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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO
SOIL MECHANICS
Lecture Notes

Soil Mechanics
3rd stage
Up copyrights 2016

Assistant Prof.

Dr. Ahmed Al-

Al-Obaidi
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS
1.1 Introduction
Geotechnical Engineering is a division of civil engineering concerned with
the engineering behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is a
science that explains mechanics of soil and rock. It focused on the analysis,
design, and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures,
embankments, roadways, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and other
systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock.

Geotechnical
Engineering

Soil Mechanics Foundation

Engineering
Soil Mechanics: that describes the behavior of soils and determine the
relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these soils; soil
mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical
engineering.
Foundation Engineering: is the aspect of engineering concerned with the
evaluation of the ability of the earth to support load, and the design of a
substructure to transmit the load of the superstructure to the earth
Soil: is natural mineral particles that can be separated into relatively small
pieces and may contain water, air, or organic materials (derived from
the decay of vegetation).
Rock: is a natural material comprised of mineral particles so firmly bonded
together that relatively high effort is required to separate the particles
(i.e., blasting or heavy crushing forces).
Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(1)
1.2 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering
Before 18th century: the art of geotechnical engineering was based on only
past experiences through a succession of experimentation without any real
scientific character. Civilizations such as the Nile (Egypt),
the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), the Huang Ho
(Yellow River, China), and the Indus (India)
One of the most famous examples of problems related to
soil-bearing capacity in the construction of structures before
the 18th century is the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy.
Construction of the tower began in 1173 A.D.
(1700 –1776) This period concentrated on studies relating to the natural
slope and unit weights of various types of soils, as well as the semi-empirical
earth pressure theories.
Henri Gautier (1660–1737), Forest de Belidor (1671–1761)
(1776 –1856) During this period, most of the developments in the area of
geotechnical engineering came from engineers and scientists in France.
Practically all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth
pressure on retaining walls were based failure surface in the soil.

Charles A. Coulomb William M. Rankine

(1736–1806) (1820–1872)

(1856 –1910) Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand

appeared in the literature in this period.
• Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858). Published a study on the
permeability of sand filters
• Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929), was the development of the
theory of stress distribution under loaded bearing areas in a homogeneous.
Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(2)
• Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) demonstrated the phenomenon of dilation
in the sand.

(1910 –1927) In this period, results of research conducted on clays were

published in which the fundamental properties and parameters of clay were
established.
• Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916), a Swedish chemist and soil scientist,
defined clay-size fractions as the percentage by weight of particles smaller
than 2 microns in size
• Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) developed the theory of
consolidation for clay as we know today. In 1925,
Terzaghi became recognized as the leader of the new
branch of civil engineering called soil mechanics.
1927 – Now
Casagrande – Peck - Bjurrum – Skempton – Tomlinson

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(3)
1.3 The Origin of Soils
In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. Rocks can be divided
into three basic types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and

chemical processes into smaller pieces. The products of weathering may
stay in the same place or may be moved to other places by ice, water, wind,
and gravity.
Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of
rocks from the continuous gain and loss of heat. The processes that cause
physical weathering are:-
• Freezing and thawing
• Temperature changes
• Erosion (Abrasion)
• Activity of plants and animals
including man
For example, water seeps into the pores and existing cracks in rocks. As the
temperature drops, the water freezes and expands. The pressure exerted by
ice because of volume expansion is strong enough to break down even large
rocks.
Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(4)
Other physical agents: glacier ice, the wind, running water of streams and
rivers, and ocean waves. Its properties are the same as parent rock
Chemical weathering, the original
rock minerals are transformed into
new minerals by chemical reaction.
• Oxidation – union of oxygen with
minerals in rocks forming another
mineral.
• Hydration – water will enter the
crystalline structure of minerals
forming another group of minerals.
• Hydrolysis – the release Hydrogen from water will union with minerals
forming another mineral.
• Carbonation – when CO2 is available with the existence of water the
minerals changed to Carbonates.
The chemical weathering of plagioclase feldspars produces clay minerals,
silica, and different soluble salts.
The physical property of this product does not reflect the same properties of
the parent rocks

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(5)
Depending on the method of deposition, soils can be grouped into two
categories:

Parent
Rock

Transported soils: The soils, which

Residual soils: The soils which remain
carried away from their place of
at the place of disintegration of parent
disintegration to some other place by
rock.
transporting agencies.

weatherd and
in situ weathering by
transported far away
physical and chemical
by (a) Water (b) wind
agents of parent rock
(c) gravity and (d) Ice

1. Residual soils: the soils formed by the weathered products at their place
of origin
Sands: Residual sands and fragments of gravel size formed by solution
and leaching of cementing material, leaving the more resistant
particles; commonly quartz.
Clays: Residual clays formed by decomposition of silicate rocks, the
disintegration of shales, and solution of carbonates in limestone.
2. Transported soils may be classified into
several groups, depending on their mode of
transportation and deposition:
Glacial soils—formed by transportation
and deposition of glaciers

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(6)
 Alluvial soils—transported by running water and
deposited along streams.

Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in

quiet lakes.

Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas.

Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by the

wind.

Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from

its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides

3. Organic Soils: Accumulation of highly organic

material formed in place by the growth and
subsequent decay of plant life.

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(7)
 Peat: A somewhat fibrous aggregate of decayed
and decaying vegetation matter having a dark
color
Muck: Peat deposits which have advanced in the
stage of decomposition to such extent that the
botanical character is no longer evident.
Very compressible, entirely unsuitable for supporting
building foundations.

1.4 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering

The soil in civil engineering is used as a foundation material or construction
material

The main purpose of the studying geotechnical engineering is to find the

shear strength and settlement of the soil.
Problematic soils
Expansive Soils
Expansive soils are distinguished by their potential for great volume increase
upon access to moisture. Soils exhibiting such behavior are mostly clays.

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(8)
 Collapsing Soils
Collapsing soils are distinguished by their
potential to undergo a large decrease in
volume upon an increase in moisture
content even without an increase in
external loads.

Other Problematic soils

Karst Topography: is a landscape formed from the
dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by
underground drainage systems with sinkholes and
caves

Calcareous Soils: soils have often more than 15%

CaCO3 in the soil that may occur in various forms
(powdery, nodules, crusts etc.) They are relatively
widespread in the drier areas of the earth.

Quick Clays: is so unstable that when is subjected to

sufficient stress, the material behavior may transition
from that of a particulate material to that of a fluid.

Dispersive Clays: are those in which the clay content

has a high percentage of sodium. This clay fraction
readily breaks down to form a suspension in water.

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(9)
1.5 A Preview of Soil Behavior
The soil is the particulate system. These particles make soil are not strongly
bonded together like metal, and the soil particles are free to move on one
another, but cannot move relative to each other as easily as an element in
the fluid. Soil mechanics distinguished from solid mechanics and fluid
mechanics that treats the stress-strain behavior

Soil
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

The sequences of the particulate system

are:
1.5.1 Nature of soil deformation
Deformation due to contact
Bending of plate-like particles
Interparticle sliding (75-80)% of
deformation
Thus, the stress – strain behavior of soil is
strongly nonlinear and irreversible

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(10)
1.5.2 Role of pore phase
The soil is multiphase, consists of a mineral
called mineral skeleton, and pores.
If all pores filled with air, then the soil is dry, if all
pores filled with water the soil is saturated, and if
some of the pores filled with air and some filled
with water the soil are partially saturated.

The soil is saturated and the level of water

in the supply tank same as the same level
in soil box. Thus, the pressure in the water
is hydrostatic.

If the water in the supply tank rises,

then there is an upward flow through
soil.

Now if the supply tank further rises, the

water pressure increased until reached a
case where the sand is boiling by the
upward movement of water, this called
"quick condition." At this stage, the volume
of soil increased and the soil has very low
strength.

Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(11)
 1.5.3 Sharing the load
Since the soil is a multiphase system, it's expected that the load applied to
soil would be carried by the
mineral skeleton and by pore
fluid.
The saturated soil (a) can be
modeled as spring and water
(b).
If the load is applied to the piston and the valve is kept closed (c), in this
case, there is no change in soil volume because the water is incompressible
and hence all load applied will carry by water. Now the valve will open (d),
the fluid pressure will force water through this valve and the water escape,

the spring shortens and begins to carry a fraction of the applied load.
Eventually, a condition is reached in which all applied load is carried by the
spring, and the pressure of water returned to the original hydrostatic
condition, and there is no further flow of water (e). The soil properties will
change, and the amount of
volume change in soil is equal
to the water squeezed from
the sample. The figure shows
the load sharing with time; the
time depends on soil permeability.
Civil Eng. Dept. – College of Eng. Soil Mechanics Assistant Prof. Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi
(12)

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