1999).
[196] Lanier (2007: 96); McKernan and Terris (1994: 146).
[164] Arafay (2005: 186).
[197] Howard (2000: 310); Rosenthal (2007: 228).
[165] Levenson (2000: 49–50).
[198] Srivastava, Priyanka (29 November 2013). “Weekend En-
[166] Bloom (1998: 89). tertainment: From Ram-leela to Haider, Bollywood’s at-
traction to Shakespeare continues”. Daily Mail. Retrieved
[167] Levenson (2000: 91), crediting this list of genres to
25 January 2014.
Stanley Wells.

[168] “Romeo”, Merriam-Webster Online. [199] Goyal, Divya (6 December 2013). "'Ram Leela' box of-
fice collections hit massive Rs 100 crore, pulverises pre-
[169] Bly (2001: 52) diction”. The Financial Express. Retrieved 25 January
2014.
[170] Muir (2005: 352–362).
[200] "'Ram-leela' Review Roundup: Critics Hail Film as Best
[171] Fowler (1996: 111)
Adaptation of 'Romeo and Juliet'". International Business
[172] Romeo and Juliet V.iii. Times. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2014.

[173] Fowler (1996:112–113). [201] “Romeo & Juliet bloom becomes V day film”, Big story,
Associated press.
[174] Fowler (1996: 120).
[202] “Cinemas & tickets”, Romeo & Juliet cinema.
[175] Fowler (1996: 126–127)

[176] Orgel (2007: 91). [203] “Modern take for Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet”.
BBC News. 12 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
[177] Simon & Schuster author page, retrieved 4/19/2014
http://books.simonandschuster.com/Juliets-Nurse/ [204] Gibbons (1980: vii).
Lois-Leveen/9781476757445

[178] Brode (2001: 42).

10.2 Secondary sources
[179] Rosenthal (2007: 225).
• Appelbaum, Robert (1997). ""Standing to the
[180] Brode (2001: 43). Wall": The Pressures of Masculinity in Romeo and
[181] Brode (2001: 48). Juliet". Shakespeare Quarterly. Folger Shakespeare
Library. 48 (38): 251–72. doi:10.2307/2871016.
[182] Tatspaugh (2000: 138). ISSN 0037-3222. JSTOR 2871016.
[183] Brode (2001: 48–9)
• Arafay, Mireia (2005). Books in Motion: Adapta-
[184] Brode (2001: 51) quoting Renato Castellani. tion, Adaptability, Authorship. Rodopi. ISBN 978-
90-420-1957-7.
[185] Orgel (2007: 91).

[186] Brode (2001: 51–52); Rosenthal (2007: 218). • Barranger, Milly S. (2004). Margaret Webster: A
Life in the Theatre. University of Michigan Press.
[187] For example, by Anthony West of Vogue and Mol- ISBN 978-0-472-11390-3.
lie Panter-Downes of The New Yorker, cited by Brode
(2001: 51–53). • Bauch, Marc A. (2007). Friar Lawrence’s Plan in
William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet And His
[188] Brode (2001: 53).
Function as A Counsellor. Munich: Grin. ISBN
[189] Romeo and Juliet, III.v. 978-3-638-77449-9.
[190] Rosenthal (2007: 218–20). • Bloom, Harold (1998). Shakespeare: The Invention
[191] Tatspaugh (2000: 140). of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN
1-57322-120-1.
[192] Tatspaugh (2000: 142).
• Bly, Mary (2001). “The Legacy of Juliet’s Desire in
[193] Rosenthal (2007: 215–16).
Comedies of the Early 1600s”. In Alexander, Mar-
[194] “Disney’s teenage musical 'phenomenon' premières in garet M. S; Wells, Stanley. Shakespeare and Sexu-
London”. Daily Mail. 11 September 2006. Retrieved 19 ality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
August 2007. 52–71. ISBN 0-521-80475-2.
20
• Bonnard, Georges A. (1951). “Romeo and Juliet: A
Possible Significance?". Review of English Studies.
II (5): 319–27. doi:10.1093/res/II.5.319.
• Bowling, Lawrence Edward (1949). “The Thematic
Framework of Romeo and Juliet”. PMLA. Modern
Language Association of America. 64 (1): 208–20.
doi:10.2307/459678. JSTOR 459678.
• Branam, George C. (1984). “The Genesis of David
Garrick’s Romeo and Juliet”. Shakespeare Quar-
terly. Folger Shakespeare Library. 35 (2): 170–79.
doi:10.2307/2869925. JSTOR 2869925.
• Brode, Douglas (2001). Shakespeare in the Movies:
From the Silent Era to Today. New York: Berkley
Boulevard Books. ISBN 0-425-18176-6.
• Buchanan, Judith (2009). Shakespeare on Silent
Film: An Excellent Dumb Discourse. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
87199-0.
• Buhler, Stephen M. (2007). “Musical Shakespeares:
attending to Ophelia, Juliet, and Desdemona”. In
Shaughnessy, Robert. The Cambridge Companion
to Shakespeare and Popular Culture. Cambridge:
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• Collins, Michael (1982). “The Literary Background
of Bellini’s 'I Capuleti ed i Montecchi'". Journal of
the American Musicological Society. 35 (3): 532–38.
doi:10.1525/jams.1982.35.3.03a00050.
• Dawson, Anthony B. (2002). “International Shake-
speare”. In Wells, Stanley; Stanton, Sarah. The
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• Draper, John W. (1939). “Shakespeare’s 'Star-
Crossed Lovers’". Review of English Studies. os-XV
(57): 16–34. doi:10.1093/res/os-XV.57.16.
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• Edgar, David (1982). The Life and Adventures of
Nicholas Nickleby. New York: Dramatists’ Play Ser-
vice. ISBN 0-8222-0817-2.
• Ehren, Christine (3 September 1999). “Sweet Sor-
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• Evans, Bertrand (1950). “The Brevity of Friar
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• Gibbons, Brian, ed. (1980). Romeo and Juliet. The
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21
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22 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

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 23

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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billybear, RedBot, Mediatech492, PinkVan34, 2dcartocu, Thisguy121, Wikitanvir, SpaceFlight89, Rand503, Gnome44, Tcnuk, Irbisgreif,
Tim1357, Abc518, Orenburg1, Discographer, Trappist the monk, Declan Clam, Jade Harley, BibhorBaral, Yunshui, Mono, Grapesoda22,
Vrenator, Im Slysdexic, JoelBenden, Eliza bangbang, Greenmarmalade, ThinkEnemies, Sugarysweetflowerchildxoxo, Brian the Editor, Suf-
fusion of Yellow, Currypoter, Innotata, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Minimac, Deanmullen09, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard,
The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, MMS2013, Shearyancharles, Noommos, Slon02, Nyxaus, DASHBot, Nickthegeek, Immunize,
Ajraddatz, Shhhnotsoloud, Yt95, Marco Guzman, Jr, Zachary kinn, Awrmaster, Minimac’s Clone, Pkking1, 4meter4, Colin081991, Com-
12.2 Images 25

munist69, Sporty Chicken, Jordanruls, Jessica Weller, Clever Guy 123, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Nothing149, Lws803, Chelseaasteven,
Solomonfromfinland, Bobflabglob, Prohibits, Savh, Sugerplum123, DanielCoffey01, John Cline, Fæ, Catalaalatac, AvicAWB, Everard
Proudfoot, AndrewOne, SporkBot, Vramasub, Monterey Bay, Wayne Slam, Erianna, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, Dagko, 11 Arling-
ton, L Kensington, Richard Tuckwell, NatashaDawsen, Donner60, Soundcheckgirl, Fagconor, Zoeyzazu, Peter Karlsen, Yazzoo, DASH-
BotAV, Rocketrod1960, Whoop whoop pull up, Tama Fan, Corssen, Lgtd, Chuckgbarnes, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, M00ngrk,
Morgankevinj huggle, Buffbob, Toomanywordstoolittletime, MelbourneStar, A Small Toast, Satellizer, LittleJerry, Cjensen0528, VIP-
clubmaster, Knitwitted, Thejavadrinker, Aporia.ro, Sanfazer, Cbrowne99, JoemanCXL, Lemuellio, C9Rav9c, Wookash83, Jarjarpinks,
O.Koslowski, Greengobbblin, Bmx4life122, Widr, Davesmith12, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dolphinjamez, HMSSolent, Calabe1992,
RobMarvin, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, EmptySetGroup, Ebineibgheniobg, HIDECCHI001, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, AB01,
Player017, MrPwner, Carinadebruin, Coolguy6662, Battyboybiggy, Mastersplinter112, Youngsimbalion, Emilyrox96, Jayjaygirl, Ke-
vionshelton, Cengime, Miszatomic, The Illusive Man, Chie one, Basemetal, Mediran, Jionpedia, Tn4196, Esszet, Worldtown99, ÄDA
- DÄP, Dexbot, Webclient101, Mogism, Lugia2453, Jamesx12345, GabeIglesia, Luis xotoche, Cfsibley, MarthinFlipp, Forgot to put
name, Zoro pwns, Epicgenius, Chrisennis98, Xotoche, Baron Bubblebeef, Hawra2911, FrigidNinja, Tentinator, Michael23456, Sclects77,
Amethyst1234, Jakec, Celwild, Heretofuckshitupyouabortions, Lukeydavison, Joho1999, XxHATERSxX, Ceza254, Crazycubbi, Hayes-
brad, Calhewitt, Ugog Nizdast, Nursingxmajor, Shanon300, Ginsuloft, Sam Sailor, Jianhui67, Jackmcbarn, Jeancarlos.diaz, Canary Beck,
HarveyCrabsticks, Craignolan28, Ioann larsen, Moonymoonmoon, Robertao6969, ArchTrollOffice, Cordleal, Edgarismydaddy, Lacasl,
Tinytimshort, Knyzna1, Shoeless moi, FelixRosch, President Pancake, Faerietnk, Monkbot, Ar8484, Pikagirl15, Baileyyyjolde, Sakib14,
Ikhtiar H, 19thcenturylit, Jacobdaun, The initializer, Dzil123, VeenM64, KasparBot, Bullets and Bracelets, MahneLV, Professor JR,
Thedarklady154, Babymissfortune, Wimaraens, Ramòn DeLa Porta, NasssaNser, Heididoerr061 and Anonymous: 2872

12.2 Images
• File:Act_2_prologue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Act_2_prologue.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Melhoramentos Edition Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Act_II_Scene_III.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Act_II_Scene_III.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Melhoramentos Edition Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Act_II_Scene_VI.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Act_II_Scene_VI.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Melhoramentos Edition Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Act_II_Scene_ii_–_Juliet_on_the_Balcony.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Act_II_Scene_
ii_%E2%80%93_Juliet_on_the_Balcony.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Folger Shakespeare Library Digital Image Collection
http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/8msouv Original artist: John Massey Wright
• File:Act_I_scene_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Act_I_scene_5.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Melhoramentos Edition Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Arthur_Brooke_Tragicall_His.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Arthur_Brooke_Tragicall_
His.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library Original artist: Arthur Brooke
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Dagger-14-plain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Dagger-14-plain.png License: CC0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: RexxS
• File:Drury_Lane_Playbill_of_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Drury_Lane_
Playbill_of_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Folger Shakespeare Library Digital Image Collection http:
//luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/67ug2t Original artist: ?
• File:First_Folio_Title_Page_of_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/First_Folio_
Title_Page_of_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Folger Shakespeare Library Digital Image Library http://
luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/60844i Original artist: William Shakespeare, Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount (printers)
• File:Francesco_Hayez_053.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Francesco_Hayez_053.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Francesco Hayez
• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/
Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.
svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides
• File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_Charlotte_and_Susan_Cushman_TCS_45.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_Charlotte_and_Susan_Cushman_TCS_45.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Houghton Library at Harvard University Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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• File:Johann_Heinrich_Füssli_060.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Johann_Heinrich_F%C3%
BCssli_060.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Füssli, Johann Heinrich / Fuseli, Henry
• File:Leslie_Howard_and_Norma_Shearer_as_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/
23/Leslie_Howard_and_Norma_Shearer_as_Romeo_and_Juliet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Folger Shakespeare Library
Digital Image Collection http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/05ho7r Original artist: ?
• File:Mary_Saunderson_17th_century.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Mary_Saunderson_17th_
century.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.; http://www.gwu.edu/~{}klarsen/PEG.JPG
Original artist: ?
26 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Miller-RomeoJulietAct1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Miller-RomeoJulietAct1.jpg Li-

cense: Public domain Contributors: http://library.georgetown.edu/dept/speccoll/guac/boydell_04/romeo_i5.jpg Original artist: engraving
by A. Smith (dates unknown) after painting by W. Miller (dates unknown)
• File:Northcote-JulietAwakes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Northcote-JulietAwakes.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.library.georgetown.edu/sites/default/files/images/histories_tragedies__romeo_v3.jpg Original
artist: engraving by James Heath (1757–1834) after painting by James Northcote (1746–1831)
• File:Opie-JulietsDeath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Opie-JulietsDeath.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://library.georgetown.edu/dept/speccoll/guac/boydell_04/romeo_iv5.jpg Original artist: engraving by Jean Pierre
Simon (1750-c. 1810) after painting by John Opie (1761–1807)
• File:Portrait_of_John_Gielgud_2_by_Carl_Van_Vechten_cropped.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
d/d5/Portrait_of_John_Gielgud_2_by_Carl_Van_Vechten_cropped.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Van Vechten Collection at
Library of Congress Original artist: Carl Van Vechten
• File:Prologue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/John_Gilbert%2C_Romeo_and_Juliet%2C_Act_I_
%E2%80%93_Prologue%2C_from_The_Works_of_William_Shakespeare_%281864%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
William Shakespeare; Howard Staunton (ed.) (1864) The Works of William Shakespeare, London; New York, N.Y.: Routledge, Warne, &
Routledge OCLC: 5665511. 4 vols. Original artist: John Gilbert
• File:Rigaud-RomeoJuliet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Rigaud-RomeoJuliet.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://library.georgetown.edu/dept/speccoll/guac/boydell_04/romeo_iii5.jpg Original artist: James Stow
• File:Romeo_and_Juliet_(Act_IV,_scene_V).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Romeo_and_Juliet_
%28Act_IV%2C_scene_V%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Original painting by John Opie, en-
graved by G.S. and J.G. Facius
• File:Romeo_and_Juliet_Act_1.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Romeo_and_Juliet_Act_1.ogg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: LibraVox Original artist: William Shakespeare, read by Becky Miller, and published on LibraVox
• File:Romeo_and_Juliet_Q2_Title_Page-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Romeo_and_Juliet_
Q2_Title_Page-2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Romeo_and_Juliet_Q2_Title_Page.jpg Original artist:
• derivative work: Tadpole9 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Tadpole9' title='User talk:Tadpole9'>talk</a>)
• File:Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.whataboutclients.com/archives/2009/07/_ford_madox_bro_1.html , museum link Original
artist: Ford Madox Brown
• File:Romeoandjuliet1597.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Romeoandjuliet1597.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Samuel_Pepys.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Samuel_Pepys.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Walthamstow Weekender (file) Original artist: John Hayls
• File:Scene-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Scene-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: John
Gilbert Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Scene_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Scene_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: John
Gilbert Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Scene_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Scene_3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: John
Gilbert Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Scene_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Scene_4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mel-
horamentos Edition Original artist: Sir John Gilbert
• File:Shakespeare_(oval-cropped).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Shakespeare_
%28oval-cropped%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery[#cite_note-NPG-1 [1]] Original artist:
• John Taylor[#cite_note-NPG-1 [1]]
• File:Smirke-JulietNurse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Smirke-JulietNurse.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://library.georgetown.edu/dept/speccoll/guac/boydell_04/romeo_ii5.jpg Original artist: engraving by James
Parker (1750–1805) after painting by Robert Smirke (1752–1845)
• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil
• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
12.3 Content license 27

• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-

SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
• File:Young_Richard_Burbage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Young_Richard_Burbage.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.peopleplayuk.org.uk/collections/enlarge.php?object_id=1450&img=
sch200303121256-008&back=%2Fguided_tours%2Fdrama_tour%2Frenaissance%2Felizabethan.php%3F Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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12.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0